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Wang H, Liu F, Zhao W, Guo Y, Mai P, Zhao S, Wen Z, Su J, Li X, Wang Y, Zhang Y. High glucose promotes atherosclerosis by regulating miRNA let7d-5p level. J Diabetes Investig 2024; 15:711-724. [PMID: 38483136 PMCID: PMC11143425 DOI: 10.1111/jdi.14180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND MiRNA let7d-5p has been recently reported to be abnormally expressed in diabetes-associated atherosclerosis (AS). However, it still remains unknown how let7d-5p contributes to the process of atherosclerosis. METHODS Twenty fresh tissues and a total of 28 wax block specimens from carotid endarterectomy procedures were obtained from the Luoyang Central Hospital affiliated to Zhengzhou University. The expression of let7d-5p was assessed using quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). A series of in vitro experiments was used to determine the roles of let7d-5p knockdown and overexpression in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). RESULTS We discovered that the carotid plaques from diabetic patients had lower expression levels of miR let7d-5p. In VSMCs, the expression of miRNA let7d-5p was significantly lower in high glucose conditions compared with low glucose situations. The proliferation and migration of VSMCs were also inhibited by the overexpression of let7d-5p, whereas the opposite was true when let7d-5p was inhibited, according to gain and loss of function studies. Mechanically, let7d-5p might activate the GSK3β/β-catenin signaling pathway via binding to the high mobility group AT-Hook 2 (HMGA2) mRNA in VSMCs. Additionally, GLP-1RA liraglutide may prevent the migration and proliferation of VSMCs by raising let7d-5p levels. CONCLUSIONS High glucose stimulated the proliferation and migration of VSMCs by regulating the let7d-5p/HMGA2/GSK3β/β-catenin pathway, and liraglutide may slow atherosclerosis by increasing the levels of miR let7d-5p.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Wang
- Department of Ultrasonography, Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
| | - Fentao Liu
- ABclonal Technology Company, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Wenyu Zhao
- Department of Endocrinology, Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
| | - Yiting Guo
- Department of Endocrinology, Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
| | - Peipei Mai
- Department of Ultrasonography, Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
| | - Songfeng Zhao
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
| | - Zhiguo Wen
- Department of Vascular Surgery, Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
| | - Jie Su
- Department of Endocrinology, Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
| | - Xuan Li
- Department of Endocrinology, Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
| | - Yunlong Wang
- Henan Bioengineering Research Center, Zhengzhou City, Henan Province, China
- Zhongyuan Scholars Workstation of Henan, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
| | - Yanfang Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, Luoyang Central Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
- Zhongyuan Scholars Workstation of Henan, Luoyang City, Henan Province, China
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Guanxinping Tablets Inhibit ET-1-Induced Proliferation and Migration of MOVAS by Suppressing Activated PI3K/Akt/NF- κB Signaling Cascade. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2022; 2022:9485463. [PMID: 35685734 PMCID: PMC9173997 DOI: 10.1155/2022/9485463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background/Aim Abnormal proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells is one of the main causes of atherosclerosis (AS). Therefore, the suppression of abnormal proliferation and migration of smooth muscle cells are the important means for the prevention and inhibition of AS. The clinical effects of Guanxinping (GXP) tablets and preliminary clinical research on the topic have proved that GXP can effectively treat coronary heart disease, but its underlying mechanism remains unclear. This study aimed to confirm the inhibitory effect of GXP on the abnormal proliferation of mouse aortic vascular smooth muscle (MOVAS) cells and to explore the underlying mechanism. Methods MOVAS cells were divided into two major groups: physiological and pathological groups. In the physiological group, MOVAS cells were directly stimulated with GXP, whereas in the pathological group, the cells were stimulated by endothelin-1 (ET-1) before intervention by GXP. At the same time, atorvastatin calcium, which effectively inhibits the abnormal proliferation of MOVAS cells, was used in the negative control group. CCK8 assay, scratch test, ELISA, Western blotting, and immunofluorescence staining were performed to observe the proliferation and migration of MOVAS cells and the expression levels of related factors after drug intervention in each group. Results In the physiological group, GXP had no significant effect on the proliferation and migration of MOVAS cells and the related factors. In the pathological group, a high dose of GXP reduced the abnormal proliferation and migration of MOVAS cells. Further, it reduced the expression levels of PI3K; inhibited the phosphorylation of Akt (protein kinase B); upregulated IκB-α levels; prevented nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) from entering the nucleus; downregulated the expression of interleukin 6 (IL6), IL-1β, and iNOS; and upregulated the ratio of apoptosis-related factor Bax/Bcl-2. There was no significant difference between the high-dose GXP group and the atorvastatin calcium group (negative control group). Conclusion Our findings revealed that GXP was able to inhibit the proliferation and migration of MOVAS cells by regulating the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB pathway.
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Mao L, Yin R, Yang L, Zhao D. Role of advanced glycation end products on vascular smooth muscle cells under diabetic atherosclerosis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:983723. [PMID: 36120471 PMCID: PMC9470882 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.983723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease and leading cause of cardiovascular diseases. The progression of AS is a multi-step process leading to high morbidity and mortality. Hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), inflammation and insulin resistance which strictly involved in diabetes are closely related to the pathogenesis of AS. A growing number of studies have linked AGEs to AS. As one of the risk factors of cardiac metabolic diseases, dysfunction of VSMCs plays an important role in AS pathogenesis. AGEs are increased in diabetes, participate in the occurrence and progression of AS through multiple molecular mechanisms of vascular cell injury. As the main functional cells of vascular, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play different roles in each stage of atherosclerotic lesions. The interaction between AGEs and receptor for AGEs (RAGE) accelerates AS by affecting the proliferation and migration of VSMCs. In addition, increasing researches have reported that AGEs promote osteogenic transformation and macrophage-like transformation of VSMCs, and affect the progression of AS through other aspects such as autophagy and cell cycle. In this review, we summarize the effect of AGEs on VSMCs in atherosclerotic plaque development and progression. We also discuss the AGEs that link AS and diabetes mellitus, including oxidative stress, inflammation, RAGE ligands, small noncoding RNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Dong Zhao
- *Correspondence: Longyan Yang, ; Dong Zhao,
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4
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Lin JJ, Chen W, Gong M, Xu X, Du MY, Wang SF, Yang LY, Wang Y, Liu KX, Kong P, Li B, Liu K, Li YM, Dong LH, Sun SG. Expression and Functional Analysis of lncRNAs Involved in Platelet-Derived Growth Factor-BB-Induced Proliferation of Human Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells. Front Cardiovasc Med 2021; 8:702718. [PMID: 34557530 PMCID: PMC8452921 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2021.702718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is a common feature of many vascular remodeling diseases. Because long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play a critical role in cardiovascular diseases, we analyzed the key lncRNAs that regulate VSMC proliferation. Microarray analysis identified 2,643 differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs) and 3,720 differentially expressed coding genes (DEGs) between fetal bovine serum (FBS) starvation-induced quiescent human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs) and platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-stimulated proliferative HASMCs. Gene Ontology and pathway analyses of the identified DEGs and DELs demonstrated that many lncRNAs were enriched in pathways related to cell proliferation. One of the upregulated lncRNAs in proliferative HASMC was HIF1A anti-sense RNA 2 (HIF1A-AS2). HIF1A-AS2 suppression decreased HASMC proliferation via the miR-30e-5p/CCND2 mRNA axis. We have thus identified key DELs and DEGs involved in the regulation of PDGF-BB induced HASMC proliferation. Moreover, HIF1A-AS2 promotes HASMC proliferation, suggesting its potential involvement in VSMC proliferative vascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Jie Lin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China.,Stem Cell Translational Research Center, Tongji Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Miao Gong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xin Xu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Mei-Yang Du
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Si-Fan Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Li-Yun Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Ke-Xin Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Peng Kong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Kun Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Yi-Ming Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Li-Hua Dong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Shao-Guang Sun
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Key Laboratory of Medical Biotechnology of Hebei Province, Cardiovascular Medical Science Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
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Jung Y, Lee HS, Ha JM, Jin SY, Kum HJ, Vafaeinik F, Ha HK, Song SH, Kim CD, Bae SS. Modulation of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Phenotype by High Mobility Group AT-Hook 1. J Lipid Atheroscler 2021; 10:99-110. [PMID: 33537257 PMCID: PMC7838509 DOI: 10.12997/jla.2021.10.1.99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of high mobility group AT-hook 1 (HMGA1) on the phenotyptic change of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Methods Gene silencing and overexpression of HMGA1 were introduced to evaluate the effect of HMGA1 expression on the phenotypic change of VSMCs. Marker gene expression of VSMCs was measured by promoter assay, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and western blot analysis. Common left carotid artery ligation model was used to establish in vivo neointima formation. Results HMGA1 was expressed strongly in the synthetic type of VSMCs and significantly downregulated during the differentiation of VSMCs. Silencing of HMGA1 in the synthetic type of VSMCs enhanced the expression of contractile marker genes thereby enhanced angiotensin II (Ang II)-dependent contraction, however, significantly suppressed proliferation and migration. Stimulation of contractile VSMCs with platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) enhanced HMGA1 expression concomitant with the downregulation of marker gene expression which was blocked significantly by the silencing of HMGA1. Silencing of HMGA1 retained the Ang II-dependent contractile function, which was curtailed by PDGF stimulation, however, overexpression of HMGA1 in the contractile type of VSMCs suppressed marker gene expression. Proliferation and migration were enhanced significantly by the overexpression of HMGA1. Furthermore, the Ang II-dependent contraction was reduced significantly by the overexpression of HMGA1. Finally, the expression of HMGA1 was enhanced significantly in the ligated artery, especially in the neointima area. Conclusion HMGA1 plays an essential role in the phenotypic modulation of VSMCs. Therefore, paracrine factors such as PDGF may affect vascular remodeling through the regulation of HMGA1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoojin Jung
- Gene and Cell Therapy Center for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, and Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Hae Sun Lee
- Gene and Cell Therapy Center for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, and Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Jung Min Ha
- Gene and Cell Therapy Center for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, and Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Seo Yeon Jin
- Gene and Cell Therapy Center for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, and Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Hye Jin Kum
- Gene and Cell Therapy Center for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, and Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Farzaneh Vafaeinik
- Gene and Cell Therapy Center for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, and Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Hong Koo Ha
- Department of Urology, Pusan National University Hospital, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Heon Song
- Department of Internal Medicine, Pusan National University Hospital, Busan, Korea
| | - Chi Dae Kim
- Gene and Cell Therapy Center for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, and Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
| | - Sun Sik Bae
- Gene and Cell Therapy Center for Vessel-Associated Disease, Medical Research Institute, and Department of Pharmacology, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan, Korea
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6
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Ma Y, Ren Y, Guan J. Knockdown of GC binding factor 2 by RNA interference inhibits invasion and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells. Mol Med Rep 2019; 20:1781-1789. [PMID: 31257544 PMCID: PMC6625445 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2019.10410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
GC binding factor 2 (GCF2) is a transcriptional repressor that inhibits the transcription of GC‑rich promoters, thereby regulating biological processes, including proliferation. However, the role of GCF2 in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) remains unclear. The level of α‑smooth muscle (α‑SM) actin was determined by immunofluorescence. Cell viability, migration and invasion were analyzed using Cell Counting Kit‑8, wound healing and Transwell assays, respectively. Apoptosis and cell cycle progression were determined using flow cytometry. The expressions of Bcl‑2, Bax, cleaved caspase‑3, cyclin E, CDK2 and the CDK inhibitor p21 were determined by reverse transcription‑quantitative (RT‑q)PCR and western blot analysis. RT‑qPCR was performed to analyze the levels of GCF2 and western blot analysis was conducted to determine the phosphorylation levels of PI3K and AKT. α‑SM actin was found to be expressed in VSMCs. Cell viability, migration and invasion were inhibited by small interfering (si)RNA targeting GCF2. Changes in the expression levels of Bcl‑2, Bax and cleaved caspase‑3 showed that the pro‑apoptotic capacity of the cells was increased by siGCF2. Cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase was induced by siGCF2, which was accompanied by changes in the levels of cyclin E, CDK2 and p21. Furthermore, phosphorylation of PI3K and AKT was suppressed by siGCF2. However, the inhibitory effects of siGCF2 on cell viability, migration and invasion were increased by insulin‑like growth factor 1, which is a specific agonist of AKT. The anti‑proliferative activity of siGCF2 may be associated with the PI3K/AKT pathway in VSMCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ma
- Qingdao University, Qingdao, Shandong 266073, P.R. China
| | - Yongqiang Ren
- Department of Cardiology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital (Group), Qingdao, Shandong 266034, P.R. China
| | - Jun Guan
- Department of Cardiology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital (Group), Qingdao, Shandong 266034, P.R. China
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López-Tello J, Pérez-García V, Khaira J, Kusinski LC, Cooper WN, Andreani A, Grant I, Fernández de Liger E, Lam BY, Hemberger M, Sandovici I, Constancia M, Sferruzzi-Perri AN. Fetal and trophoblast PI3K p110α have distinct roles in regulating resource supply to the growing fetus in mice. eLife 2019; 8:45282. [PMID: 31241463 PMCID: PMC6634971 DOI: 10.7554/elife.45282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies suggest that placental nutrient supply adapts according to fetal demands. However, signaling events underlying placental adaptations remain unknown. Here we demonstrate that phosphoinositide 3-kinase p110α in the fetus and the trophoblast interplay to regulate placental nutrient supply and fetal growth. Complete loss of fetal p110α caused embryonic death, whilst heterozygous loss resulted in fetal growth restriction and impaired placental formation and nutrient transport. Loss of trophoblast p110α resulted in viable fetuses, abnormal placental development and a failure of the placenta to transport sufficient nutrients to match fetal demands for growth. Using RNA-seq we identified genes downstream of p110α in the trophoblast that are important in adapting placental phenotype. Using CRISPR/Cas9 we showed loss of p110α differentially affects gene expression in trophoblast and embryonic stem cells. Our findings reveal important, but distinct roles for p110α in the different compartments of the conceptus, which control fetal resource acquisition and growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge López-Tello
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Vicente Pérez-García
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Epigenetics Programme, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jaspreet Khaira
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Laura C Kusinski
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Metabolic Research Laboratories, MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The Rosie Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Wendy N Cooper
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The Rosie Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Andreani
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Imogen Grant
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Edurne Fernández de Liger
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Brian Yh Lam
- Metabolic Research Laboratories, MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The Rosie Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Myriam Hemberger
- Epigenetics Programme, The Babraham Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,Department of Medical Genetics, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Ionel Sandovici
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Metabolic Research Laboratories, MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The Rosie Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Miguel Constancia
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Metabolic Research Laboratories, MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The Rosie Hospital, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda N Sferruzzi-Perri
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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