Psychotropic medication exposure and age at onset of bipolar disorder in offspring of parents with bipolar disorder

Association between exposure to antidepressants and stimulants and age at onset of mania or psychosis: A retrospective population-based cohort study

This study investigated the impact of prior antidepressant and stimulant exposure on the age at onset (AAO) of first episode mania (FEM) or psychosis (FEP). Patients with FEP and FEM born after 1985 in Olmsted County, Minnesota, were identified using the Rochester Epidemiology Project. Duration and peak dose of antidepressant and stimulant exposure were quantified by review of the electronic health record. Peak doses were converted to defined daily dose (DDD), and cumulative exposure was calculated as DDD multiplied by treatment duration. Linear models were used to assess relationships between AAO with any exposures, and cumulative antidepressant and stimulant exposures. A total of 190 FEM/FEP patients (mean AAO=20.8 ± 3.7 years) were included. There was no significant difference in AAO with vs. without exposure to antidepressants or stimulants. Cumulative antidepressant exposure correlated with a later AAO in overall sample (r = 0.28, p < 0.001), and in FEP (r = 0.33, p < 0.001). No significant correlation emerged between cumulative stimulant exposure and AAO. Multivariable modeling confirmed that cumulative antidepressant exposure (Estimate=2.42, 95 %CI=1.66-3.18, p < 0.001), but not cumulative stimulant exposure (Estimate=-0.04, 95 %CI=-1.10-1.02, p = 0.94), was associated with later AAO. Antidepressant and stimulant exposures were not associated with earlier AAO. However, cumulative antidepressant exposure was associated with later AAO. Limitations include retrospective design and relatively small sample size. Our findings may inform adolescent treatment recommendations when assessing risk for psychotropic-related adverse events. Further risk modeling investigations of antidepressants and stimulants with larger sample sizes are needed to explore the role of antidepressant and stimulant exposure in the trajectory leading to FEM/FEP.

Safety outcomes of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in adolescent attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with comorbid depression: the ASSURE study

BACKGROUND

Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is related to depressive disorder, and adolescents with both present poor outcomes. However, evidence for the safety of concomitantly using a methylphenidate (MPH) and a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) among adolescent ADHD patients is limited, a literature gap aimed to address through this investigation.

METHODS

We conducted a new-user cohort study using a nationwide claims database in South Korea. We identified a study population as adolescents who were diagnosed both ADHD and depressive disorder. MPH-only users were compared with patients who prescribed both a SSRI and a MPH. Fluoxetine and escitalopram users were also compared to find a preferable treatment option. Thirteen outcomes including neuropsychiatric, gastrointestinal, and other events were assessed, taking respiratory tract infection as a negative control outcome. We matched the study groups using a propensity score and used the Cox proportional hazard model to calculate the hazard ratio. Subgroup and sensitivity analyses were conducted in various epidemiologic settings.

RESULTS

The risks of all the outcomes between the MPH-only and SSRI groups were not significantly different. Regarding SSRI ingredients, the risk of tic disorder was significantly lower in the fluoxetine group than the escitalopram group [HR 0.43 (0.25-0.71)]. However, there was no significant difference in other outcomes between the fluoxetine and escitalopram groups.

CONCLUSION

The concomitant use of MPHs and SSRIs showed generally safe profiles in adolescent ADHD patients with depression. Most of the differences between fluoxetine and escitalopram, except those concerning tic disorder, were not significant.

N-acetylcysteine for depression and glutamate changes in the left prefrontal cortex in adolescents and young adults at risk for bipolar disorder: A pilot study

AIMS

To investigate the mechanism of action of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in depressive symptoms in young individuals at familial risk for bipolar disorder.

METHODS

We conducted an 8-week open label clinical trial of NAC 2400 mg/days in 15-24 years old depressed offspring of a bipolar I disorder parent, with baseline and endpoint proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy acquired within the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC).

RESULTS

Nine participants were enrolled and finished the study. NAC significantly improved depressive and anxiety symptom scores, and clinical global impression (all p < .001). There was a non-significant reduction in glutamate levels in the left VLPFC. Reduction in depressive symptom scores was positively associated with reduction in glutamate levels in the left VLPFC (p = .007).

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study suggests that NAC might be efficacious for depressive symptoms in at-risk youth, and that its mechanism of action involves the modulation of glutamate in the left VLPFC.

Irritability, Anger, and Aggression in the Context of Pediatric Bipolar Disorder

Irritability, anger, and aggression, although not specific for pediatric bipolar disorder (BD), can be a common finding and an important source of distress and impairment in these patients. Over the past 2 decades the diagnostic significance of irritability in pediatric BD has been highly debated. Beyond the debate of its diagnostic significance, the clinical importance of irritability, anger, and aggression in youth with BD has been well established. In this review, the authors discuss evaluation and management strategies of irritability, anger, and aggression in youth with BD.

Association between poor tolerability of antidepressant treatment and brain functional activation in youth at risk for bipolar disorder

Objective:

To investigate whether poor antidepressant tolerability is associated with functional brain changes in children and adolescents of parents with bipolar I disorder (at-risk youth).

Methods:

Seventy-three at-risk youth (ages 9-20 years old) who participated in a prospective study and had an available baseline functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan were included. Research records were reviewed for the incidence of adverse reactions related to antidepressant exposure during follow-up. The sample was divided among at-risk youth without antidepressant exposure (n=21), at-risk youth with antidepressant exposure and no adverse reaction (n=12), at-risk youth with antidepressant-related adverse reaction (n=21), and healthy controls (n=20). The fMRI task was a continuous performance test with emotional distracters. Region-of-interest mean activation in brain areas of the fronto-limbic emotional circuit was compared among groups.

Results:

Right amygdala activation in response to emotional distracters significantly differed among groups (F_3,66 = 3.1, p = 0.03). At-risk youth with an antidepressant-related adverse reaction had the lowest amygdala activation, while at-risk youth without antidepressant exposure had the highest activation (p = 0.004).

Conclusions:

Decreased right amygdala activation in response to emotional distracters is associated with experiencing an antidepressant-related adverse reaction in at-risk youth. Further studies to determine whether amygdala activation is a useful biomarker for antidepressant-related adverse events are needed.

Medication exposure and predictors of first mood episode in offspring of parents with bipolar disorder: a prospective study

OBJECTIVES

To prospectively investigate whether baseline clinical characteristics and medication exposure predict development of major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder in offspring of parents with bipolar disorder.

METHODS

Youth aged 9-20 years with at least one biological parent with bipolar disorder and no prior history of mood or psychotic episodes (n=93) were prospectively evaluated and treated naturalistically during the study. Participants were divided into two groups: converters, defined as those who met DSM-IV criteria for a mood episode during follow-up (n=19); or non-converters (n=74). Logistic regression models were used to investigate associations between baseline clinical variables and medication exposure during follow-up and risk of developing a first mood episode (conversion).

RESULTS

Multivariate regression analyses showed that baseline anxiety disorders and subsyndromal mood disorders were associated with increased risk of conversion during follow-up. Adding medication exposure to the multivariate model showed that exposure to antidepressants during follow-up was associated with increased risk of conversion.

CONCLUSIONS

Caution should be used when treating bipolar offspring with anxiety and/or emerging depressive symptoms using antidepressant agents, given the increased risk of developing a major mood disorder.

Effects of Fish Oil Monotherapy on Depression and Prefrontal Neurochemistry in Adolescents at High Risk for Bipolar I Disorder: A 12-Week Placebo-Controlled Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Trial

Objectives: To evaluate the clinical and neurochemical effects of 12-week fish oil, a source of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), in depressed adolescents with a family history of bipolar I disorder. Methods: Adolescents with a current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, Text Revision diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder or Depressive Disorder not otherwise specified, a Childhood Depression Rating Scale-Revised (CDRS-R) Version raw score of ≥40, and at least one biological parent with bipolar I disorder were randomized to double-blind treatment with fish oil (2100 mg/day) or placebo for 12 weeks. The primary outcome measure was change in CDRS-R total score, and secondary outcomes measures were change in manic symptoms (Young Mania Rating Scale), global symptom and functioning measures (Clinical Global Impression-Severity [CGI-S] /CGI Improvement [CGI-I], Children's Global Assessment Scale, and Child Behavior Checklist), safety and laboratory measures, and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and bilateral ventrolateral prefrontal cortex neurometabolite concentrations using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 4 T. Results: Fifty-six patients were randomized, and 42 completed the 12-week trial (placebo: n = 21; fish oil, n = 21). Subjects randomized to fish oil, but not placebo, exhibited a significant baseline to endpoint increase in erythrocyte n-3 PUFAs. Reductions in CDRS-R scores did not differ between treatment groups (p = 0.15), and similar remission (p = 0.58) and response (p = 0.77) rates were observed. Fish oil produced a significantly greater decrease in CGI-S (p = 0.0042) and CGI-I (p = 0.036) scores compared with placebo. Baseline to endpoint change in ACC creatine (p = 0.004) and ACC choline (Cho) (p = 0.024) differed significantly between groups. Baseline ACC Cho levels were inversely correlated with baseline and baseline to endpoint change in CDRS-R scores, and baseline to endpoint change in ACC Cho correlated with baseline-endpoint change in CDRS-R scores and n-3 PUFA. There were no group differences in safety and tolerability ratings or laboratory measures. Conclusions: Fish oil monotherapy was not superior to placebo for reducing depressive symptoms in high-risk youth as assessed by the CDRS-R, but was safe and well tolerated and superior to placebo on clinician ratings of global symptom improvement. Associations among ACC Cho levels, depression symptom severity, and n-3 PUFA warrant additional investigation.

Longitudinal proton spectroscopy study of the prefrontal cortex in youth at risk for bipolar disorder before and after their first mood episode

OBJECTIVES

To investigate neurochemical abnormalities in the left and right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) of youth at risk for bipolar disorder using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy before and after their first mood episode.

METHODS

Children and adolescents offspring of parents with bipolar I disorder (at-risk group, n = 117) and matched healthy controls (HC group, n = 61) were recruited at the University of Cincinnati. At-risk subjects had no lifetime major mood and psychotic disorders at baseline, and were followed up every 4 months to monitor for development of a major depressive, manic, hypomanic, or mixed mood episode. Levels of N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA), phosphocreatine plus creatine (PCr + Cr), choline-containing compounds, myo-inositol, and glutamate were determined using LCModel and corrected for partial volume effects.

RESULTS

There were no baseline differences in metabolite levels for any of the brain regions between at-risk and HC youth. Nineteen at-risk subjects developed a first mood episode during follow-up. Survival analyses showed that baseline PCr + Cr levels in the left VLPFC significantly predicted a mood episode during follow-up in the at-risk group (HR: 0.47, 95% CI: 0.27-0.82, P = 0.008). There were no longitudinal changes in metabolites levels in the VLPFC and ACC before and after a mood episode in at-risk subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

We found no evidence for abnormal proton spectroscopy metabolite levels in the VLPFC and ACC of at-risk youth, prior and after the development of their first mood episode. Preliminary findings of association between baseline PCr + Cr levels in the left VLPFC and risk to develop a mood episode warrant further investigation.

Clinical staging model in offspring of parents with bipolar disorder: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

We sought to systematically review the literature on the psychiatric risk of offspring of parents with bipolar disorder (OPBD) using a developmental psychopathology framework. The review also sought to establish the utility of clinical stage modelling as a framework for identifying precursor disorders to later onset of bipolar disorder (BD) in OPBD.

METHODS

A systematic search was performed using EMBASE, PsychINFO and Medline. Reference lists of included studies and previous reviews were also searched. Studies were included if they reported diagnostic outcomes for child, adolescent and young adult offspring of parents diagnosed with BD.

RESULTS

Twenty-six studies were identified representing 21 individual cohorts. The review identified that OBPD present as a high-risk group for a range of mood and non-mood disorders in childhood, adolescence and young adulthood. The trajectory of risk was from non-mood disorders in childhood via non-bipolar mood disorders in early adolescence towards mania/hypomania in late adolescence and early adulthood. From a clinical staging perspective, childhood anxiety disorders were associated with later onset of BD. Recurrent substance use disorder was identified as a risk in OPBD during late adolescence and early adulthood. Quality ratings indicated that studies were methodologically robust.

CONCLUSIONS

Our review provides evidence for a developmental psychopathology trajectory of precursor risks to BD in OPBD. There is support for clinical stage modelling as a conceptual framework for understanding developmental risk in OPBD and as a tool for developing early and individualized intervention strategies.

Antidepressant-Induced Activation in Children and Adolescents: Risk, Recognition and Management

The tolerability of antidepressants is poorly characterized in children and adolescents with depressive and anxiety disorders. Among adverse events that affect the tolerability of antidepressants in youth is activation, a cluster of symptoms that represent a hyperarousal event characterized by impulsivity, restlessness, and/or insomnia. This cluster of symptoms was first identified as a side effect of selective serotonin and selective serotonin norepinephrine inhibitors (SSRIs and SSNRIs) in the early 1990s; however, activation remains poorly characterized in terms of prevalence, risk factors, and pathophysiology. This article describes the pathophysiology of antidepressant-related activation, predictors of activation and its clinical management in youth with depressive and anxiety disorders who are treated with antidepressant medications.

Treatment of psychiatric symptoms among offspring of parents with bipolar disorder

Purpose of Review

Bipolar disorder is highly familial and has a protracted and diagnostically confusing prodrome. This review critically evaluates recently published literature relevant to the treatment of psychiatric symptoms in high-risk offspring of parents with Bipolar Disorder.

Recent Findings

Non-pharmacological treatment options including psychotherapy, resilience promotion through good sleep, diet, and exercise hygiene, and omega-3 fatty acid supplementation are important first line interventions for high-risk offspring. There has been some success in treating this population with open-label trials with mood stabilizers and atypical antipsychotics; however, these results have not been replicated in randomized controlled trails.

Summary

Despite some progress in early identification of symptoms in offspring of parents with Bipolar Disorder, there is scarce evidence supporting the treatment of these high-risk youth to prevent psychiatric symptoms from progressing to threshold bipolar or other psychiatric disorders. There is a need for prospective and randomized trials and research that identifies reliable biomarkers to individualize treatments for these youth.

Psychiatric Disorders and Quality of Life in the Offspring of Parents with Bipolar Disorder

OBJECTIVE

To determine current and lifetime psychopathology and assess quality of life (QoL) in offspring of a parent with bipolar disorder (BD).

METHODS

We investigated 43 offspring of bipolar parents (high-risk offspring [HRO]) (mean age 12.5 ± 3.1; range 6.7-17.9 years) and 43 comparison offspring matched for sex, age, and IQ of healthy parents. Lifetime and current presence of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. (DSM-5) diagnoses were assessed using Kiddie-Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL). We administered parent and self-report versions of General Behavior Inventory and the Screen for Child Anxiety-Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). QoL was evaluated using the self-report questionnaire KIDSCREN-52.

RESULTS

Thirty-seven HRO (86%) and 18 controls (42%) met DSM-5 criteria for at least one lifetime psychiatric diagnosis (adjusted OR = 7.20; 95% CI 2.27-22.81). Compared to controls, HRO had higher lifetime frequency of any mood disorder (33% vs. 2%, p < 0.001), anxiety disorder (60% vs. 14%, p < 0.001), and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (26% vs. 5%, p = 0.01). After adjustment for confounders, only mood (OR = 13.05; 95% CI 1.41-120.60) and anxiety (OR = 9.69; 95% CI 2.75-34.31) disorders remained significantly more frequent in the HRO group. In comparison with controls, HRO scored lower in the following domains: QoL, social support and relationship with peers (p = 0.003; Cohen's d = 0.91), parent relationships and home life (p = 0.008; d = 0.67), as well as self-perception (p = 0.04; d = 0.55).

CONCLUSIONS

In agreement with other studies, we found a higher rate of lifetime anxiety and mood disorders in children and adolescents at confirmed familial risk for BD. Reduction in QoL was already evident across a number of domains. Adult psychiatrists should incorporate into their assessment procedures targeted questions on the presence of psychopathology in offspring of their adult patients with severe mental disorders and child services should bridge with adult services providing accessible services to children of affected parents.

Neural Function Before and After Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy in Anxious Adolescents at Risk for Developing Bipolar Disorder

OBJECTIVE

We sought to evaluate the neurophysiology of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for children (MBCT-C) in youth with generalized, social, and/or separation anxiety disorder who were at risk for developing bipolar disorder.

METHODS

Nine youth (mean age: 13 ± 2 years) with a generalized, social, and/or separation anxiety disorder and a parent with bipolar disorder completed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while performing a continuous processing task with emotional and neutral distractors (CPT-END) prior to and following 12 weeks of MBCT-C.

RESULTS

MBCT-C was associated with increases in activation of the bilateral insula, lentiform nucleus, and thalamus, as well as the left anterior cingulate while viewing emotional stimuli during the CPT-END, and decreases in anxiety were correlated with change in activation in the bilateral insula and anterior cingulate during the viewing of emotional stimuli (p < 0.05, uncorrected; p < 0.005 corrected; cluster size, 37 voxels).

CONCLUSIONS

MBCT-C treatment in anxious youth with a familial history of bipolar disorder is associated with increased activation of brain structures that subserve interoception and the processing of internal stimuli-functions that are ostensibly improved by this treatment.

Prospective neurochemical characterization of child offspring of parents with bipolar disorder

We wished to determine whether decreases in N-acetyl aspartate (NAA) and increases in myoinositol (mI) concentrations as a ratio of creatine (Cr) occurred in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) of pediatric offspring of parents with bipolar disorder (BD) and a healthy comparison group (HC) over a 5-year period using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS). Paticipants comprised 64 offspring (9-18 years old) of parents with BD (36 with established BD, and 28 offspring with symptoms subsyndromal to mania) and 28 HCs, who were examined for group differences in NAA/Cr and mI/Cr in the DLPFC at baseline and follow-up at either 8, 10, 12, 52, 104, 156, 208, or 260 weeks. No significant group differences were found in metabolite concentrations at baseline or over time. At baseline, BD offspring had trends for higher mI/Cr concentrations in the right DLPFC than the HC group. mI/Cr concentrations increased with age, but no statistically significant group differences were found between groups on follow-up. It may be the case that with intervention youth at risk for BD are normalizing otherwise potentially aberrant neurochemical trajectories in the DLPFC. A longer period of follow-up may be required before observing any group differences.

Interventions for Youth at High Risk for Bipolar Disorder and Schizophrenia

Increasing evidence from retrospective and prospective studies is beginning to validate criteria to identify individuals at high risk for developing bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. In parallel, intervention trials are evaluating the efficacy and tolerability of pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic approaches for the treatment of subthreshold and possibly prodromal presentations in these high-risk populations with the ultimate objective of mitigating illness progression. This article reviews current evidence for candidate interventions for high-risk individuals to guide future research in this rapidly emerging field. A clinical vignette describing antidepressant-induced manic symptoms in an adolescent with a family history of bipolar disorder is provided.

Antidepressants and psychostimulants in pediatric populations: is there an association with mania?

This article reviews the literature that examines whether exposure to psychostimulants or antidepressants precipitates or exacerbates manic symptoms, or decreases the age at onset of mania in pediatric populations. A PubMed search using relevant key words identified studies targeting five distinct clinical groups: (i) youth without a diagnosis of bipolar disorder (BD) at the time of exposure to psychostimulants; (ii) youth with a diagnosis of BD at the time of exposure to psychostimulants; (iii) youth without a diagnosis of BD at the time of exposure to antidepressants; (iv) youth with a diagnosis of BD at the time of exposure to antidepressants; and (v) youth who develop BD after exposure to these medications. In patients with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the risk for mania was found to be relatively low with the use of psychostimulants. For patients with BD and ADHD, effective mood stabilization is important prior to adding a stimulant. For children with depression and/or anxiety, the risk of antidepressant-induced mania (AIM) was generally low (<2%), but the risk of general 'activation' secondary to a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) may be greater (2-10%). However, rates of AIM in specialty clinics appear to be much higher. SSRIs may be particularly problematic in specific populations, such as those with some symptoms of mania or a family history of BD, but the precise risk is unknown. There is no clear evidence that stimulants or SSRIs accelerate the natural course of BD development in overall samples, but in individual cases prescribers should proceed cautiously when using these agents in youth already at risk for developing BD, such as those with ADHD and mood dysregulation, a history of prior AIM, a history of psychosis, or a family history of BD.

Increased subgenual cingulate cortex volume in pediatric bipolar disorder associated with mood stabilizer exposure

OBJECTIVE

The subgenual cingulate (SGC) cortex has been implicated in the pathophysiology of mood disorders. We sought to study morphometric characteristics of the SGC in pediatric subjects with familial bipolar disorder (BD) compared with healthy controls.

METHOD

Twenty children and adolescents with BD (mean age = 14.6 years, 4 females) and 20 healthy age-, gender-, and intelligence quotient-matched controls underwent high-resolution anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Patients were primarily euthymic and most were taking medications. SGC cortex volumes were determined by manual tracings from a reliable rater, blinded to diagnosis. Analyses of covariance were performed with total cerebral gray matter and age as covariates.

RESULTS

No differences were found in SGC volumes between BD subjects and healthy controls. Further analysis revealed that BD subjects with past mood stabilizer exposure had significantly increased SGC volumes compared with BD subjects without mood stabilizer exposure, and compared with controls. The increase was driven by larger bilateral posterior SGC volumes.

CONCLUSIONS

Youth with familial BD do not appear to have abnormalities in SGC volume. Mood stabilizer exposure, however, may be correlated with increases in SGC volume.