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Shullia NI, Raffiudin R, Juliandi B. The Phosphofructokinase and Pyruvate Kinase Genes in Apis andreniformis and Apis cerana indica: Exon Intron Organisation and Evolution. Trop Life Sci Res 2019; 30:89-107. [PMID: 30847035 PMCID: PMC6396890 DOI: 10.21315/tlsr2019.30.1.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Genes related to carbohydrate metabolism have evolved rapidly in eusocial bees, including honey bees. However, the characterisation of carbohydrate metabolism genes has not been reported in Apis andreniformis or Apis cerana indica. This study aimed to characterise phosphofructokinase (PFK) and pyruvate kinase (PK) genes in these honey bee species and to analyse the evolution of the genus Apis using these genes. This study found the first data regarding A. andreniformis PFK and PK-like nucleotide sequences. A BLAST-n algorithm-based search showed that A. andreniformis and A. c. indica PFK and PK genes were homologous with those of Apis florea and Apis cerana cerana from Korea, respectively. Multiple alignments of PFKs from five Apis species showed many exon gains and losses, but only one among the PKs. Thus, the exon-intron organisation of the PK genes may be more conserved compare with that of the PFKs. Another evolutionary pattern indicated that more nucleotide substitutions occurred in Apis' PK than PFK genes. Deduced PFK amino acid sequences revealed a PFK consensus pattern of 19 amino acids, while the deduced PK amino acid sequences were predicted to have barrel and alpha/beta domains. Based on these two metabolism-related genes, The Neighbour-joining and Maximum likelihood phylogenetic trees are congruent and revealed that the A. andreniformis and A. florea group were in the basal position. Apis mellifera, A. cerana, and Apis dorsata formed a monophyletic clade, although the positions of A. mellifera and A. dorsata were different in the nucleotide- and amino acid-based phylogenetic trees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurul I. Shullia
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University, Dramaga Campus, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
| | - Rika Raffiudin
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University, Dramaga Campus, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
| | - Berry Juliandi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University, Dramaga Campus, Bogor 16680, Indonesia
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Yamada S, Nakajima H, Kuehn MR. Novel testis- and embryo-specific isoforms of the phosphofructokinase-1 muscle type gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 316:580-7. [PMID: 15020257 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.02.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We have identified novel transcriptional isoforms of the human and mouse genes encoding muscle type phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-M). These isoforms are expressed specifically in the testis and in the mid-gestation embryo, and have been termed TE-PFK-M (testis- and embryo-specific PFK-M). The 5'UTR of TE-PFK-M is composed of three newly identified exons that lie much farther upstream of the PFK-M coding region than the previously characterized 5'UTR. In addition, this upstream region encodes a series of small polyadenylated transcripts, some of which share the same exons found in the 5'UTR of TE-PFK-M, and which may play some role in regulating TE-PFK-M expression. These findings indicate an even more complex level of control of PFK-M expression than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoru Yamada
- Laboratory of Protein Dynamics and Signaling, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NCI-Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
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3
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Sato T, Itou T, Sakai T. Molecular cloning of equine muscle-type phosphofructokinase cDNA. J Vet Med Sci 2003; 65:645-8. [PMID: 12808221 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.65.645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The complete coding region sequence of equine muscle-type phosphofructokinase (ePFKM) was obtained from skeletal muscle of a thoroughbred horse. The deduced amino acid sequence of ePFKM showed 97%, 96%, 96%, 96% and 95% identity to canine, human, mouse, rabbit and rat PFKM, respectively. The amino and carboxyl terminal halves of ePFKM presented a structure of tandem repeat, as other mammalian PFKMs. As the amino acid residues constituting various ligand-binding sites were also conserved, it is thought that ePFKM has enzymatic activity similar to PFKM in other mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuo Sato
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, Nihon University School of Veterinary Medicine, Kanagawa, Japan
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Mhaskar Y, Armour G, Dunaway G. Alteration of the levels of the M-type 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase mRNA isoforms during neonatal maturation of heart, brain and muscle. Mol Cell Biochem 2000; 214:81-7. [PMID: 11195794 DOI: 10.1023/a:1007195017569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
During muscle, heart, and brain neonatal maturation, the capacity to utilize glucose in energy metabolism is directly related to the extent of accumulation of the 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase (PFK) M-type subunit. Neonatal development of other organs, such as liver and kidney, which are not characterized by large increases in the capacity to use glucose do not exhibit large increases in the M-type subunit protein. The presence of the M-type subunit in a PFK isozyme pool fosters a higher affinity utilization of carbohydrate and increased responsiveness to the levels of regulatory metabolites. To better appreciate this phenomenon, which is vital for normal development, the different isoforms of the M-type subunit mRNA's and alteration of their levels during maturation have been examined. Further, the potential promoter regions, i.e., the regions upstream from the sites of initiation of transcription, which are involved in expression of the different M-type subunit mRNA isoforms have been isolated, sequenced, and examined for possible transcription factor interaction sites. Using cDNA libraries produced from adult rat brain or skeletal muscle RNA, two primary forms of rat M-type subunit cDNA's were detected. Although the translated regions of these mRNA's were essentially identical, the 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) exhibited different lengths (90 or 59 bp) and sequences. Each M-type subunit cDNA had 10 common nucleotides immediately upstream from the initiator ATG, and the remaining 5'-UTR's had insignificant identity. A genomic fragment which interacted with probes complimentary to the sequences of the 5'-UTR of each M-type subunit mRNA isoform was isolated and sequenced by primer walking. It was discovered that the 5'-UTR of one of the mRNA's (proximal mRNA) was located immediately upstream from exon I and was apparently transcribed without splicing. Subsequently, the initial bp in the sequence of the other mRNA isoform (distal mRNA) was located 4010 bp upstream from the ATG in exon 1. Employing Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction using total RNA and scanning densitometry, the relative levels of the proximal and distal mRNA's during neonatal maturation of brain, heart, and muscle were measured. In these tissues, both forms of M-type subunit mRNA's were present, and during maturation tissue-specific differences were noted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Mhaskar
- Department of Pharmacology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield 62794-9629, USA
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Abstract
The metabolic myopathies are distinguished by extensive clinical and genetic heterogeneity within and between individual disorders. There are a number of explanations for the variability observed that go beyond single gene mutations or degrees of heteroplasmy in the case of mitochondrial DNA mutations. Some of the contributing factors include protein subunit interactions, tissue-specificity, modifying genetic factors, and environmental triggers. Advances in the molecular analysis of metabolic myopathies during the last decade have not only improved the diagnosis of individual disorders but also helped to characterize the contributing factors that make these disorders so complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Vladutiu
- Associate Professor, Departments of Pediatrics, Neurology, and Pathology, Division of Genetics, School of Medicine and Biomedical Studies, State University of New York at Buffalo, 14209, USA.
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Heddi A, Stepien G, Benke PJ, Wallace DC. Coordinate induction of energy gene expression in tissues of mitochondrial disease patients. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:22968-76. [PMID: 10438462 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.33.22968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have examined the transcript levels of a variety of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and associated bioenergetic genes in tissues of a patient carrying the myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes (MELAS) A3243G mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutation and the skeletal muscles of 14 patients harboring other pathogenic mtDNA mutations. The patients' tissues, which harbored 88% or more mutant mtDNA, had increased levels of mtDNA transcripts, increased nuclear OXPHOS gene transcripts including the ATP synthase beta subunit and the heart-muscle isoform of the adenine nucleotide translocator, and increased ancillary gene transcripts including muscle mitochondrial creatine phosphokinase, muscle glycogen phosphorylase, hexokinase I, muscle phosphofructokinase, the E1alpha subunit of pyruvate dehydrogenase, and the ubiquinone oxidoreductase. A similar coordinate induction of bioenergetic genes was observed in the muscle biopsies of severe pathologic mtDNA mutations. The more significant coordinated expression was found in muscle from patients with the MELAS, myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers, and chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia deletion syndromes, with ragged red muscle fibers and mitochondrial paracrystalline inclusions. High levels of mutant mtDNAs were linked to a high induction of the mtDNA and nuclear OXPHOS genes and of several associated bioenergetic genes. These observations suggest that human tissues attempt to compensate for OXPHOS defects associated with mtDNA mutations by stimulating mitochondrial biogenesis, possibly mediated through redox-sensitive transcription factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Heddi
- Department of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, USA.
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Gunasekera D, Kemp RG. Cloning, sequencing, expression, and purification of the C isozyme of mouse phosphofructokinase. Protein Expr Purif 1999; 16:448-53. [PMID: 10425167 DOI: 10.1006/prep.1999.1096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The cDNA of mouse phosphofructo-1-kinase isozyme C was cloned and sequenced. The coding region translates into a protein of 85,473 Da containing 785 amino acids. The cDNA includes 57 base pairs of a 5'-untranslated region and a 3' untranslated region of 284 base pairs containing a polyadenylation signal, AUUAAA, located 17 bases upstream from the poly(A) tail. The cDNA was ligated into a pET vector and transformed into a pfk(-) strain of Escherichia coli (DF1020) that contained the pLysS plasmid and an integrated lambda DE3 prophage that includes a single copy of the gene for T7 RNA polymerase under control of the inducible LacUV5 promoter. Conditions for maximum induction of soluble enzyme activity was developed to produce up to 2400 units of soluble enzyme activity per liter of growth medium. The enzyme could be purified to homogeneity with a yield of approximately 60% by a single purification step on ATP-Sepharose.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Gunasekera
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Chicago Medical School, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, USA
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Mhaskar Y, Dunaway GA. Alteration of 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase subunit protein, synthesis rates, and mRNA during rat neonatal development. Mech Ageing Dev 1996; 86:161-72. [PMID: 8733111 DOI: 10.1016/0047-6374(95)01690-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
For the three 6-phosphofructo-1-kinase (PFK) subunits in heart, skeletal muscle, liver and kidney, developmentally-associated changes in protein, mRNA and apparent synthesis rates were observed. During neonatal maturation, all three phenomena for the M-type in heart and skeletal muscle exhibited large increases. Also, during neonatal development, the L-type and C-type subunits were unaffected in heart but disappeared from skeletal muscle. In the newborn liver and kidney, the amounts of each type of PFK subunit protein were nearly identical. During neonatal development, the levels of all three PFK subunit proteins in kidney increased more than twofold; and this was associated with a similar increase in apparent subunit synthesis rates and mRNA levels. During liver neonatal development, the L-type subunit protein, synthesis and mRNA levels also increased more than twofold. However, during hepatic maturation, M-type subunit protein, synthesis and mRNA levels were unchanged and apparently unaffected. The C-type subunit protein during neonatal liver development decreased approximately 80% as did its apparent synthesis rate. These data suggest that regulation of the alteration of the PFK subunit proteins during neonatal maturation can vary among these tissues and is not the same for each subunit type. Different mechanisms, such as transcription, translation, and mRNA stability could be involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Mhaskar
- Department of Pharmacology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield 62794-1222, USA
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Todd JF, Blakeley SD, Dennis DT. Structure of the genes encoding the alpha- and beta-subunits of castor pyrophosphate-dependent phosphofructokinase. Gene 1995; 152:181-6. [PMID: 7835697 DOI: 10.1016/0378-1119(94)00646-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Full-length genomic clones encoding the alpha- and beta-subunits of the pyrophosphate-dependent phosphofructokinase (PFP) from the castor plant have been isolated and sequenced. The gene (PFP alpha) encoding PFP alpha is approx. 5.8 kb in length and contains 19 exons, which collectively encode a protein of 617 amino acids (aa) having a deduced M(r) of 67,360. PFP beta is approx. 4.6-kb long and contains 16 exons. Together, these exons encode a protein (PFP beta), of 552 aa with a deduced M(r) of 60,114. The intron-exon splice junctions in both genes contain the consensus sequences typical for plants. An alignment of intron placement in castor PFP alpha and PFP beta with introns in the 5' portion of the gene encoding the ATP-dependent phosphofructokinase (PFK) from rabbit muscle, indicates that only one intron occupies the same position in all three genes. Furthermore, within castor PFP alpha and PFP beta, only two introns are identically placed. Within the promoter regions of castor PFP alpha and PFP beta, there are short sequences having high homology to each other (up to 65%). The results demonstrate, for the first time, that there is little homology between PFP and PFK, nor are PFP alpha and PFP beta closely related. This lack of homology suggests PFP did not evolve from PFK, but rather, that PFP and PFK have probably evolved from a common ancestral gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Todd
- Department of Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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Nakajima H, Hamaguchi T, Yamasaki T, Tarui S. Phosphofructokinase deficiency: recent advances in molecular biology. Muscle Nerve 1995; 3:S28-34. [PMID: 7603524 DOI: 10.1002/mus.880181408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Phosphofructokinase (PFK) plays a major role in glycolysis. Deficiency of PFK-M is characterized by muscle weakness due to fuel crisis in exercising muscles. To elucidate the gene defect of PFK-deficient patients, we have cloned and determined the complete structure and transcription mechanism of human PFK-M mRNA and gene. Molecular defects were investigated in three unrelated Japanese family cases. The first case was characterized by a point mutation at the donor site of intron 15 of the PFK-M gene. Cryptic splicing resulted in a 25 amino acid truncation in the patient's PFK-M. The second case possessed a point mutation at the donor site of intron 19, resulting in the skipping of exon 19 and the truncation of 55 amino acids. In the third case, a missense mutation was identified in the coding region. The review of an updated mutation repertoire indicates the heterogeneity of the molecular mechanism of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Nakajima
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka University Medical School, Japan
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Abstract
Mutations in the muscle phosphofructokinase gene (PFK-M) result in a metabolic myopathy characterized by exercise intolerance and compensated hemolysis. PFK deficiency, glycogenosis type VII (Tarui disease) is a rare, autosomal, recessively inherited disorder. Multiple mutations, including splicing defects, frameshifts, and missense mutations, have recently been identified in patients from six different ethnic backgrounds establishing genetic heterogeneity of the disease. There is no obvious correlation between the genotype and phenotypic expression of the disease. PFK-M deficiency appears to be prevalent among people of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. Molecular diagnosis is now feasible for Ashkenazi patients who share two common mutations in the gene; the more frequent is an exon 5 splicing defect, which accounts for approximately 68% of mutant alleles in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Raben
- Arthritis and Rheumatism Branch, National Institute of Arthritis, Musculoskeletal, and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA
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Raben N, Sherman JB, Adams E, Nakajima H, Argov Z, Plotz P. Various classes of mutations in patients with phosphofructokinase deficiency (Tarui's disease). Muscle Nerve 1995; 3:S35-8. [PMID: 7603525 DOI: 10.1002/mus.880181409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Muscle phosphofructokinase (PFK-M) deficiency (glycogenosis type VII, Tarui's disease) is characterized by intolerance to vigorous exercise, often accompanied by myoglobinuria. The disease is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait. The clinical manifestations are similar to those in myophosphorylase deficiency (McArdle's disease), and the diagnosis required demonstration of the enzyme defect in muscle biopsy. In the Western hemisphere PFK deficiency appears to be prevalent among people of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. To define the molecular basis of this myopathy, we have studied 11 Ashkenazi and 2 non-Ashkenazi families with the disease. Ashkenazi patients share two common pathogenic mutations, a splicing defect and a nucleotide deletion, which account for approximately 95% of mutant alleles. The molecular diagnosis is now possible in this population by using simple PCR-based tests to screen for these mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Raben
- Arthritis and Rheumatism Branch, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Johnson JL, McLachlan A. Novel clustering of Sp1 transcription factor binding sites at the transcription initiation site of the human muscle phosphofructokinase P1 promoter. Nucleic Acids Res 1994; 22:5085-92. [PMID: 7800504 PMCID: PMC523782 DOI: 10.1093/nar/22.23.5085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The regulatory sequence elements of the human muscle phosphofructokinase (HPFKM) p1 promoter from -655 to +78 were cloned and characterized. In the human cervical carcinoma cell line, HeLa S3, the HPFKM type C RNA initiated from a single predominant transcription initiation site and the HPFKM p1 promoter displayed transcriptional activity in transient transfection assays. The HPFKM p1 promoter region was shown to possess eight binding sites for the Sp1 transcription factor by DNase I footprinting and gel retardation analysis. The functional importance of these interactions was examined by transient transfection analysis in Drosophila SL2 and HeLa S3 cells. This analysis demonstrated that the HPFKM p1 promoter sequence between +12 and +78 retained Sp1-dependent transcriptional activity in Drosophila SL2 cells and retained promoter activity in HeLa S3 cells. These results suggest that the Sp1 binding site (site 8 between +12 and +21) immediately adjacent to the transcription initiation site represents an important regulatory element of this promoter at least in the context of the minimal HPFKM p1 promoter. However mutagenesis of the Sp1 site 8 demonstrated that, in the context of a larger HPFKM p1 promoter region containing Sp1 sites 1 to 7, it now contributed very little to the total promoter activity. Therefore it appears the Sp1 sites in the HPFKM p1 promoter display functional redundancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Johnson
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
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Currie P, Sullivan D. Structure and expression of the gene encoding phosphofructokinase (PFK) in Drosophila melanogaster. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)31444-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Le HB, Vaisanen PA, Johnson JL, Raney AK, McLachlan A. Regulation of transcription from the human muscle phosphofructokinase P2 promoter by the Sp1 transcription factor. DNA Cell Biol 1994; 13:473-85. [PMID: 8024691 DOI: 10.1089/dna.1994.13.473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The human muscle phosphofructokinase (HPFKM) p2 promoter contains sequence elements that are similar to the Sp1 transcription factor binding site consensus sequence. DNase I footprinting identified four regions of the HPFKM p2 promoter that bound purified Sp1. Gel retardation analysis using HeLa S3 nuclear extracts and purified Sp1 protein demonstrated that each of the four recognition elements bound the Sp1 transcription factor. The function of the HPFKM p2 promoter elements was examined in transient transfection assays using these binding sites cloned into a minimal promoter element. In Drosophila Schneider line-2 cells, each of these regulatory regions trans-activated transcription from a minimal promoter element in response to exogenously expressed Sp1. In addition, transcription from the HPFKM p2 promoter was shown to be trans-activated by exogenously expressed Sp1 in Drosophila Schneider line-2 cells. Deletion analysis of the HPFKM p2 promoter demonstrated that the promoter region between -66 and +16 was sufficient to confer sp1 responsiveness. This promoter region includes one of the regulatory elements footprinted by the purified Sp1 transcription factor and mediates the majority of the transcriptional activity from the HPFKM p2 promoter in the human cervical carcinoma cell line HeLa S3. This demonstrates that the HPFKM p2 promoter contains four functional Sp1 binding sites that may contribute to the level of transcription from this promoter in a variety of cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- H B Le
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037
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A 5' splice junction mutation leading to exon deletion in an Ashkenazic Jewish family with phosphofructokinase deficiency (Tarui disease). J Biol Chem 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)53489-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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