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Brady SS, Arguedas A, Huling JD, Hellemann G, Lewis CE, Fok CS, Van Den Eeden SK, Markland AD. Discrimination and bladder health among women in the CARDIA cohort study: Life course and intersectionality perspectives. Soc Sci Med 2024; 341:116547. [PMID: 38159485 PMCID: PMC10840419 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study examines whether discriminatory experiences are associated with lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and their impact among 972 women in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) cohort study, which recruited participants from 4 cities in the United States. METHOD Exposure to discrimination was assessed 3 times (1992-93, 2000-01, 2010-11) and averaged across assessments. Participants separately reported whether they experienced discrimination on the basis of their gender, race or color, and socioeconomic position or social class. For each social identity, discrimination was assessed in 6-7 settings (e.g., when getting a job, medical care, or housing). At different time points, women who reported discriminatory experiences for a given social identity were asked how frequently the discrimination occurred and how stressful experience(s) were. Following the 2010-11 assessment, data on LUTS and their impact were collected. Women were classified into bladder health versus mild, moderate, or severe symptoms/impact clusters. RESULTS More Black than White women reported discriminatory experiences across all social identities and most settings. Perceived stress of discriminatory experiences did not differ between Black and White women. In analyses stratified by race and social identity, White women reported LUTS/impact with discriminatory experiences in more settings, more frequent discriminatory experiences across settings, and each additional social identity for which discrimination was experienced. Black women reported LUTS/impact with more frequent discriminatory experiences across settings. For Black women, greater perceived stress of both gender and race discrimination were associated with LUTS/impact. For White women, only greater perceived stress of race discrimination was associated with LUTS/impact. CONCLUSIONS This is one of the first studies to examine discrimination in relation to LUTS/impact. Additional research is needed to better understand differences in how discriminatory experiences based on potentially intersecting identities may be related to bladder health among women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonya S Brady
- Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, University of Minnesota Medical School, Program in Health Disparities Research, 717 Delaware Street SE, Suite 166, Minneapolis, MN, 55414, USA.
| | - Andrés Arguedas
- Division of Biostatistics, University of Minnesota School of Public Health, University Office Plaza 2221 University Ave SE, Suite 200, Minneapolis, MN, 55414, USA.
| | - Jared D Huling
- Division of Biostatistics, University of Minnesota School of Public Health, University Office Plaza 2221 University Ave SE, Suite 200, Minneapolis, MN, 55414, USA.
| | - Gerhard Hellemann
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Public Health, Ryals Public Health Building (RPHB), 1665 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA.
| | - Cora E Lewis
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Public Health, Ryals Public Health Building (RPHB), 1665 University Boulevard, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA.
| | - Cynthia S Fok
- Department of Urology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Mayo Building 420 Delaware St. Se. MMC 394, Minneapolis, MN, 55454, USA.
| | - Stephen K Van Den Eeden
- Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, 2000 Broadway Oakland, CA, 94612, USA; Department of Urology, University of California, San Francisco, 400 Parnassus Ave, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.
| | - Alayne D Markland
- Division of Gerontology, Geriatrics, and Palliative Care, University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine, 933 19th Street South, CH19 201 Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA; Birmingham VA Medical Center, 700 19th St S, Birmingham, AL, 35233, USA.
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Management of Premenstrual Disorders: ACOG Clinical Practice Guideline No. 7. Obstet Gynecol 2023; 142:1516-1533. [PMID: 37973069 DOI: 10.1097/aog.0000000000005426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To provide recommendations for the management of premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder, collectively referred to as premenstrual disorders, based on assessment of the evidence regarding the safety and efficacy of available treatment options. An overview of the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and diagnosis of premenstrual disorders also is included to provide readers with relevant background information and context for the clinical recommendations. TARGET POPULATION Reproductive-aged adults and adolescents with premenstrual symptoms. METHODS This guideline was developed using an a priori protocol in conjunction with a writing team consisting of two specialists in obstetrics and gynecology appointed by the ACOG Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines-Gynecology and one external subject matter expert. ACOG medical librarians completed a comprehensive literature search for primary literature within Cochrane Library, Cochrane Collaboration Registry of Controlled Trials, EMBASE, PubMed, and MEDLINE. Studies that moved forward to the full-text screening stage were assessed by two authors from the writing team based on standardized inclusion and exclusion criteria. Included studies underwent quality assessment, and a modified GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluations) evidence-to-decision framework was applied to interpret and translate the evidence into recommendation statements. RECOMMENDATIONS This Clinical Practice Guideline includes recommendations on the following evidence-based treatment options for premenstrual disorders, with an acknowledgement that many patients may benefit from a multimodal approach that combines several interventions: pharmacologic agents (hormonal and nonhormonal), psychological counseling, complementary and alternative treatments, exercise and nutritional therapies, patient education and self-help strategies, and surgical management. Recommendations are classified by strength and evidence quality. Ungraded Good Practice Points are included to provide guidance when a formal recommendation could not be made because of inadequate or nonexistent evidence. Based on review of extrapolated data from adult populations and expert consensus, it was determined that the recommendations also apply to adolescents, with a few exceptions that are noted in the Clinical Practice Guideline.
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Deckard FM, Messamore A, Goosby BJ, Cheadle JE. A Network Approach to Assessing the Relationship between Discrimination and Daily Emotion Dynamics. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/01902725221123577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Discrimination-health research has been critiqued for neglecting the endogeneity of reports of discrimination to negative affect and the multidimensionality of mental health. To address these challenges, we model discrimination’s relationship to multiple psychological variables without directional constraints. Using time-dense data to identify associational network structures allows for joint testing of the social stress hypothesis, prominent in discrimination-health literature, and the negativity bias hypothesis, an endogeneity critique rooted in social psychology. Our results show discrimination predicts negative emotions from day-to-day but not vice versa, indicating that racial discrimination is a risk factor and not symptom of negative emotion. Furthermore, we identify sadness, guilt, hostility, and fear as a locus of interrelated emotions sensitive to racism-related stressors that emerges over time. Thus, we find support for what race scholars have argued for 120+ years in a model without a priori directional restrictions and then build on this work by empirically identifying cascading mental health consequences of discrimination.
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Lin SY, Yang YC, Chang CYY, Hsu WH, Lin CC, Jiang CC, Wang IK, Lin CD, Hsu CY, Kao CH. Association of fine-particulate and acidic-gas air pollution with premenstrual syndrome risk. QJM 2020; 113:643-650. [PMID: 32186731 DOI: 10.1093/qjmed/hcaa096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Air pollution had been reported to be associated with the reproductive health of women. However, the association of particulate matter (PM) and acid gases air pollution with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) warrants investigation. This study investigated the effects of air pollution on PMS risk. POPULATION We combined data from the Taiwan Air Quality-Monitoring Database and the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database. In total, an observational cohort of 85 078 Taiwanese women not diagnosed as having PMS. METHODS Air pollutant concentrations were grouped into four levels based on the concentration quartiles of several types of air pollutants. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES We then applied univariable and multivariable Cox proportional hazard regression models to assess PMS risk in association with each pollutant type. RESULTS Women exposed to Q4-level SO2 exhibited a 7.77 times higher PMS risk compared with those to Q1-level SO2 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 6.22-9.71). Women exposed to Q4-level NOx exhibited a 2.86 times higher PMS risk compared with those exposed to Q1-level NOx (95% CI = 2.39-3.43). Women exposed to Q4-level NO exhibited a 3.17 times higher PMS risk compared with women exposed to Q1-level NO (95% CI = 2.68-3.75). Finally, women exposed to Q4-level PM with a ≤2.5-µm diameter (PM2.5) exhibited a 3.41 times higher PMS risk compared with those exposed to Q1-level PM2.5 (95% CI = 2.88-4.04). CONCLUSIONS High incidences of PMS were noted in women who lived in areas with higher concentrations of SO2, NOx, NO, NO2 and PM2.5.
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Affiliation(s)
- S-Y Lin
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Medicine, College of Medicine
- Division of Nephrology and Kidney Institute
| | - Y-C Yang
- Management Office for Health Data
- College of Medicine
| | - C Y-Y Chang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Medicine, College of Medicine
- Department of Gynecology
| | - W-H Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Medicine, College of Medicine
- Department of Chest Medicine
| | - C-C Lin
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Medicine, College of Medicine
- Department of Family Medicine
| | - C-C Jiang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Medicine, College of Medicine
- Division of Nephrology and Kidney Institute
| | - I-K Wang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Medicine, College of Medicine
- Division of Nephrology and Kidney Institute
| | - C-D Lin
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Medicine, College of Medicine
- Department Teaching
- Department Otolaryngology
| | - C-Y Hsu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Medicine, College of Medicine
| | - C-H Kao
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences and School of Medicine, College of Medicine
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET Center, China Medical University Hospital, No 2 Yu-Der Road, 40447, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, Asia University, No. 500, Liufeng Rd., Wufeng Dist., Taichung City 413, Taiwan
- Center of Augmented Intelligence in Healthcare, China Medical University Hospital, No 2 Yu-Der Road, 40447, Taichung, Taiwan
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Haeny AM, Woerner J, Ahuja M, Hicks TA, Overstreet C, Amstadter A, Sartor CE. The impact of world assumptions on the association between discrimination and internalizing and substance use outcomes. J Health Psychol 2020; 26:2688-2698. [PMID: 32498568 DOI: 10.1177/1359105320931185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated whether core beliefs about the world being safe and predictable (i.e. world assumptions) mediated the association between discrimination and internalizing and substance use problems among individuals from marginalized groups. Path analyses tested mediating effects of four types of world assumptions on the association between discrimination (race-, gender-, and sexual orientation-based) and anxiety, depression, alcohol and cannabis problems in college students (N = 1,181, agemean = 19.50, SD = 1.67). Limited support for mediation by world assumptions was found: among Asian students, race-based discrimination indirectly impacted anxiety symptoms through low perceived controllability of events. Direct effects across groups and discrimination types were also found.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Cassie Overstreet
- Yale School of Medicine, USA.,Virginia Commonwealth University, USA.,VA Connecticut Healthcare System, USA
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Vines AI, Ward JB, Cordoba E, Black KZ. Perceived Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Mental Health: a Review and Future Directions for Social Epidemiology. CURR EPIDEMIOL REP 2017; 4:156-165. [PMID: 28920011 PMCID: PMC5596659 DOI: 10.1007/s40471-017-0106-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Recent literature on racial or ethnic discrimination and mental health was reviewed to assess the current science and identify key areas of emphasis for social epidemiology. Objectives of this review were to: 1) Determine whether there have been advancements in the measurement and analysis of perceived discrimination; 2) Identify the use of theories and/or frameworks in perceived discrimination and mental health research; and 3) Assess the extent to which stress buffers are being considered and evaluated in the existing literature. RECENT FINDINGS Metrics and analytic approaches used to assess discrimination remain largely unchanged. Theory and/or frameworks such as the stress and coping framework continue to be underused in majority of the studies. Adolescents and young adults experiencing racial/ethnic discrimination were at greater risk of adverse mental health outcomes, and the accumulation of stressors over the life course may have an aggregate impact on mental health. Some growth seems evident in studies examining the mediation and moderation of stress buffers and other key factors with the findings suggesting a reduction in the effects of discrimination on mental health. SUMMARY Discrimination scales should consider the multiple social identities of a person, the context where the exposure occurs, how the stressor manifests specifically in adolescents, the historical traumas, and cumulative exposure. Life course theory and intersectionality may help guide future work. Despite existing research, gaps remain in in elucidating the effects of racial and ethnic discrimination on mental health, signaling an opportunity and a call to social epidemiologists to engage in interdisciplinary research to speed research progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anissa I Vines
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 266 Rosenau Hall, CB #7435, 135 Dauer Drive, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7435
| | - Julia B Ward
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 135 Dauer Drive, CB #7435, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7435
| | - Evette Cordoba
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 135 Dauer Drive, CB #7435, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7435
| | - Kristin Z Black
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 135 Dauer Drive, CB #7440, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7440
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Kydd A, Fleming A. Ageism and age discrimination in health care: Fact or fiction? A narrative review of the literature. Maturitas 2015; 81:432-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2015.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Zucker AN, Fitz CC, Bay-Cheng LY. Reverberations of Racism and Sexism Through the Subjective Sexualities of Undergraduate Women of Color. JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH 2015; 53:265-272. [PMID: 26147282 DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2014.1002557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Young women of color (among others) face both subtle and overt discrimination on a regular basis, but few studies have examined relations between discrimination and sexual outcomes using quantitative tools. We surveyed 154 self-identified undergraduate women of color to examine connections between race- and sex-based discrimination and subjective sexual well-being (i.e., condom use self-efficacy and sexual life satisfaction) and also tested whether sexual autonomy mediated these relations. When examined individually, each form of discrimination was related negatively to condom use self-efficacy and sexual life satisfaction, such that as women reported more discrimination, they reported poorer sexual well-being. However, when examining both racism and sexism as joint predictors, only racism remained significant and there were no racism × sexism interaction effects. In a path model, sexual autonomy mediated the relation between racism and each measure of subjective sexual well-being; racism was negatively related to sexual autonomy, which in turn was positively related to both condom use self-efficacy and sexual life satisfaction. These findings are consistent with the broader literature on the negative impact of discrimination on various aspects of mental and physical health. They also reinforce the position that redressing social inequality is a vital component of promoting individual health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa N Zucker
- a Department of Psychology and Women's Studies Program , The George Washington University
| | - Caroline C Fitz
- b Department of Psychology , The George Washington University
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Akbarzadeh M, Dehghani M, Moshfeghy Z, Emamghoreishi M, Tavakoli P, Zare N. Effect of Melissa officinalis Capsule on the Intensity of Premenstrual Syndrome Symptoms in High School Girl Students. Nurs Midwifery Stud 2015; 4:e27001. [PMID: 26339667 PMCID: PMC4557408 DOI: 10.17795/nmsjournal27001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2015] [Revised: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several studies are conducted on Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS). However, a few herbal surveys exist on the treatment of PMS in Iran. Due to the sedative effects of Melissa officinalis (M. officinalis), this question comes to mind that "can it be used in the treatment of PMS symptoms?" OBJECTIVES The current study aimed to assess the effect of M. officinalis capsule on the intensity of PMS in high-school girls. MATERIALS AND METHODS A double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled trial was performed on 100 high school girls from 2013 to 2014. The intervention group (n = 50) received 1200 mg of M. officinalis essence daily from the first to the last day of their menstrual cycle for three consecutive cycles. The second group (n = 50) received the placebo. The premenstrual symptoms screening tool was used to assess the intensity of PMS symptoms in the two groups before and one, two, and three months after the intervention. The data were analyzed using paired t-test and repeated measures analysis of variance. RESULTS The results of repeated measures test revealed a significant reduction (P < 0.001) in PMS symptoms. Overall, the mean score of PMS intensity in the intervention group was 42.56 + 15.73 before the intervention and changed to 32.72 ± 13.24, 30.02 ± 12.08, and 13.90 ± 10.22 at the three consecutive months after the intervention, respectively (P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS M. officinalis capsules were effective in reduction of the PMS symptoms. Yet, application of this medication requires further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzieh Akbarzadeh
- Department of Midwifery, Maternal-Fetal Medicine Research Center, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran
| | - Mansoore Dehghani
- Department of Midwifery, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran
| | - Zeinab Moshfeghy
- Department of Midwifery, Community Based Psychiatric Care Research Center, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran
| | - Masoumeh Emamghoreishi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran
| | - Pouran Tavakoli
- Department of Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran
| | - Najaf Zare
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Medicine, Infertility Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, IR Iran
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Lewis TT, Cogburn CD, Williams DR. Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health: scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2015; 11:407-40. [PMID: 25581238 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 556] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, research examining the impact of self-reported experiences of discrimination on mental and physical health has increased dramatically. Studies have found consistent associations between exposure to discrimination and a wide range of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-diagnosed mental disorders as well as objective physical health outcomes. Associations are seen in cross-sectional as well as longitudinal studies and persist even after adjustment for confounding variables, including personality characteristics and other threats to validity. However, controversies remain, particularly around the best approach to measuring experiences of discrimination, the significance of racial/ethnic discrimination versus overall mistreatment, the need to account for "intersectionalities," and the importance of comprehensive assessments. These issues are discussed in detail, along with emerging areas of emphasis including cyber discrimination, anticipatory stress or vigilance around discrimination, and interventions with potential to reduce the negative effects of discrimination on health. We also discuss priorities for future research and implications for interventions and policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tené T Lewis
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
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Sadr SS, Samimi Ardestani SM, Razjouyan K, Daneshvari M, Zahed G. Premenstrual syndrome and comorbid depression among medical students in the internship stage: a descriptive study. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 2014; 8:74-9. [PMID: 25798178 PMCID: PMC4364481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 11/23/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a cluster of physical and emotional changes that typically begins several days before the menstrual period that disappears quickly after menstruation. It seems that co-occurrence of depression increases the risk and severity of this syndrome. In this cross-sectional research, we evaluated an association between PMS and depression in medical students. METHODS A hundred female medical students of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences that were available assigned for research. They were divided into two groups after administration of demographic questionnaire and PMS questionnaire made by researchers based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition-Technical Revision; group with or without PMS diagnosis. Then, they completed Beck's Depression Inventory. RESULTS From 100 participants, 55% (n = 55) met the PMS criteria and 45% had no PMS. In the PMS group 30% (n = 17) had no depression; 38% (n = 21) had mild depression; 23% (n = 13) had moderate depression; and 7% (n = 4) had severe depression. In the group with no PMS 60% (n = 27) had no depression; 20% (n = 9) had mild depression; 17% (n = 8) had moderate depression; 2% (n = 1) had severe depression. The rate of depression was significantly higher in PMS group (p = 0.04). CONCLUSION In this research, PMS had an elevated frequency in medical students. In students with PMS, rate of depression was higher than students without PMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Saeed Sadr
- Assistant Professor, Department of Psychiatry, Imam Hossein Medical Center, Behavior Sciences Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Seyed Mehdi Samimi Ardestani
- Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry, Imam Hosein Medical Center, Behavior Sciences Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. ,Corresponding author: Seyed Mehdi Samimi Ardestani, Psychiatric Ward, Imam Hossein Hospital, Shahid Madani (Nezam Abad) Street, Tehran, Iran. Telefax: +98 2177551023,
| | - Katayoon Razjouyan
- Assistant Professor, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Imam Hosein Medical Center, Behavior Sciences Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Ghazal Zahed
- Assistant Professor, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Mofid Medical Center, Behavior Sciences Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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