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Li B, Mei XF. Naringin may promote functional recovery following spinal cord injury by modulating microglial polarization through the PPAR-γ/NF-κB signaling pathway. Brain Res 2023; 1821:148563. [PMID: 37661010 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The flavonoid Naringin (Nar) has been extensively investigated and found to have multiple pharmacological properties, including neuroprotection. Although recent reports have shown that Nar can effectively treat spinal cord injury (SCI), its potential mechanism remains unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effects of Nar on motor recovery and inflammatory responses after SCI and to elucidate its mechanism. METHODS SCI rat models were established using Allen's weight-drop method. The rats were intragastrically given Nar (40 mg/kg) for 21 d, and their motor function before surgery and on the 1st, 3rd, 7th, 14th, 21st days after surgery was assessed by the Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) scale and examined by the grid walking test (GWT). The enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect the interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 levels in rat spinal cord tissues, and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) to measure the mRNA expression levels of microglial activation markers CD68 and ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1), M1 markers inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and IL-6, and M2 markers CD206 and Arginase 1 (Arg1). The expression levels of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma/nuclear factor kappa B (PPAR-γ/NF-κB) pathway-related proteins in rat spinal cord tissues were determined using western blotting. RESULTS Nar significantly increased the BBB score and decreased the mean error rate of GWT in SCI rats. Additionally, Nar effectively inhibited microglial activation and expression of M1 markers in spinal cord tissues. It also elevated M2 polarization-related gene expression and significantly lowered the levels of inflammatory factors. Further investigation showed that Nar enhanced the expression of PPAR-γ protein and inhibited NF-κB pathway activity. CONCLUSION Nar promotes functional recovery by regulating microglial polarization and inhibiting the inflammatory response in SCI, and its mechanism may be related to the PPAR-γ/NF-κB signaling pathway activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Li
- Suzhou Medical College of Soochow University. Suzhou, Jiangsu 215000, China; Department of Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Jin Zhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning 121000, China
| | - Xi-Fan Mei
- Department of Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Jin Zhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning 121000, China.
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Glaser EP, Stewart AN, Jagielo-Miller JE, Bailey CS, Prendergast MA, Gensel JC. Effects of Acute Ethanol Intoxication on Spinal Cord Injury Outcomes in Female Mice. J Neurotrauma 2023; 40:2541-2551. [PMID: 37350129 PMCID: PMC10698778 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2023.0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract Approximately one in three traumatic spinal cord injuries (SCIs) occurs during or shortly after the consumption of alcohol. A small number of retrospective clinical studies report variable effects of alcohol intoxication on mortality, neurological recovery, and complications after SCI. Some of these studies demonstrate a protective effect of alcohol intoxication on SCI outcomes, whereas others show an increased complication risk. Pre-clinical studies in rat, ferret, and feline SCI models report a detrimental effect of ethanol intoxication on hemorrhage, motor recovery, and biochemical markers of tissue injury. However, no studies to date have investigated the neuropathological consequences of ethanol intoxication at the time of SCI or the reciprocal effect of SCI on ethanol metabolism. Therefore, we combined a pre-clinical mouse model of acute ethanol intoxication and experimental vertebral level T9 contusion SCI to investigate their interactive effects in female mice. We first investigated the effect of SCI on ethanol metabolism and found that T9 SCI does not alter ethanol metabolism. However, we did find that isoflurane anesthesia significantly slowed ethanol metabolism independent of SCI. We also determined how acute ethanol intoxication at the time of SCI alters locomotor recovery and lesion pathology. Using the Basso Mouse Scale (BMS) and CatWalk XT Gait Analysis System, we assessed locomotor recovery for 6 weeks after injury and observed that acute ethanol intoxication at the time of injury did not alter locomotor recovery. We also found no effect of ethanol intoxication on heat hyperalgesia development. There was, however, a detrimental effect of ethanol on tissue sparing after SCI. Therefore, we conclude that acute alcohol intoxication at the time of injury may contribute to the neuropathological consequences of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan P. Glaser
- Department of Physiology, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Andrew N. Stewart
- Department of Physiology, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Julia E. Jagielo-Miller
- Department of Physiology, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Caleb S. Bailey
- Department of Physiology, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Mark A. Prendergast
- Department of Physiology, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - John C. Gensel
- Department of Physiology, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
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Stewart AN, Gensel JC, Jones L, Fouad K. Challenges in Translating Regenerative Therapies for Spinal Cord Injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil 2023; 29:23-43. [PMID: 38174141 PMCID: PMC10759906 DOI: 10.46292/sci23-00044s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Regenerating the injured spinal cord is a substantial challenge with many obstacles that need to be overcome to achieve robust functional benefits. This abundance of hurdles can partly explain the limited success when applying regenerative intervention treatments in animal models and/or people. In this article, we elaborate on a few of these obstacles, starting with the applicability of animal models and how they compare to the clinical setting. We then discuss the requirement for combinatorial interventions and the associated problems in experimental design, including the addition of rehabilitative training. The article expands on differences in lesion sizes and locations between humans and common animal models, and how this difference can determine the success or failure of an intervention. An additional and frequently overlooked problem in the translation of interventions that applies beyond the field of neuroregeneration is the reporting bias and the lack of transparency in reporting findings. New data mandates are tackling this problem and will eventually result in a more balanced view of the field. Finally, we will discuss strategies to negotiate the challenging course of successful translation to facilitate successful translation of regeneration promoting interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew N. Stewart
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - John C. Gensel
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Linda Jones
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Karim Fouad
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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Azbazdar Y, Poyraz YK, Ozalp O, Nazli D, Ipekgil D, Cucun G, Ozhan G. High-fat diet feeding triggers a regenerative response in the adult zebrafish brain. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:2486-2506. [PMID: 36670270 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03210-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) includes a range of liver conditions ranging from excess fat accumulation to liver failure. NAFLD is strongly associated with high-fat diet (HFD) consumption that constitutes a metabolic risk factor. While HFD has been elucidated concerning its several systemic effects, there is little information about its influence on the brain at the molecular level. Here, by using a high-fat diet (HFD)-feeding of adult zebrafish, we first reveal that excess fat uptake results in weight gain and fatty liver. Prolonged exposure to HFD induces a significant increase in the expression of pro-inflammation, apoptosis, and proliferation markers in the liver and brain tissues. Immunofluorescence analyses of the brain tissues disclose stimulation of apoptosis and widespread activation of glial cell response. Moreover, glial activation is accompanied by an initial decrease in the number of neurons and their subsequent replacement in the olfactory bulb and the telencephalon. Long-term consumption of HFD causes activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the brain tissues. Finally, fish fed an HFD induces anxiety, and aggressiveness and increases locomotor activity. Thus, HFD feeding leads to a non-traumatic brain injury and stimulates a regenerative response. The activation mechanisms of a regeneration response in the brain can be exploited to fight obesity and recover from non-traumatic injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yagmur Azbazdar
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylul University Health Campus, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
- Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-Izmir), Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095-1662, USA
| | - Yusuf Kaan Poyraz
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylul University Health Campus, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
- Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-Izmir), Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Ozgun Ozalp
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylul University Health Campus, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
- Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-Izmir), Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
- Department of Molecular Life Sciences, University of Zurich, CH-8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dilek Nazli
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylul University Health Campus, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
- Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-Izmir), Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Dogac Ipekgil
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylul University Health Campus, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
- Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-Izmir), Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Gokhan Cucun
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylul University Health Campus, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
- Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-Izmir), Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey
- Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems-Biological Information Processing (IBCS-BIP), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 3640 76021, Karlsruhe, Postfach, Germany
| | - Gunes Ozhan
- Izmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylul University Health Campus, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey.
- Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-Izmir), Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti-Balcova, 35340, Izmir, Turkey.
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Izmir Institute of Technology, Urla, 35430, Izmir, Turkey.
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Liu F, Huang Y, Wang H. Rodent Models of Spinal Cord Injury: From Pathology to Application. Neurochem Res 2023; 48:340-361. [PMID: 36303082 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-022-03794-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) often has devastating consequences for the patient's physical, mental and occupational health. At present, there is no effective treatment for SCI, and appropriate animal models are very important for studying the pathological manifestations, injury mechanisms, and corresponding treatment. However, the pathological changes in each injury model are different, which creates difficulties in selecting appropriate models for different research purposes. In this article, we analyze various SCI models and introduce their pathological features, including inflammation, glial scar formation, axon regeneration, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and oxidative stress, and evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each model, which is convenient for selecting suitable models for different injury mechanisms to study therapeutic methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuze Liu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 1 Shuaifuyuan, Beijing, 100730, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Huang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 1 Shuaifuyuan, Beijing, 100730, People's Republic of China
| | - Hai Wang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 1 Shuaifuyuan, Beijing, 100730, People's Republic of China.
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Thoracic Jia-Ji electro-acupuncture mitigates low skeletal muscle atrophy and improves motor function recovery following thoracic spinal cord injury in rats. Am J Transl Res 2022; 14:8103-8116. [PMID: 36505337 PMCID: PMC9730098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The goal of this study was to determine whether electro-acupuncture (EA) stimulation might protect the motor endplate, minimize muscle atrophy in the hind limbs, and enhance functional recovery of rats with spinal cord injury (SCI). METHODS Sprague-Dawley adult female rats (n = 30) were randomly assigned into Sham, SCI, and EA + SCI groups (n = 10 each). Rats in the Sham and SCI groups were bound in prone position only for 30 min, and rats in the EA + SCI group were treated with electro-acupuncture. The EA was conducted from the first day after surgery, lasted for 30 mins, once every day for 28 consecutive days. RESULTS EA significantly prevented motor endplate degeneration, improved electrophysiological function, and ameliorated hindlimb muscle atrophy after SCI. Meanwhile, EA upregulated Tuj-1 expression, downregulated GFAP expression, and reduced glial scar formation. Additionally, after 4 weeks of EA treatment, the serum of SCI rats exhibited a reduced inflammatory response. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that EA can preserve the motor endplate and reduce muscular atrophy. In addition, EA has been shown to improve the function of upper and lower neurons, reduce glial scar formation, suppress systemic inflammation, and improve axon regeneration.
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Dong B, Liu X, Li J, Wang B, Yin J, Zhang H, Liu W. Berberine encapsulated in exosomes derived from platelet-rich plasma promotes chondrogenic differentiation of the Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells via the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Biol Pharm Bull 2022; 45:1444-1451. [PMID: 35858798 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b22-00206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cartilage regenerative medicine, wherein the stem cells from adults exert a crucial role, has high potential in the treatment of defective articular cartilage. Recently, Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) are being increasingly recognized as an alternative source of adult stem cells, which are capable of differentiating into several cell types (e.g., adipocytes, chondrocytes, and osteoblasts). However, their proliferative properties and tendency to dedifferentiate restrict their use in clinical settings. Recently, a possible bioactive material PRP-exos (exosomes derived from platelet-rich plasma), has emerged, which can effectively facilitate the differentiation and proliferation of cells. Recent studies have reported that berberine (Ber), known to have anti-inflammatory properties, plays a role in osteogenesis. Since biological molecules are used in combinations, we attempted to assess the effect of Exos-Ber (PRP-exos in combination with Ber) on the chondrogenic differentiation of BMSCs in vitro. In this study, Exos-Ber was observed to promote the proliferation of BMSCs and cause their chondrogenic differentiation in vitro. Additionally, Exos-Ber could promote the migration of BMSCs and increase the protein expression of the chondrogenic genes (Collagen II, SOX9, Aggrecan). After treatment with Exos-Ber, significant induction of β-catenin expression was observed, which could be repressed successfully by adding β-catenin inhibitor XAV-939. Interestingly, the repression of the Wnt/β-catenin axis also resulted in reduced gene expression levels of Collagen II, SOX9, and Aggrecan. These observations indicated that Exos-Ber facilitated the differentiation of chondrogenic BMSCs by modulating the Wnt/β-catenin axis, which offers innovative insights into the reconstruction of cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingjiang Dong
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University
| | - Xinhui Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University
| | - Jiwei Li
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University
| | - Jian Yin
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University
| | - Hailong Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Affiliated Jiangning Hospital with Nanjing Medical University
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Kahuripour M, Behroozi Z, Rahimi B, Hamblin MR, Ramezani F. The potential of curcumin for treating spinal cord injury: a meta-analysis study. Nutr Neurosci 2022; 26:560-571. [PMID: 35507337 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2022.2070703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In this paper, we conducted a meta-analysis on the curcumin effect on functional recovery provided by the Basso, Beattie, Brenham (BBB) test for rats, and the Basso mouse scale (BMS) for mice after spinal cord injury (SCI) in animal models. METHOD Data mining was performed, and the standard mean difference (SMD) between the treated and control (untreated) groups was calculated using the STATA software. Quality control and subgroup analysis were performed. RESULTS The analysis includes 24 experimental studies that showed curcumin had a strong significance in improving functional recovery after SCI (SMD = 3.38; 95% CI: 2.54-4.22; p < 0.001). When curcumin was administered daily, it had a stronger effect than single-dose treatment or weekly administration. Despite the same effect in the follow-up time before and after 4 weeks post-injury, but later 9 weeks, curcumin had only a moderate effect. Curcumin also significantly reduced the expression of GFAP (Glial fibrillary acidic protein) marker compared to untreated groups. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that daily administration of curcumin can be an effective approach to improving functional recovery after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahnaz Kahuripour
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Behroozi
- Physiology Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran.,Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behnaz Rahimi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Michael R Hamblin
- Laser Research Centre, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, South Africa
| | - Fatemeh Ramezani
- Physiology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Allen LL, Nichols NL, Asa ZA, Emery AT, Ciesla MC, Santiago JV, Holland AE, Mitchell GS, Gonzalez-Rothi EJ. Phrenic motor neuron survival below cervical spinal cord hemisection. Exp Neurol 2021; 346:113832. [PMID: 34363808 PMCID: PMC9065093 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Cervical spinal cord injury (cSCI) severs bulbospinal projections to respiratory motor neurons, paralyzing respiratory muscles below the injury. C2 spinal hemisection (C2Hx) is a model of cSCI often used to study spontaneous and induced plasticity and breathing recovery post-injury. One key assumption is that C2Hx dennervates motor neurons below the injury, but does not affect their survival. However, a recent study reported substantial bilateral motor neuron death caudal to C2Hx. Since phrenic motor neuron (PMN) death following C2Hx would have profound implications for therapeutic strategies designed to target spared neural circuits, we tested the hypothesis that C2Hx minimally impacts PMN survival. Using improved retrograde tracing methods, we observed no loss of PMNs at 2- or 8-weeks post-C2Hx. We also observed no injury-related differences in ChAT or NeuN immunolabeling within labelled PMNs. Although we found no evidence of PMN loss following C2Hx, we cannot rule out neuronal loss in other motor pools. These findings address an essential prerequisite for studies that utilize C2Hx as a model to explore strategies for inducing plasticity and/or regeneration within the phrenic motor system, as they provide important insights into the viability of phrenic motor neurons as therapeutic targets after high cervical injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Latoya L Allen
- Breathing Research and Therapeutics Center, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Nicole L Nichols
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Zachary A Asa
- Breathing Research and Therapeutics Center, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | | | - Marissa C Ciesla
- Breathing Research and Therapeutics Center, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Juliet V Santiago
- Breathing Research and Therapeutics Center, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Ashley E Holland
- Breathing Research and Therapeutics Center, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Gordon S Mitchell
- Breathing Research and Therapeutics Center, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Elisa J Gonzalez-Rothi
- Breathing Research and Therapeutics Center, Department of Physical Therapy and McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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Sun F, Zhang H, Huang T, Shi J, Wei T, Wang Y. miRNA-221 Regulates Spinal Cord Injury-Induced Inflammatory Response through Targeting TNF- α Expression. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:6687963. [PMID: 33928162 PMCID: PMC8049790 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6687963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the roles of miR-221 in spinal cord injury (SCI) as well as the underlying mechanism. METHODS A mouse model of SCI was generated and used to examine dynamic changes in grip strength of the mouse upper and lower limbs. The expression of miR-221 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) was detected by RT-qPCR and Western blot. Levels of inflammation and oxidative stress in microglia cells of the injured mice overexpressing miR-221 were then measured by ELISA. Bioinformatics analysis and dual-luciferase reporter assay were conducted to identify the miR-221 target. RESULTS We successfully constructed SCI mouse model. The results of qRT-PCR showed that miR-221 was gradually upregulated in the spinal cord tissue of mice in the SCI group with the prolonged injury time. At the same time, the mRNA and protein of TNF-α gradually decreased. We further confirmed through cell experiments that the inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-6, as well as iNOS and eROS, were upregulated in spinal cord microglia cells of SCI mice, and upregulation of miR-122 can inhibit their expression. Finally, the luciferase reporter experiment confirmed that miR-122 targeted TNF-α. CONCLUSIONS We present evidence that miR-221 promotes functional recovery of the injured spinal cord through targeting TNF-α, while alleviating inflammatory response and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Sun
- Department of Spine Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001 Heilongjiang Province, China
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, General Hospital of General Administration of Agriculture and Reclamation, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150088, China
| | - Haiwei Zhang
- Department of Imaging, General Hospital of General Administration of Agriculture and Reclamation, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150088, China
| | - Tianwen Huang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, General Hospital of General Administration of Agriculture and Reclamation, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150088, China
| | - Jianhui Shi
- Department of Orthopaedics, Heilongjiang Provincial Hospital, No. 82, Zhongshan Road, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150036, China
| | - Tianli Wei
- Department of Spine Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001 Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Yansong Wang
- Department of Spine Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, 150001 Heilongjiang Province, China
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Ehsanipour A, Sathialingam M, Rad LM, de Rutte J, Bierman RD, Liang J, Xiao W, Di Carlo D, Seidlits SK. Injectable, macroporous scaffolds for delivery of therapeutic genes to the injured spinal cord. APL Bioeng 2021; 5:016104. [PMID: 33728392 PMCID: PMC7946441 DOI: 10.1063/5.0035291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomaterials are being developed as therapeutics for spinal cord injury (SCI) that can stabilize and bridge acute lesions and mediate the delivery of transgenes, providing a localized and sustained reservoir of regenerative factors. For clinical use, direct injection of biomaterial scaffolds is preferred to enable conformation to unique lesions and minimize tissue damage. While an interconnected network of cell-sized macropores is necessary for rapid host cell infiltration into-and thus integration of host tissue with-implanted scaffolds, injectable biomaterials have generally suffered from a lack of control over the macrostructure. As genetic vectors have short lifetimes in vivo, rapid host cell infiltration into scaffolds is a prerequisite for efficient biomaterial-mediated delivery of transgenes. We present scaffolds that can be injected and assembled in situ from hyaluronic acid (HA)-based, spherical microparticles to form scaffolds with a network of macropores (∼10 μm). The results demonstrate that addition of regularly sized macropores to traditional hydrogel scaffolds, which have nanopores (∼10 nm), significantly increases the expression of locally delivered transgene to the spinal cord after a thoracic injury. Maximal cell and axon infiltration into scaffolds was observed in scaffolds with more regularly sized macropores. The delivery of lentiviral vectors encoding the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), but not neurotrophin-3, from these scaffolds further increased total numbers and myelination of infiltrating axons. Modest improvements to the hindlimb function were observed with BDNF delivery. The results demonstrate the utility of macroporous and injectable HA scaffolds as a platform for localized gene therapies after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshia Ehsanipour
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Mayilone Sathialingam
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Laila M Rad
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Joseph de Rutte
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Rebecca D Bierman
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Jesse Liang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Weikun Xiao
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
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Ma K, Zhu D, Zhang C, Lv L. Botulinum Toxin Type A Possibly Affects Ca v3.2 Calcium Channel Subunit in Rats with Spinal Cord Injury-Induced Muscle Spasticity. Drug Des Devel Ther 2020; 14:3029-3041. [PMID: 32801642 PMCID: PMC7395704 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s256814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Spinal cord injury (SCI) often causes muscle spasticity, which can be inhibited by using calcium channel blocker. Botulinum toxin type A (BoT-A) shows therapeutic efficacy on spasticity and may exert inhibitory effects on the calcium channel. METHODS A rat model with muscle spasticity was established after SCI via contusion and compression. Different concentrations (0, 1, 3 and 6 U/kg) of BoT-A Botox were injected in the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles of the right hindlimb in the muscle spasticity model. The changes of muscle spasticity and calcium level in EDL muscles were measured after the establishment of SCI-induced spasticity. Cav3.2 calcium channel subunit and its mutant (M1560V) were analyzed using Western blot before (input) or after immunoprecipitation with anti-FLAG antibody, and their currents were measured in motoneurons by using whole-cell voltage clamp recordings. RESULTS SCI induced muscle spasticity, whereas calcium level in EDL muscles and expression of Cav3.2 was increased in the SCI model when compared with the sham group (p < 0.05). BoT-A Botox treatment significantly reduced muscle spasticity and calcium level in EDL muscles and Cav3.2 expression in a dose-dependent way (p < 0.05). The ratio of biotinylated to total Cav3.2 was reduced in the mutant (M1560V) of Cav3.2 and lower than that in the wild Cav3.2. BoT-A Botox intervention also reduced the current values of calcium channel and the ratio in a dose-dependent way (p < 0.05). DISCUSSION BoT-A Botox possibly attenuates SCI-induced muscle spasticity by affecting the expression of Cav3.2 calcium channel subunit in the rat models. There may be multiple mechanisms for the function of BoT-A Botox. Further work is needed to be done to address these issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kening Ma
- Department of Pain Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dan Zhu
- Department of Neurologic Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chunguo Zhang
- Department of Pain Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lijie Lv
- Department of Medicine and Pension, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun130021, People’s Republic of China
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13
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McFarlane K, Otto TE, Bailey WM, Veldhorst AK, Donahue RR, Taylor BK, Gensel JC. Effect of Sex on Motor Function, Lesion Size, and Neuropathic Pain after Contusion Spinal Cord Injury in Mice. J Neurotrauma 2020; 37:1983-1990. [PMID: 32597310 PMCID: PMC7470221 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2019.6931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes neurodegeneration, impairs locomotor function, and impacts the quality of life particularly in those individuals in whom neuropathic pain develops. Whether the time course of neurodegeneration, locomotor impairment, or neuropathic pain varies with sex, however, remains understudied. Therefore, the objective of this study in male and female C57BL/6 mice was to evaluate the following outcomes for six weeks after a 75-kdyn thoracic contusion SCI: locomotor function using the Basso Mouse Scale (BMS); spinal cord tissue sparing and rostral-caudal lesion length; and mechanical allodynia and heat hyperalgesia using hindpaw application of Von Frey filaments or radiant heat stimuli, respectively. Although motor function was largely similar between sexes, all of the males, but only half of the females, recovered plantar stepping. Rostral-caudal lesion length was shorter in females than in males. Mechanical allodynia and heat hyperalgesia after SCI developed in all animals, regardless of sex; there were no differences in pain outcomes between sexes. We conclude that contusion SCI yields subtle sex differences in mice depending on the outcome measure but no significant differences in behavioral signs of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn McFarlane
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Taylor E Otto
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - William M Bailey
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Amy K Veldhorst
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Renée R Donahue
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
| | - Bradley K Taylor
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Pittsburgh Center for Pain Research, and Pittsburgh Project to End Opioid Misuse, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - John C Gensel
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky, USA
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14
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Yu T, Zhao C, Hou S, Zhou W, Wang B, Chen Y. Exosomes secreted from miRNA-29b-modified mesenchymal stem cells repaired spinal cord injury in rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 52:e8735. [PMID: 31826179 PMCID: PMC6903804 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20198735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes, a kind of extracellular vesicle, are promising therapeutic agents for spinal cord injury (SCI). This article aimed to investigate effects of exosomes secreted from miRNA-29b-modified bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) on SCI. Exosomes were extracted from BMSCs transfected with miRNA-29b or negative control (miR NC). SCI rats were injected intravenously with exosomes (control exosomes, miRNA-29b exosomes) and BMSCs (miR NC, miRNA-29b) through the tail vein. The expression of miRNA-29b in spinal cord tissues of SCI rats was detected by qRT-PCR. The hind limb motor function was evaluated by Basso Beattie Bresnahan (BBB) score. The histopathological damage and neuronal regeneration in spinal cord tissues was observed by HE staining and immunohistochemistry, respectively. The injection of miRNA-29b exosomes and miRNA-29b BMSCs both significantly increased the expression of miRNA-29b in spinal cord tissues of SCI rats (P<0.05). Compared with SCI rats, rats in the miRNA-29b exosomes and the miRNA-29b groups exhibited improved SCI, including increased BBB score, NF200 and GAP-43 positive neurons, as well as decreased contractile nerve cell numbers and GFAP positive neurons (all P<0.05). The relieving degree of SCI was significantly higher in the miRNA-29b exosomes group than in the miRNA-29b BMSCs group (P<0.05). Exosomes secreted from miRNA-29b-modified BMSCs were effective in the repair of SCI in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Yu
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Qilu Hospitial of ShanDong University, Jinan, Shandong, China.,Department of Orthopedics, Liaocheng People's Hospitial, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Cunju Zhao
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Qilu Hospitial of ShanDong University, Jinan, Shandong, China.,Department of Orthopedics, Liaocheng People's Hospitial, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Shouzhi Hou
- Department of Radiology, Liaocheng People's Hospitial, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Weijie Zhou
- Department of Orthopedics, Liaocheng People's Hospitial, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Baoxin Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Liaocheng People's Hospitial, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Yunzhen Chen
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Qilu Hospitial of ShanDong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
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15
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Guo Y, Hu H, Wang J, Zhang M, Chen K. Walking Function After Cervical Contusion and Distraction Spinal Cord Injuries in Rats. J Exp Neurosci 2019; 13:1179069519869615. [PMID: 31456646 PMCID: PMC6702777 DOI: 10.1177/1179069519869615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examines and compares the walking function in contusion and distraction spinal cord injury (SCI) mechanisms. Moderate contusion and distraction SCIs were surgically induced between C5 and C6 in Sprague-Dawley male rats. The CatWalk system was used to perform gait analysis of walkway walking. The ladder rung walking test was used to quantify skilled locomotor movements of ladder rung walking. It was found that the inter-paw coordination, paw support, front paw kinematics, hind paw kinematics, and skilled movements were significantly different before and after contusion and distraction. Step sequence duration, diagonal support, forelimb intensity, forelimb duty cycle, forelimb paw angle, and forelimb swing speed were more greatly affected in distraction than in contusion at 2 weeks post-injury, whereas hindlimb stand was more greatly affected in contusion than in distraction at 8 weeks post-injury. After 8 weeks post-injury, diagonal coupling-variation, girdle coupling-variation, ipsilateral coupling-mean, forelimb maximum contact at, forelimb intensity, forelimb paw angle, and number of forelimb misplacements recovered to normal in contusion but not in distraction, whereas step sequence duration, ipsilateral coupling-variation, forelimb stand, forelimb duty cycle, hindlimb swing duration, hindlimb swing speed, and number of forelimb slips recovered to normal in distraction but not in contusion. Some of the behavioral outcomes, but not the others, were linearly correlated with the histological outcomes. In conclusion, walking deficits and recovery can be affected by the type of common traumatic SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Guo
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA)—Yifu Science Hall, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA), Beijing, China
| | - Hai Hu
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA)—Yifu Science Hall, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA), Beijing, China
| | - Jingchao Wang
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA)—Yifu Science Hall, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA), Beijing, China
| | - Meiyan Zhang
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA)—Yifu Science Hall, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA), Beijing, China
| | - Kinon Chen
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA)—Yifu Science Hall, Beijing, China
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University (BUAA), Beijing, China
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia (UBC), Vancouver, BC, Canada
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16
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Schober ME, Requena DF, Casper TC, Velhorst AK, Lolofie A, McFarlane KE, Otto TE, Terry C, Gensel JC. Docosahexaenoic acid decreased neuroinflammation in rat pups after controlled cortical impact. Exp Neurol 2019; 320:112971. [PMID: 31247195 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.112971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the leading cause of acquired neurologic disability in children, yet specific therapies to treat TBI are lacking. Therapies that decrease the inflammatory response and enhance a reparative immune action may decrease oxidative damage and improve outcomes after TBI. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) modulates the immune response to injury in many organs. DHA given in the diet before injury decreased rat pup cognitive impairment, oxidative stress and white matter injury in our developmental TBI model using controlled cortical impact (CCI). Little is known about DHA effects on neuroinflammation in the developing brain. Further, it is not known if DHA given after developmental TBI exerts neuroprotective effects. We hypothesized that acute DHA treatment would decrease oxidative stress and improve cognitive outcome, associated with decreased pro-inflammatory activation of microglia, the brain's resident macrophages. METHODS 17-day-old rat pups received intraperitoneal DHA or vehicle after CCI or SHAM surgery followed by DHA diet or continuation of REG diet to create DHACCI, REGCCI, SHAMDHA and SHAMREG groups. We measured brain nitrates/nitrites (NOx) at post injury day (PID) 1 to assess oxidative stress. We tested memory using Novel Object Recognition (NOR) at PID14. At PID 3 and 7, we measured reactivity of microglial activation markers Iba1, CD68 and CD206 and astrocyte marker GFAP in the injured cortex. At PID3, 7 and 30 we measured mRNA levels of inflammation-related genes and transcription factors in flow-sorted brain cells. RESULTS DHA decreased oxidative stress at PID1 and pro-inflammatory microglial activation at PID3. CCI increased mRNA levels of two interferon regulatory family transcription factors, blunted by DHA, particularly in microglia-enriched cell populations at PID7. CCI increased mRNA levels of genes associated with "pro- " and "anti-" inflammatory activity at PID3, 7 and 30. Most notably within the microglia-enriched population, DHA blunted increased mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory genes at PID 3 and 7 and of anti-inflammatory genes at PID 30. Particularly in microglia, we observed parallel activation of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory genes. DHA improved performance on NOR at PID14 after CCI. CONCLUSIONS DHA decreased oxidative stress and histologic and mRNA markers of microglial pro-inflammatory activation in rat pup brain acutely after CCI associated with improved short term cognitive function. DHA administration after CCI has neuroprotective effects, which may result in part from modulation of microglial activation toward a less inflammatory profile in the first week after CCI. Future and ongoing studies will focus on phagocytic function and reactive oxygen species production in microglia and macrophages to test functional effects of DHA on neuroinflammation in our model. Given its favorable safety profile in children, DHA is a promising candidate therapy for pediatric TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle E Schober
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Critical Care University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, United States.
| | - Daniela F Requena
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Critical Care University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, United States
| | - T Charles Casper
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Critical Care University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, United States.
| | - Amy K Velhorst
- Department of Physiology and Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, United States
| | - Alyssa Lolofie
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Critical Care University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, United States.
| | - Katelyn E McFarlane
- Department of Physiology and Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, United States.
| | - Taylor E Otto
- Department of Physiology and Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, United States
| | - Cynthia Terry
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Critical Care University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, United States.
| | - John C Gensel
- Department of Physiology and Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, United States.
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17
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Zhang B, Bailey WM, McVicar AL, Stewart AN, Veldhorst AK, Gensel JC. Reducing age-dependent monocyte-derived macrophage activation contributes to the therapeutic efficacy of NADPH oxidase inhibition in spinal cord injury. Brain Behav Immun 2019; 76:139-150. [PMID: 30453022 PMCID: PMC6348135 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2018.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The average age at the time of spinal cord injury (SCI) has increased to 43 years old. Middle-aged mice (14 months old, MO) exhibit impaired recovery after SCI with age-dependent increases in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production through NADPH oxidase (NOX) along with pro-inflammatory macrophage activation. Despite these aging differences, clinical therapies are being examined in individuals regardless of age based upon preclinical data generated primarily using young animals (∼4 MO). Our objective is to test the extent to which age affects SCI treatment efficacy. Specifically, we hypothesize that the effectiveness of apocynin, a NOX inhibitor, is age-dependent in SCI. METHODS Apocynin treatment (5 mg/kg) or vehicle was administered 1 and 6 h after moderate T9 contusion SCI (50kdyn IH) and then daily for 1 week to 4 and 14 MO mice. Locomotor and anatomical recovery was evaluated for 28 days. Monocyte-derived macrophage (MDM) and microglial activation and ROS production were evaluated at 3 and 28 days post-injury. RESULTS Apocynin improved functional and anatomical recovery in 14 but not 4 MO SCI mice. Apocynin-mediated recovery was coincident with significant reductions in MDM infiltration and MDM-ROS production in 14 MO SCI mice. Importantly, microglial activation was unaffected by treatment. CONCLUSION These results indicate that apocynin exhibits age-dependent neuroprotective effects by blocking excessive neuroinflammation through NOX-mediated ROS production in MDMs. Further, these data identify age as a critical regulator for SCI treatment efficacy and indicate that pharmacologically reduced macrophage, but not microglia, activation and ROS production reverses age-associated neurological impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei Zhang
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center (SCoBIRC), Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, United States; College of Public Health, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi 712046 PR China.
| | - William M. Bailey
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center (SCoBIRC), Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Anna Leigh McVicar
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center (SCoBIRC), Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Andrew N. Stewart
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center (SCoBIRC), Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - Amy K. Veldhorst
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center (SCoBIRC), Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536
| | - John C. Gensel
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center (SCoBIRC), Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536,Correspondence to Dr. John C. Gensel or Dr. Bei Zhang, John C. Gensel, B463 Biomed & Bio Sci Research Building (BBSRB), University of Kentucky, 741 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0509, (859) 218-0516, , Bei Zhang, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi, PR China, 712046, 86-02938184662, ;
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18
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Bai S, Zhou H, Wu L. Bone marrow stromal cells improved functional recovery in spinal cord injury rats partly via the Toll-like receptor-4/nuclear factor-κB signaling pathway. Exp Ther Med 2018; 17:444-448. [PMID: 30651819 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2018.6907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in inflammation, and TLR4, which is an inflammatory factor, has an important role in the pathological injury that occurs following SCI. Recently, bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) have been demonstrated to be a novel treatment in SCI. However, the underlying mechanism of neuroprotection in SCI by BMSCs remains unclear. The present study was designed to investigate the therapeutic mechanism of BMSCs in SCI by analysis of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) expression. The present results demonstrated that BMSC transplantation promoted functional recovery and tissue repair in SCI rats. Interestingly, it also reduced the expression of TLR4 and NF-κB after SCI. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that BMSCs downregulated the expression of apoptosis factor caspase-12 in the SCI rat model. The present results demonstrated that BMSCs may have incorporated into the spinal cord to improve locomotor function after SCI, partly via the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to determine that BMSCs prevented secondary injury and enhanced functional recovery in SCI via inhibition of TLR4/NF-κB-mediated inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shi Bai
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Taizhou University, Taizhou, Zhejiang 317000, P.R. China
| | - Hao Zhou
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
| | - Lijuan Wu
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Taizhou University, Taizhou, Zhejiang 317000, P.R. China.,School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, P.R. China
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19
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Orr MB, Gensel JC. Spinal Cord Injury Scarring and Inflammation: Therapies Targeting Glial and Inflammatory Responses. Neurotherapeutics 2018; 15:541-553. [PMID: 29717413 PMCID: PMC6095779 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-018-0631-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 339] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Deficits in neuronal function are a hallmark of spinal cord injury (SCI) and therapeutic efforts are often focused on central nervous system (CNS) axon regeneration. However, secondary injury responses by astrocytes, microglia, pericytes, endothelial cells, Schwann cells, fibroblasts, meningeal cells, and other glia not only potentiate SCI damage but also facilitate endogenous repair. Due to their profound impact on the progression of SCI, glial cells and modification of the glial scar are focuses of SCI therapeutic research. Within and around the glial scar, cells deposit extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins that affect axon growth such as chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), laminin, collagen, and fibronectin. This dense deposition of material, i.e., the fibrotic scar, is another barrier to endogenous repair and is a target of SCI therapies. Infiltrating neutrophils and monocytes are recruited to the injury site through glial chemokine and cytokine release and subsequent upregulation of chemotactic cellular adhesion molecules and selectins on endothelial cells. These peripheral immune cells, along with endogenous microglia, drive a robust inflammatory response to injury with heterogeneous reparative and pathological properties and are targeted for therapeutic modification. Here, we review the role of glial and inflammatory cells after SCI and the therapeutic strategies that aim to replace, dampen, or alter their activity to modulate SCI scarring and inflammation and improve injury outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Orr
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 741 S. Limestone, B463 BBSRB, Lexington, Kentucky, 40536, USA
| | - John C Gensel
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, Department of Physiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, 741 S. Limestone, B463 BBSRB, Lexington, Kentucky, 40536, USA.
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20
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Monteagudo A, Feola J, Natola H, Ji C, Pröschel C, Johnson GVW. Depletion of astrocytic transglutaminase 2 improves injury outcomes. Mol Cell Neurosci 2018; 92:128-136. [PMID: 29969654 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2018.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes play an indispensable role in maintaining a healthy, functional neural network in the central nervous system (CNS). A primary function of CNS astrocytes is to support the survival and function of neurons. In response to injury, astrocytes take on a reactive phenotype, which alters their molecular functions. Reactive astrocytes have been reported to be both beneficial and harmful to the CNS recovery process subsequent to injury. Understanding the molecular processes and regulatory proteins that determine the extent to which an astrocyte hinders or supports neuronal survival is important within the context of CNS repair. One protein that plays a role in modulating cellular survival is transglutaminase 2 (TG2). Global deletion of TG2 results in beneficial outcomes subsequent to in vivo ischemic brain injury. Ex vivo studies have also implicated TG2 as a negative regulator of astrocyte viability subsequent to injury. In this study we show that knocking down TG2 in astrocytes significantly increases their ability to protect neurons from oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD)/reperfusion injury. To begin to understand how deletion of TG2 in astrocytes improves their ability to protect neurons from injury, we performed transcriptome analysis of wild type and TG2-/- astrocytes. TG2 deletion resulted in alterations in genes involved in extracellular matrix remodeling, cell adhesion and axon growth/guidance. In addition, the majority of genes that showed increases in the TG2-/- astrocytes had predicted cJun/AP-1 binding motifs in their promoters. Furthermore, phospho-cJun levels were robustly elevated in TG2-/- astrocytes, a finding which was consistent with the increase in expression of AP-1 responsive genes. These in vitro data were subsequently extended into an in vivo model to determine whether the absence of astrocytic TG2 improves outcomes after CNS injury. Our results show that, following a spinal cord injury, scar formation is significantly attenuated in mice with astrocyte-specific TG2 deletion compared to mice expressing normal TG2 levels. Taken together, these data indicate that TG2 plays a pivotal role in mediating reactive astrocyte properties following CNS injury. Further, the data suggest that limiting the AP-1 mediated pro-survival injury response may be a contributing factor to that the detrimental effects of astrocytic TG2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Monteagudo
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Julianne Feola
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Heather Natola
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Changyi Ji
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Christoph Pröschel
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA; Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Institute, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Gail V W Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA; Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA; Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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21
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Mattucci S, Liu J, Fijal P, Tetzlaff W, Oxland TR. Repeatability of a Dislocation Spinal Cord Injury Model in a Rat-A High-Speed Biomechanical Analysis. J Biomech Eng 2018; 139:2644121. [PMID: 28696485 DOI: 10.1115/1.4037224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Dislocation is the most common, and severe, spinal cord injury (SCI) mechanism in humans, yet there are few preclinical models. While dislocation in the rat model has been shown to produce unique outcomes, like other closed column models it exhibits higher outcome variability. Refinement of the dislocation model will enhance the testing of neuroprotective strategies, further biomechanical understanding, and guide therapeutic decisions. The overall objective of this study is to improve biomechanical repeatability of a dislocation SCI model in the rat, through the following specific aims: (i) design new injury clamps that pivot and self-align to the vertebrae; (ii) measure intervertebral kinematics during injury using the existing and redesigned clamps; and (iii) compare relative motion at the vertebrae-clamp interface to determine which clamps provide the most rigid connection. Novel clamps that pivot and self-align were developed based on the quantitative rat vertebral anatomy. A dislocation injury was produced in 34 rats at C4/C5 using either the existing or redesigned clamps, and a high-speed X-ray device recorded the kinematics. Relative motion between the caudal clamp and C5 was significantly greater in the existing clamps compared to the redesigned clamps in dorsoventral translation and sagittal rotation. This study demonstrates that relative motions can be of magnitudes that likely affect injury outcomes. We recommend such biomechanical analyses be applied to other SCI models when repeatability is an issue. For this dislocation model, the results show the importance of using clamps that pivot and self-align to the vertebrae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Mattucci
- Orthopaedic and Injury Biomechanics Group, Departments of Orthopaedics and Mechanical Engineering, International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
| | - Jie Liu
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
| | - Paul Fijal
- Orthopaedic and Injury Biomechanics Group, Departments of Orthopaedics and Mechanical Engineering, International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
| | - Wolfram Tetzlaff
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
| | - Thomas R Oxland
- Professor and Director Orthopaedic and Injury Biomechanics Group, Departments of Orthopaedics and Mechanical Engineering, International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
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22
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Pu Y, Meng K, Gu C, Wang L, Zhang X. Thrombospondin-1 modified bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) promote neurite outgrowth and functional recovery in rats with spinal cord injury. Oncotarget 2017; 8:96276-96289. [PMID: 29221205 PMCID: PMC5707099 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.22018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Stem cell therapies are currently gaining momentum in the treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI). However, unsatisfied intrinsic neurite growth capacity constitutes significant obstacles for injured spinal cord repair and ultimately results in neurological dysfunction. The present study assessed the efficacy of thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), a neurite outgrowth-promoting molecule, modified bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) on promoting neurite outgrowth in vitro and in vivo of Oxygen–Glucose Deprivation (OGD) treated motor neurons and SCI rat models. The present results demonstrated that the treatment of BMSCs+TSP-1 could promote the neurite length, neuronal survival, and functional recovery after SCI. Additionally, TSP-1 could activate transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) then induced the smad2 phosphorylation, and expedited the expression of GAP-43 to promote neurite outgrowth. The present study for the first time demonstrated that BMSCs+TSP-1 could promote neurite outgrowth and functional recovery after SCI partly through the TGF-β1/p-Samd2 pathway. The study provided a novel encouraging evidence for the potential treatment of BMSCs modification with TSP-1 in patients with SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujie Pu
- Department of Basic Medicine Sciences, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ke Meng
- Department of Basic Medicine Sciences, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Chuanlong Gu
- Department of Basic Medicine Sciences, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Linlin Wang
- Department of Basic Medicine Sciences, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiaoming Zhang
- Department of Basic Medicine Sciences, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
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23
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Kopper TJ, Gensel JC. Myelin as an inflammatory mediator: Myelin interactions with complement, macrophages, and microglia in spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res 2017; 96:969-977. [PMID: 28696010 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Revised: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers chronic intraspinal inflammation consisting of activated resident and infiltrating immune cells (especially microglia/macrophages). The environmental factors contributing to this protracted inflammation are not well understood; however, myelin lipid debris is a hallmark of SCI. Myelin is also a potent macrophage stimulus and target of complement-mediated clearance and inflammation. The downstream effects of these neuroimmune interactions have the potential to contribute to ongoing pathology or facilitate repair. This depends in large part on whether myelin drives pathological or reparative macrophage activation states, commonly referred to as M1 (proinflammatory) or M2 (alternatively) macrophages, respectively. Here we review the processes by which myelin debris may be cleared through macrophage surface receptors and the complement system, how this differentially influences macrophage and microglial activation states, and how the cellular functions of these myelin macrophages and complement proteins contribute to chronic inflammation and secondary injury after SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Kopper
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - John C Gensel
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
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24
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Orr MB, Gensel JC. Interactions of primary insult biomechanics and secondary cascades in spinal cord injury: implications for therapy. Neural Regen Res 2017; 12:1618-1619. [PMID: 29171424 PMCID: PMC5696840 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.217332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Orr
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and the Department of Physiology, the University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY; Integrated Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, the University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - John C Gensel
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center and the Department of Physiology, the University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
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