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Liu S, Wu Q, Wang L, Xing C, Guo J, Li B, Ma H, Zhong H, Zhou M, Zhu S, Zhu R, Ning G. Coordination function index: A novel indicator for assessing hindlimb locomotor recovery in spinal cord injury rats based on catwalk gait parameters. Behav Brain Res 2024; 459:114765. [PMID: 37992973 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
In preclinical studies of spinal cord injury (SCI), behavioral assessments are crucial for evaluating treatment effectiveness. Commonly used methods include Basso, Beattie, Bresnahan (BBB) score and the Louisville swim scale (LSS), relying on subjective observations. The CatWalk automated gait analysis system is also widely used in SCI studies, providing extensive gait parameters from footprints. However, these parameters are often used independently or combined simply without utilizing the vast amount of data provided by CatWalk. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a novel approach encompassing multiple CatWalk parameters for a comprehensive and objective assessment of locomotor function. In this work, we screened 208 CatWalk XT gait parameters and identified 38 suitable for assessing hindlimb motor function recovery in a rat thoracic contusion SCI model. Exploratory factor analysis was used to reveal structural relationships among these parameters. Weighted scores for Coordination effectively differentiated hindlimb motor function levels, termed as the Coordinated Function Index (CFI). CFI showed high reliability, exhibiting high correlations with BBB scores, LSS, and T2WI lesion area. Finally, we simplified CFI based on factor loadings and correlation analysis, obtaining a streamlined version with reliable assessment efficacy. In conclusion, we developed a systematic assessment indicator utilizing multiple CatWalk parameters to objectively evaluate hindlimb motor function recovery in rats after thoracic contusion SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Qiang Wu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Liyue Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Cong Xing
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Junrui Guo
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Baicao Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Hongpeng Ma
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Hao Zhong
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Mi Zhou
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Shibo Zhu
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China
| | - Rusen Zhu
- Department of Spine Surgery, Tianjin Union Medical Center, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Guangzhi Ning
- Department of Orthopedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China; International Science and Technology Cooperation Base of Spinal Cord lnjury, Tianjin, China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Tianjin, China.
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Abstract
Adult Schwann cells (SCs) can provide both a permissive substrate for axonal growth and a source of cells to ensheath and myelinate axons when transplanted into the injured spinal cord. Multiple studies have demonstrated that SC transplants can be used as part of a combinatorial approach to repairing the injured spinal cord. Here, we describe the protocols for collection and transplantation of adult rat primary SCs into the injured spinal cord. Protocols are included for the tissue culture procedures necessary for collection, quantification, and suspension of the cells for transplantation and for the surgical procedures for spinal cord injury at thoracic level nine (T9), reexposure of the injury site for delayed transplantation, and injection of the cells into the spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Dai
- Burke Medical Research Institute, White Plains, NY, USA.,Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Caitlin E Hill
- Burke Medical Research Institute, White Plains, NY, USA. .,Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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Kappos EA, Sieber PK, Engels PE, Mariolo AV, D'Arpa S, Schaefer DJ, Kalbermatten DF. Validity and reliability of the CatWalk system as a static and dynamic gait analysis tool for the assessment of functional nerve recovery in small animal models. Brain Behav 2017; 7:e00723. [PMID: 28729931 PMCID: PMC5516599 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2016] [Revised: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A range of behavioral testing paradigms have been developed for the research of central and peripheral nerve injuries with the help of small animal models. Following any nerve repair strategy, improved functional outcome may be the most important evidence of axon regeneration. A novel automated gait analysis system, the CatWalk™, can measure dynamic as well as static gait patterns of small animals. Of most interest in detecting functional recovery are in particular dynamic gait parameters, coordination measures, and the intensity of the animals paw prints. This article is designed to lead to a more efficient choice of CatWalk parameters in future studies concerning the functional evaluation of nerve regeneration and simultaneously add to better interstudy comparability. METHODS The aims of the present paper are threefold: (1) to describe the functional method of CatWalk gait analysis, (2) to characterize different parameters acquired by CatWalk gait analysis, and to find the most frequently used parameters as well as (3) to compare their reliability and validity throughout the different studies. RESULTS In the reviewed articles, the most frequently used parameters were Swing Duration (30), Print Size (27), Stride Length (26), and Max Contact Area (24). Swing Duration was not only frequently used but was also the most reliable and valid parameter. Therefore, we hypothesize that Swing Duration constitutes an important parameter to be chosen for future studies, as it has the highest level of reliability and validity. CONCLUSION In conclusion, CatWalk can be used as a complementary approach to other behavioral testing paradigms to assess clinically relevant behavioral benefits, with the main advantage that this system demonstrates both static and dynamic gait parameters at the same time. Due to limited reliability and validity of certain parameters, we recommend that only the most frequently assessed parameters should be used in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth A Kappos
- Division of Plastic, Reconstructive, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery Department of Surgery University Hospital of Basel Basel Switzerland.,Division of Neuropathology Institute of Pathology University Hospital of Basel Basel Switzerland
| | - Patricia K Sieber
- Division of Plastic, Reconstructive, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery Department of Surgery University Hospital of Basel Basel Switzerland.,Division of Neuropathology Institute of Pathology University Hospital of Basel Basel Switzerland
| | - Patricia E Engels
- Division of Plastic, Reconstructive, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery Department of Surgery University Hospital of Basel Basel Switzerland.,Division of Neuropathology Institute of Pathology University Hospital of Basel Basel Switzerland
| | - Alessio V Mariolo
- Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Department of Surgery, Oncology and Stomatology University of Palermo Palermo Italy
| | - Salvatore D'Arpa
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Department of Surgery Ghent University Hospital Gent Belgium
| | - Dirk J Schaefer
- Division of Plastic, Reconstructive, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery Department of Surgery University Hospital of Basel Basel Switzerland
| | - Daniel F Kalbermatten
- Division of Plastic, Reconstructive, Aesthetic and Hand Surgery Department of Surgery University Hospital of Basel Basel Switzerland.,Division of Neuropathology Institute of Pathology University Hospital of Basel Basel Switzerland
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The efficacy of Schwann cell transplantation on motor function recovery after spinal cord injuries in animal models: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Chem Neuroanat 2016; 78:102-111. [PMID: 27609084 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2016] [Revised: 07/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
AIM This article aimed to assess the efficacy of Schwann cell transplantation on motor function recovery in animal model of spinal cord injuries via meta-analysis. METHODS An extended search was carried out in the electronic databases of Medline (via PubMed), EMBASE (via OvidSP), CENTRAL, SCOPUS, Web of Science (BIOSIS), and ProQuest. Finally, 41 eligible studies conducted on 1046 animals including 517 control animals and 529 transplanted animals were included in the meta-analysis. Pooled standardized mean difference (SMD) and odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (95% CI) were reported. RESULTS The findings showed that treatment with Schwann cells leads to a modest motor function recovery after spinal cord injury (SMD=0.85; 95% CI: 0.63-1.07; p<0.001). Transplantation of these cells in acute phase of the injury (immediately after the injury) (OR=4.30; 95% CI: 1.53-12.05; p=0.007), application of mesenchymal/skin-derived precursors (OR=2.34; 95% CI: 1.28-4.29; p=0.008), and cells with human sources are associated with an increase in efficacy of Schwann cells (OR=10.96; 95% CI: 1.49-80.77; p=0.02). Finally, it seems that the efficacy of Schwann cells in mice is significantly lower than rats (OR=0.03; 95% CI: 0.003-0.41; p=0.009). CONCLUSION Transplantation of Schwann cells can moderately improve motor function recovery. It seems that inter-species differences might exist regarding the efficacy of this cells. Therefore, this should be taken into account when using Schwann cells in clinical trials regarding spinal cord injuries.
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Wei ZJ, Zhou XH, Fan BY, Lin W, Ren YM, Feng SQ. Proteomic and bioinformatic analyses of spinal cord injury‑induced skeletal muscle atrophy in rats. Mol Med Rep 2016; 14:165-74. [PMID: 27177391 PMCID: PMC4918545 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2016.5272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) may result in skeletal muscle atrophy. Identifying diagnostic biomarkers and effective targets for treatment is an important challenge in clinical work. The aim of the present study is to elucidate potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for SCI‑induced muscle atrophy (SIMA) using proteomic and bioinformatic analyses. The protein samples from rat soleus muscle were collected at different time points following SCI injury and separated by two‑dimensional gel electrophoresis and compared with the sham group. The identities of these protein spots were analyzed by mass spectrometry (MS). MS demonstrated that 20 proteins associated with muscle atrophy were differentially expressed. Bioinformatic analyses indicated that SIMA changed the expression of proteins associated with cellular, developmental, immune system and metabolic processes, biological adhesion and localization. The results of the present study may be beneficial in understanding the molecular mechanisms of SIMA and elucidating potential biomarkers and targets for the treatment of muscle atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Jian Wei
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, P.R. China
| | - Xian-Hu Zhou
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, P.R. China
| | - Bao-You Fan
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, P.R. China
| | - Wei Lin
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, P.R. China
| | - Yi-Ming Ren
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, P.R. China
| | - Shi-Qing Feng
- Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, P.R. China
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Use of the CatWalk Gait Device to Assess Differences in Locomotion between Genders in Rats Inherently and following Spinal Cord Injury. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1155/2016/6276348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A possible cause of differences in recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI) is gender. The effect of gender on locomotor recovery following SCI, however, remains controversial and has produced conflicting results regarding gender’s impact on outcome. A significant shortcoming of previous studies was small sample size. The current work tested what, if any, significant differences existed between genders after SCI with CatWalk Gait Analysis that uses an automated device to measure the foot placement and gait of animals as they voluntarily cross an illuminated glass runway. We hypothesized that, by employing larger sample sizes in a reproducible and clinically relevant contusive SCI paradigm, subtle distinctions in locomotor recovery between sexes, if they exist, would be elucidated. During 13 weeks of functional assessment after SCI, a number of CatWalk parameters, including swing, single stance, and stride length, were significantly affected by gender only as identified by use of ANCOVA analysis, considering age, weight, and baseline performance as covariates. We report here our findings for 197 parameters that were assessed before and after SCI. Evaluating differences in locomotor recovery between sexes after SCI could point to a gender-related advantage and provide novel directions for the development of future therapeutics.
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Niapour N, Mohammadi-Ghalehbin B, Golmohammadi MG, Amani M, Salehi H, Niapour A. Efficacy of optimized in vitro predegeneration period on the cell count and purity of canine Schwann cell cultures. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES 2015; 18:307-11. [PMID: 25945245 PMCID: PMC4414998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Predegeneration is a standard technique to obtain mitotically activated and enriched cultures of Schwann cells (SCs). This study, for the first time, evaluated the impact of various duration of predegeneration on cell yield and enrichment of SCs from dog peripheral nerve. MATERIALS AND METHODS Dog sural nerves were subjected to 5, 10, 15 day-long in vitro predegeneration. The total cell yield and the purity of SCs were evaluated in each group on the first and seventh day after plating. RESULTS The maximum and minimum numbers of cells were counted in 15 day-long predegene-ration and control groups which underwent no predegeneration. The 10 day-long in vitro predegeneration group with 80±0.5% SCs enrichment had the best purity after plating day and could maintain its purity with elapsing on cultures. CONCLUSION 10 day-long predegeneration results in the higher cell number and the better and prolonged purity of SCs in culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazila Niapour
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Behnam Mohammadi-Ghalehbin
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | | | - Mohammad Amani
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Hossein Salehi
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Ali Niapour
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran,*Corresponding author: Ali Niapour. Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran. Tel: +98-45-33510052/3(288); Fax: +98-45-33513424;
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Chen L, Li J, Wu L, Yang M, Gao F, Yuan L. Synergistic actions of olomoucine and bone morphogenetic protein-4 in axonal repair after acute spinal cord contusion. Neural Regen Res 2014; 9:1830-8. [PMID: 25422646 PMCID: PMC4239774 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.143431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
To determine whether olomoucine acts synergistically with bone morphogenetic protein-4 in the treatment of spinal cord injury, we established a rat model of acute spinal cord contusion by impacting the spinal cord at the T8 vertebra. We injected a suspension of astrocytes derived from glial-restricted precursor cells exposed to bone morphogenetic protein-4 (GDAsBMP) into the spinal cord around the site of the injury, and/or olomoucine intraperitoneally. Olomoucine effectively inhibited astrocyte proliferation and the formation of scar tissue at the injury site, but did not prevent proliferation of GDAsBMP or inhibit their effects in reducing the spinal cord lesion cavity. Furthermore, while GDAsBMP and olomoucine independently resulted in small improvements in locomotor function in injured rats, combined administration of both treatments had a significantly greater effect on the restoration of motor function. These data indicate that the combined use of olomoucine and GDAsBMP creates a better environment for nerve regeneration than the use of either treatment alone, and contributes to spinal cord repair after injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Chen
- Capital Medical University School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Beijing, China ; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China
| | - Jianjun Li
- Capital Medical University School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Beijing, China ; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China ; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Liang Wu
- Rehabilitation Center, Beijing Xiaotangshan Rehabilitation Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Mingliang Yang
- Capital Medical University School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Beijing, China ; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China ; Center of Neural Injury and Repair, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Gao
- Capital Medical University School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Beijing, China ; Department of Spinal and Neural Function Reconstruction, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China
| | - Li Yuan
- Department of General Surgery, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing, China
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Wu L, Li J, Chen L, Zhang H, Yuan L, Davies SJ. Combined transplantation of GDAs(BMP) and hr-decorin in spinal cord contusion repair. Neural Regen Res 2014; 8:2236-48. [PMID: 25206533 PMCID: PMC4146032 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2013.24.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Following spinal cord injury, astrocyte proliferation and scar formation are the main factors inhibiting the regeneration and growth of spinal cord axons. Recombinant decorin suppresses inflammatory reactions, inhibits glial scar formation, and promotes axonal growth. Rat models of T8 spinal cord contusion were created with the NYU impactor and these models were subjected to combined transplantation of bone morphogenetic protein-4-induced glial-restricted precursor-derived astrocytes and human recombinant decorin transplantation. At 28 days after spinal cord contusion, double-immunofluorescent histochemistry revealed that combined transplantation inhibited the early inflammatory response in injured rats. Furthermore, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, which was secreted by transplanted cells, protected injured axons. The combined transplantation promoted axonal regeneration and growth of injured motor and sensory neurons by inhibiting astrocyte proliferation and glial scar formation, with astrocytes forming a linear arrangement in the contused spinal cord, thus providing axonal regeneration channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Wu
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100068, China ; Department of Neural Functional Reconstruction of Spine and Spinal Cord, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing 100068, China ; Rehabilitation Center, Beijing Xiaotangshan Rehabilitation Hospital, Beijing 102211, China
| | - Jianjun Li
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100068, China ; Department of Neural Functional Reconstruction of Spine and Spinal Cord, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing 100068, China
| | - Liang Chen
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100068, China ; Department of Neural Functional Reconstruction of Spine and Spinal Cord, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing 100068, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100068, China
| | - Li Yuan
- School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100068, China ; Department of Neural Functional Reconstruction of Spine and Spinal Cord, China Rehabilitation Research Center, Beijing 100068, China
| | - Stephen Ja Davies
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Colorado Denver, 1250 14th Street Denver, Colorado 80217, USA
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Estrada V, Müller HW. Spinal cord injury - there is not just one way of treating it. F1000PRIME REPORTS 2014; 6:84. [PMID: 25343041 PMCID: PMC4166939 DOI: 10.12703/p6-84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In the last century, research in the field of spinal cord trauma has brought insightful knowledge which has led to a detailed understanding of mechanisms that are involved in injury- and recovery-related processes. The quest for a cure for the yet generally incurable condition as well as the exponential rise in gained information has brought about the development of numerous treatment approaches while at the same time the abundance of data has become quite unmanageable. Owing to an enormous amount of preclinical therapeutic approaches, this report highlights important trends rather than specific treatment strategies. We focus on current advances in the treatment of spinal cord injury and want to further draw attention to arising problems in spinal cord injury (SCI) research and discuss possible solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Estrada
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Heinrich-Heine-University Medical Center Düsseldorf Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
| | - Hans Werner Müller
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Heinrich-Heine-University Medical Center Düsseldorf Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf Germany
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