Copper and zinc bioaccumulation and bioavailability of Ganoderma lucidum

Temporal dynamics of lignin degradation in Quercus acutissima sawdust during Ganoderma lucidum cultivation

Despite a fair amount of lignin conversion during mycelial growth, previous structural analyses have not yet revealed how lignin changes continuously and what the relationship is between lignin and ligninolytic enzymes. To clarify these aspects, Quercus acutissima sawdust attaching Ganoderma lucidum mycelium collected from different growth stage was subjected to analysis of lignin structure and ligninolytic enzyme activity. Two key periods of lignin degradation are found during the cultivation of G. lucidum: hypha rapid growth period and primordium formation period. In the first stage, laccase activity is associated with the opening of structures such as methoxyls, β-O-4' substructures and guaiacyl units in lignin, as well as the shortening of lignin chains. Manganese peroxidases and lignin peroxidases are more suitable for degrading short chain lignin. The structure of phenylcoumarans and syringyl changes greatly in the second stage. The results from sawdust attaching mycelium provide new insights to help improve the cultivation substrate formulation of G. lucidum and understand biomass valorization better.

Alsayegh A, Ahmad FA, Akhtar MS, Alavudeen SS, Bantun F, Wahab S, Ahmed A, Ali M, Elbendary EY, Raposo A, Kambal N, H. Abdelrahman M. Ganoderma lucidum: Insight into antimicrobial and antioxidant properties with development of secondary metabolites

Ganoderma lucidum is a versatile mushroom. Polysaccharides and triterpenoids are the major bioactive compounds and have been used as traditional medicinal mushrooms since ancient times. They are currently used as nutraceuticals and functional foods. G. lucidum extracts and their bioactive compounds have been used as an alternative to antioxidants and antimicrobial agents. Secondary metabolites with many medicinal properties make it a possible substitute that could be applied as immunomodulatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic. The miraculous properties of secondary metabolites fascinate researchers for their development and production. Recent studies have paid close attention to the different physical, genetic, biochemical, and nutritional parameters that potentiate the production of secondary metabolites. This review is an effort to collect biologically active constituents from G. lucidum that reveal potential actions against diseases with the latest improvement in a novel technique to get maximum production of secondary metabolites. Studies are going ahead to determine the efficacy of numerous compounds and assess the valuable properties achieved by G. lucidum in favor of antimicrobial and antioxidant outcomes.

Natural Bio-Compounds from Ganoderma lucidum and Their Beneficial Biological Actions for Anticancer Application: A Review

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been known for many centuries in Asian countries under different names, varying depending on the country. The objective of this review is to investigate the scientific research on the natural active bio-compounds in extracts obtained from G. lucidum with significant biological actions in the treatment of cancer. This review presents the classes of bio-compounds existing in G. lucidum that have been reported over time in the main databases and have shown important biological actions in the treatment of cancer. The results highlight the fact that G. lucidum possesses important bioactive compounds such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, sterols, proteins, nucleotides, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, which have been demonstrated to exhibit multiple anticancer effects, namely immunomodulatory, anti-proliferative, cytotoxic, and antioxidant action. The potential health benefits of G. lucidum are systematized based on biological actions. The findings present evidence regarding the lack of certainty about the effects of G. lucidum bio-compounds in treating different forms of cancer, which may be due to the use of different types of Ganoderma formulations, differences in the study populations, or due to drug-disease interactions. In the future, larger clinical trials are needed to clarify the potential benefits of pharmaceutical preparations of G. lucidum, standardized by the known active components in the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Iron-enriched mycelia of edible and medicinal basidiomycetes

Iron bioaccumulation in basidiomycetes is an alternative to recover ferrous sulphate from titanium dioxide pigment production and to produce an iron-enriched mycelial biomass. This study aimed to evaluate iron bioaccumulation capacity in vegetative mycelium of edible and medicinal fungi grown in malt extract liquid medium with different ferrous sulphate contents. Five basidiomycetes were grown in malt extract liquid medium with different iron contents from 0.116 to 100 mg L^-1 iron. The iron content of dried mycelial biomass bioaccumulated with iron was determined by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry. All fungi grew on the iron culture media and the mycelial biomass growth ranged from 3.24 ± 0.65a mg mL^-1 to 12.46 ± 0.29 mg mL^-1. Iron addition to culture media increased the iron content in the mycelial biomass from 4000-13,000-fold compared with control. Pleurotus ostreatus (2181 ± 218 mg kg^-1) presented the greatest iron content in the mycelial biomass, followed by Schizophyllum commune (1769 ± 131 mg kg^-1), Agaricus subrufescens (1272 ± 8.84 mg kg^-1), and Ganoderma lucidum (840 ± 75 mg kg^-1). P. ostreatus, followed by S. commune, and G. lucidum at 90 and 100 mg L^-1 iron in the culture medium are the best choices to produce iron-enriched mycelial biomass. This extensive study of several edible and medicinal basidiomycetes grown in different iron contents was effective in recovering ferrous sulphate byproduct and transferring it to mycelium to produce a new nutraceutical food of iron-enriched mycelial biomass.

The importance of Cu × Pb interactions to Lentinula edodes yield, major/trace elements accumulation and antioxidants

Due to the use of various substrates in the production of edible mushrooms which may contain metals, including Cu and Pb, it is important to understand the influence of mutual interactions between them in the process of their accumulation in fruit bodies. For this reason, the effects of Cu, Pb, and Cu × Pb on yield, accumulation of five major elements (Ca, K, Mg, Na and P), trace elements (Cu, Pb and Fe) and some bioactive compounds in Lentinula edodes fruit bodies were studied. Both the metals were added in doses of 0.1 and 0.5 mM (Cu0.1, Cu0.5, Pb0.1, Pb0.5 and their combinations). The addition of the metals resulted in a reduction in size, amount and finally yield of fruit bodies. Depending on the presence of Cu and or Pb and their concentration in the substrate, both antagonism and synergism may occur. The influence on the accumulation of other determining elements was also recorded. Among phenolic compounds, phenolic acids and flavonoids were detected. 2,5-Dihydroxybenzoic acid dominated in fruit bodies in the control variant, Pb0.1, Pb0.5 and all experimental variants enriched with Cu + Pb, while gallic acid was the major phenolic after Cu0.1 and Cu0.5 addition. Only protocatechuic acid content increased in all combinations. A significant decrease of all aliphatic acid contents in comparison to the control variant was observed in the Cu0.1 and Pb0.1 variants. Significant stimulation of aliphatic acid synthesis was recorded in Cu0.5 and Pb0.5 variants and in the mixture of both the metals. The additions pointed to the possible role of the determined molecules in detoxification mechanisms.

Fungal-Metal Interactions: A Review of Toxicity and Homeostasis

Metal nanoparticles used as antifungals have increased the occurrence of fungal-metal interactions. However, there is a lack of knowledge about how these interactions cause genomic and physiological changes, which can produce fungal superbugs. Despite interest in these interactions, there is limited understanding of resistance mechanisms in most fungi studied until now. We highlight the current knowledge of fungal homeostasis of zinc, copper, iron, manganese, and silver to comprehensively examine associated mechanisms of resistance. Such mechanisms have been widely studied in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but limited reports exist in filamentous fungi, though they are frequently the subject of nanoparticle biosynthesis and targets of antifungal metals. In most cases, microarray analyses uncovered resistance mechanisms as a response to metal exposure. In yeast, metal resistance is mainly due to the down-regulation of metal ion importers, utilization of metallothionein and metallothionein-like structures, and ion sequestration to the vacuole. In contrast, metal resistance in filamentous fungi heavily relies upon cellular ion export. However, there are instances of resistance that utilized vacuole sequestration, ion metallothionein, and chelator binding, deleting a metal ion importer, and ion storage in hyphal cell walls. In general, resistance to zinc, copper, iron, and manganese is extensively reported in yeast and partially known in filamentous fungi; and silver resistance lacks comprehensive understanding in both.

Use of soil fungi in the biosorption of three trace metals (Cd, Cu, Pb): promising candidates for treatment technology?

Trace metal contamination is a widespread and complex environmental problem. Because fungi are capable of growing in adverse environments, several fungal species could have an interesting potential in remediation technologies for metal contaminated environments. This study proposes to test the ability to tolerate and biosorb three trace metals (Cd, Cu and Pb) of 28 fungal isolates collected from different soils. First, a tolerance assay in agar medium was performed. Each isolate was grown in the presence of Cd, Cu, and Pb at different concentrations. Then, we exposed each soil fungus to 50 mg L^-1 of Cd, Cu, or Pb during 3 days in liquid medium. Parameters such as biomass production, pH, and biosorption were evaluated. The results showed that responses to metal exposure are very diverse even with fungi isolated from the same soil sample, or belonging to the same genera. Several isolates could be considered as good metal biosorbents and could be used in future mycoremediation studies. Among the 28 fungi tested, Absidia cylindrospora biosorbed more than 45% of Cd and Pb, Chaetomium atrobrunneum biosorbed more than 45% of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Coprinellus micaceus biosorbed 100% of Pb.

Iron Or Zinc Bioaccumulated In Mycelial Biomass Of Edible Basidiomycetes

Iron and zinc bioaccumulation in mycelial biomass of different medicinal basidiomycetes was evaluated in order to produce metal-enriched mycelial biomass as an alternative functional food from non-animal sources and based on biotechnology processes. Pleurotus ostreatus strain U2-9, U2-11, U6-8, and U6-9, Pleurotus eryngii strain U8-11, Schizophyllum commune strain U6-7, and Lentinula edodes strain U6-11 and U6-12 were grown in malt extract agar with or without addition of 50 mg/L iron or 7.5 mg/L zinc. The mycelial biomass was separated and iron and zinc concentrations were determined in a flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Basidiomycete strains presented different growth rates with the presence of iron and zinc; there was no dependence between the metal bioaccumulation and the fungal growth. The fungi presented greater capacity to bioaccumulate iron than zinc. P. ostreatus (U2-9) has greater iron bioaccumulation (3197.7 mg/kg) while P. ostreatus (U6-8) greater zinc bioaccumulation (440.4 mg/kg) in mycelial biomass. P. ostreatus (U2-9), P. ostreatus (U2-11), and S. commune (U6-7) had the highest metal translocation rates from the culture medium to mycelial biomass. The mycelial biomass enriched with iron or zinc is an alternative to a new functional food from non-animal sources.

Metal concentration and health risk assessment of wild mushrooms collected from the Black Sea region of Turkey

Mushrooms are rich sources of organic nutrients (especially proteins). However, they can excessively accumulate metals in their fruiting bodies that pose a risk to human health. The aim of this study was the determination of Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn contents, daily intake, and health risk index values of some mushroom species collected from the eastern Black Sea region of Turkey (Arsin, Trabzon). The samples were collected from hazelnut gardens that are free from industrial pollution and have a low population density. As a result of elemental analysis, it was determined that the concentration ranges of Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn in the mushrooms were as follows: 0.29-9.11, 0.04-3.70, 0.01-8.29, 0.18-20.82, 3.1-79.8, 5.2-673.0, 14.9-752.0, 63.0-7769.0 mg/kg dry weight. Daily intakes of all the elements were found to be below the reference dose in Fistulina hepatica, Hydnum repandum, Macrolepiota procera, and Tapinella atrotomentosa. Amanita caesarea, Agrocybe praecox, Amanita vaginata, Cantharellus cibarius, Craterellus cornucopioides, Daedalea quercina, Gymnopus dryophilus, Ganoderma lucidum, and Infundibulicybe gibba were found to have high risk index values especially with respect to Cd, Co, and Pb. According to Pearson correlation analysis, the correlations between Fe-Mn (0.840, p < 0.01) and Pb-Ni (0.7540, p < 0.01) couples are significant.

PDO Rotonda’s Red Eggplant Extract: In vitro Determination of Biological Properties and Minerals Bioaccessibility

Background:

The Rotonda’s Red Eggplant belongs to the family of Solanum aethiopicum and it is cultivated in a specific area of Potenza (Basilicata, South of Italy) including villages of Rotonda, Viggianello, Castelluccio Superiore and Castelluccio Inferiore. The Red Eggplant cultivated in this area has gained the PDO, “Protected Designation of Origin”.

Objective:

The aim of this research was to evaluate the use of PDO Rotonda’s Red Eggplant extract as a possible nutraceutical supplement. The antioxidant, antihypertensive, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic properties were in vitro evaluated.

Methods:

The antioxidant activity was investigated by evaluating the scavenging properties against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2-Azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radicals and by performing the Ammonium Molybdate and Folin-Ciocalteu assay. The hypoglycemic and antihypertensive activity was studied by evaluating the α-Amylase, α-Glucosidase and Angiotensin Converting Enzyme, respectively, inhibiting activity. In order to evaluate the hypolipidemic activity, the pancreatic lipase inhibiting property was determined and Oil Red O staining assay was performed. Finally, to evaluate the possible use of this extract as a minerals supplement, Selenium, Potassium and Chrome bioaccessibility was studied.

Results:

The obtained results underline the good antioxidant, hypoglycemic, antihypertensive and hypolipidemic in vitro properties of the PDO Rotonda’s Red Eggplant extract. Moreover, the obtained data show a higher minerals bioaccessibility and this higher value could be ascribable to the natural phytocomplex of PDO Rotonda’s Red Eggplant, which increases the minerals bioaccessibility if compare it with a control sample.

Conclusion:

The obtained results show that PDO Rotonda’s Red Eggplant extract, might be used as a possible nutraceutical supplement, along with traditional therapies, both for its biological properties and for its minerals bioaccessibility value.

Antitumour, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant and Antiacetylcholinesterase Effect of Ganoderma Lucidum Terpenoids and Polysaccharides: A Review

Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) is a popular medicinal mushroom and has been used in oriental medicine because of its promoting effects on health and life expectancy. G. lucidum contains various compounds with a high grade of biological activty, which increase the immunity and show antitumour, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity. Several of these substances belong to the triterpenoids and polysaccharides classes. Proteins, lipids, phenols, sterols, etc. are also present. In the present review, an extensive overview of the presence of antitumour, antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiacetylcholinesterase compounds in G. lucidum extracts will be given, along with an evaluation of their therapeutic effects.

Improvement of zinc bioaccumulation and biomass yield in the mycelia and fruiting bodies of Pleurotus florida cultured on liquid media

The effect of different concentrations of zinc on the bioaccumulation of zinc and biomass yield in both mycelium and fruiting body of Pleurotus florida cultivated in liquid medium was studied. The results showed that the optimum yield of mycelia (11.33 ± 0.44 g/L) and fruiting bodies (7.70 ± 0.19 g/L) dry biomass was obtained in a liquid medium containing 100 mg/L of zinc. At a zinc concentration of 200 mg/L, the highest concentration of zinc in the mycelia and fruiting bodies reached 1.869 ± 0.115 and 0.151 ± 0.008 mg/g dry weight, respectively. The addition of zinc to the culture media significantly reduced zinc bioaccumulation factor in mycelia (from 24.64 ± 0.52 to 3.35 ± 0.24) and fruiting bodies (from 36.71 ± 0.30 to 0.49 ± 0.02) dry weight. Our findings indicated that the ability of zinc bioaccumulation in the mycelia is much higher than in the fruiting bodies. The fundamental information obtained in this study will be useful for the improvement of zinc bioaccumulation and biomass yield in mycelia and fruiting bodies of P. florida cultivated in liquid media to obtain maximum zinc-enriched biomass.