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Du YX, Yang J, Yan H, Liu YL, Chen XP. GAS5 promotes cytarabine induced myelosuppression via inhibition of hematopoietic stem cell differentiation. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2024; 483:116841. [PMID: 38290668 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2024.116841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Cytarabine (Ara-C) is widely used in the induction chemotherapy for acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Association between LncRNA GAS5 genetic polymorphism and the recovery of hematopoietic function after Ara-C-based chemotherapy is observed. This study aimed to identify whether intervention of GAS5 expression and GAS5 genotype affect Ara-C-induced inhibition of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) differentiation. In this study, cord blood-derived CD34+ cells were cultured in vitro, and a cell model of myelosuppression was established by treatment of CD34+ cells with Ara-C. The effect of GAS5 overexpression, Ara-C treatment, and GAS5 rs55829688 genotype on the hematopoietic colony-forming ability of CD34+ cells was assessed using methylcellulose-based colony forming unit assay. GAS5 overexpression slowed down the proliferation of cord blood-derived CD34+ cells significantly (p < 0.05) and decreased their ability to form hematopoietic colonies in vitro. Ara-C significantly reduced the hematopoietic colony-forming ability of CD34+ cells in vitro (p < 0.0001), and overexpressing GAS5 further decreased the number of hematopoietic colonies. GAS5 expression was higher in CD34+ cells than in CD34- cells, and positively correlated with GATA1 mRNA expression in CD34+ cells in vitro culture. However, GAS5 genotype had no effect on the total number of hematopoietic colonies formed from cord blood-derived CD34+ cells. In conclusion, our study highlights that GAS5 inhibited the in vitro proliferation and reduced the hematopoietic colony-forming ability of cord blood-derived CD34+ cells, with the most pronounced effect observed on CFU-GEMM formation. GAS5 also enhanced the inhibitory effect of Ara-C on the in vitro hematopoietic ability of CD34+ HSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin-Xiao Du
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jing Yang
- The First Hospital of Changsha, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Han Yan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yan-Ling Liu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
| | - Xiao-Ping Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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2
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Zhai Y, Singh P, Dolnik A, Brazda P, Atlasy N, del Gaudio N, Döhner K, Döhner H, Minucci S, Martens J, Altucci L, Megchelenbrink W, Bullinger L, Stunnenberg HG. Longitudinal single-cell transcriptomics reveals distinct patterns of recurrence in acute myeloid leukemia. Mol Cancer 2022; 21:166. [PMID: 35986270 PMCID: PMC9389773 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-022-01635-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogeneous and aggressive blood cancer that results from diverse genetic aberrations in the hematopoietic stem or progenitor cells (HSPCs) leading to the expansion of blasts in the hematopoietic system. The heterogeneity and evolution of cancer blasts can render therapeutic interventions ineffective in a yet poorly understood patient-specific manner. In this study, we investigated the clonal heterogeneity of diagnosis (Dx) and relapse (Re) pairs at genetic and transcriptional levels, and unveiled the underlying pathways and genes contributing to recurrence. Methods Whole-exome sequencing was used to detect somatic mutations and large copy number variations (CNVs). Single cell RNA-seq was performed to investigate the clonal heterogeneity between Dx-Re pairs and amongst patients. Results scRNA-seq analysis revealed extensive expression differences between patients and Dx-Re pairs, even for those with the same -presumed- initiating events. Transcriptional differences between and within patients are associated with clonal composition and evolution, with the most striking differences in patients that gained large-scale copy number variations at relapse. These differences appear to have significant molecular implications, exemplified by a DNMT3A/FLT3-ITD patient where the leukemia switched from an AP-1 regulated clone at Dx to a mTOR signaling driven clone at Re. The two distinct AML1-ETO pairs share genes related to hematopoietic stem cell maintenance and cell migration suggesting that the Re leukemic stem cell-like (LSC-like) cells evolved from the Dx cells. Conclusions In summary, the single cell RNA data underpinned the tumor heterogeneity not only amongst patient blasts with similar initiating mutations but also between each Dx-Re pair. Our results suggest alternatively and currently unappreciated and unexplored mechanisms leading to therapeutic resistance and AML recurrence. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12943-022-01635-4.
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3
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Zhai Y, Singh P, Dolnik A, Brazda P, Atlasy N, Del Gaudio N, Döhner K, Döhner H, Minucci S, Martens J, Altucci L, Megchelenbrink W, Bullinger L, Stunnenberg HG. Longitudinal single-cell transcriptomics reveals distinct patterns of recurrence in acute myeloid leukemia. Mol Cancer 2022. [PMID: 35986270 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-022-01635-4.pmid:35986270;pmcid:pmc9389773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a heterogeneous and aggressive blood cancer that results from diverse genetic aberrations in the hematopoietic stem or progenitor cells (HSPCs) leading to the expansion of blasts in the hematopoietic system. The heterogeneity and evolution of cancer blasts can render therapeutic interventions ineffective in a yet poorly understood patient-specific manner. In this study, we investigated the clonal heterogeneity of diagnosis (Dx) and relapse (Re) pairs at genetic and transcriptional levels, and unveiled the underlying pathways and genes contributing to recurrence. METHODS Whole-exome sequencing was used to detect somatic mutations and large copy number variations (CNVs). Single cell RNA-seq was performed to investigate the clonal heterogeneity between Dx-Re pairs and amongst patients. RESULTS scRNA-seq analysis revealed extensive expression differences between patients and Dx-Re pairs, even for those with the same -presumed- initiating events. Transcriptional differences between and within patients are associated with clonal composition and evolution, with the most striking differences in patients that gained large-scale copy number variations at relapse. These differences appear to have significant molecular implications, exemplified by a DNMT3A/FLT3-ITD patient where the leukemia switched from an AP-1 regulated clone at Dx to a mTOR signaling driven clone at Re. The two distinct AML1-ETO pairs share genes related to hematopoietic stem cell maintenance and cell migration suggesting that the Re leukemic stem cell-like (LSC-like) cells evolved from the Dx cells. CONCLUSIONS In summary, the single cell RNA data underpinned the tumor heterogeneity not only amongst patient blasts with similar initiating mutations but also between each Dx-Re pair. Our results suggest alternatively and currently unappreciated and unexplored mechanisms leading to therapeutic resistance and AML recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Zhai
- Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Vico L. De Crecchio 7, 80138, Naples, Italy.,Prinses Maxima Centrum, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Prashant Singh
- Prinses Maxima Centrum, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Anna Dolnik
- Medical Department, Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Cancer Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität Zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Peter Brazda
- Prinses Maxima Centrum, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Nader Atlasy
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Nunzio Del Gaudio
- Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Vico L. De Crecchio 7, 80138, Naples, Italy
| | - Konstanze Döhner
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Hartmut Döhner
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Saverio Minucci
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, Milan, EO, Italy
| | - Joost Martens
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Lucia Altucci
- Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Vico L. De Crecchio 7, 80138, Naples, Italy.,Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, BIOGEM, Ariano Irpino, AV, Italy
| | - Wout Megchelenbrink
- Department of Precision Medicine, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Vico L. De Crecchio 7, 80138, Naples, Italy.,Prinses Maxima Centrum, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Lars Bullinger
- Medical Department, Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Cancer Immunology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität Zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hendrik G Stunnenberg
- Prinses Maxima Centrum, Heidelberglaan 25, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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Yi JK, Park S, Ha JJ, Kim DH, Huang H, Park SJ, Lee MH, Ryoo ZY, Kim SH, Kim MO. Effects of Dimethyl Sulfoxide on the Pluripotency and Differentiation Capacity of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells. Cell Reprogram 2020; 22:244-253. [DOI: 10.1089/cell.2020.0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Koo Yi
- Department of Embryo Transfer Research, Gyeongbuk Livestock Research Institute, Yeongju, Korea
| | - Song Park
- Core Protein Resources Center, DGIST, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Jung Ha
- Department of Embryo Transfer Research, Gyeongbuk Livestock Research Institute, Yeongju, Korea
| | - Dae-Hyun Kim
- Department of Embryo Transfer Research, Gyeongbuk Livestock Research Institute, Yeongju, Korea
| | - Hai Huang
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Sangju, Korea
| | - Si-Jun Park
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Mee-Hyun Lee
- College of Korean Medicine, Dongshin University, Naju, Jeollanamdo, Korea
- China-US (Henan) Hormel Cancer Institute, No. 127 Dongming Road, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Zae-Young Ryoo
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Sung-Hyun Kim
- Life Medicine Analysis Korea Polytechnics Institute, Nonsan, Korea
| | - Myoung-Ok Kim
- Department of Animal Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Sangju, Korea
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Abstract
It is established that neural stem cells (NSC) reside in the hippocampal subgranular zone (SGZ) and contribute to neurogenesis throughout life. Although the molecular events that regulate hippocampal neural stem cell differentiation are known, the precise mechanism is undefined. Here, the role of growth arrest specific 7 (Gas7) protein in SGZ neural progenitor cell differentiation was studied. Immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry for Gas7 were performed on 12 weeks old mice hippocampus. The results displayed a strong signal for Gas7 protein in the mice hippocampal tissue and SGZ cells, therefore suggesting that Gas7 might have a role in neural progenitor cell differentiation in SGZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udaya Kumar
- Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Zoology, University of Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
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6
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Everson TM, Punshon T, Jackson BP, Hao K, Lambertini L, Chen J, Karagas MR, Marsit CJ. Cadmium-Associated Differential Methylation throughout the Placental Genome: Epigenome-Wide Association Study of Two U.S. Birth Cohorts. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2018; 126:017010. [PMID: 29373860 PMCID: PMC6014712 DOI: 10.1289/ehp2192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Revised: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cadmium (Cd) is a ubiquitous environmental toxicant that can accumulate in the placenta during pregnancy, where it may impair placental function and affect fetal development. OBJECTIVES We aimed to investigate Cd-associated variations in placental DNA methylation (DNAM) and associations with gene expression; we also aimed to identify novel pathways involved in Cd-associated reproductive toxicity. METHODS Using placental DNAM and Cd concentrations in the New Hampshire Birth Cohort Study (NHBCS, n=343) and the Rhode Island Child Health Study (RICHS, n=141), we performed an epigenome-wide association study (EWAS) between Cd and DNAM, adjusting for tissue heterogeneity using a reference-free method. Cohort-specific results were aggregated via inverse variance weighted fixed effects meta-analysis, and variably methylated CpGs were associated with gene expression. We then performed functional enrichment analysis and tests for associations between gene expression and birth size metrics. RESULTS We identified 17 Cd-associated differentially methylated CpG sites with meta-analysis p-values<1×10−5, two of which were within a 5% false discovery rate (FDR). DNAM levels at 9 of the 17 loci were associated with increased expression of 6 genes (5% FDR): TNFAIP2, EXOC3L4, GAS7, SREBF1, ACOT7, and RORA. Higher placental expression of TNFAIP2 and ACOT7 and lower expression of RORA were associated with lower birth weight z-scores (p-values<0.05). CONCLUSION Cd-associated differential DNAM and corresponding DNAM-expression associations were observed at loci involved in inflammatory signaling and cell growth. The expression levels of genes involved in inflammatory signaling (TNFAIP2, ACOT7, and RORA) were also associated with birth weight, suggesting a role for inflammatory processes in Cd-associated reproductive toxicity. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2192.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd M Everson
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Tracy Punshon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Brian P Jackson
- Department of Earth Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Ke Hao
- Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Luca Lambertini
- Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jia Chen
- Department of Environmental Medicine and Public Health, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Margaret R Karagas
- Department of Epidemiology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
- Children’s Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research Center at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
| | - Carmen J Marsit
- Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Children’s Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research Center at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Lebanon, New Hampshire, USA
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7
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Ruebel ML, Cotter M, Sims CR, Moutos DM, Badger TM, Cleves MA, Shankar K, Andres A. Obesity Modulates Inflammation and Lipid Metabolism Oocyte Gene Expression: A Single-Cell Transcriptome Perspective. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2017; 102:2029-2038. [PMID: 28323970 PMCID: PMC5470765 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2016-3524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT It is hypothesized that obesity adversely affects the ovarian environment, which can disrupt oocyte maturation and embryonic development. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to compare oocyte gene expression profiles and follicular fluid (FF) content from overweight/obese (OW) women and normal-weight (NW) women who were undergoing fertility treatments. DESIGN Using single-cell transcriptomic analyses, we investigated oocyte gene expression using RNA sequencing. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS Eleven OW women and 13 NW women undergoing fertility treatments were enrolled. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Oocyte messenger RNA profiles as well as serum and FF hormone and lipid levels were assessed. RESULTS OW women had significantly higher body mass index, body fat percentage, and serum homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance index compared with NW women (P < 0.01). Serum leptin and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels as well as FF leptin, CRP, and triglyceride levels were increased (P < 0.05) in OW compared with NW women. Oocytes from OW women had increased expression of proinflammatory (CXCL2; P = 0.071) and oxidative stress-related (DUSP1; P = 0.051) genes but had decreased expression of GAS7 (fat metabolism; P = 0.065), TXNIP (oxidative stress; P = 0.055), and transcription factors ID3 (P = 0.075) and TWIST1 (P = 0.099) compared with NW women. CONCLUSIONS These findings provide evidence for the significant influence of body composition on oocyte transcript abundance in women undergoing hormonal induction to retrieve oocytes. They further identify the potential for maternal diet to influence oocyte gene expression. The preconception period is, therefore, an important window of opportunity to consider for lifestyle interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan L. Ruebel
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, Little Rock, Arkansas 72202
- Department of Animal Science and Reproductive and Developmental Sciences Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Matthew Cotter
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, Little Rock, Arkansas 72202
| | - Clark R. Sims
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, Little Rock, Arkansas 72202
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205
| | - Dean M. Moutos
- Arkansas Fertility and Gynecology Clinic, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205
| | - Thomas M. Badger
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, Little Rock, Arkansas 72202
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205
| | - Mario A. Cleves
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, Little Rock, Arkansas 72202
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205
| | - Kartik Shankar
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, Little Rock, Arkansas 72202
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205
| | - Aline Andres
- Arkansas Children’s Nutrition Center, Little Rock, Arkansas 72202
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205
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Growth-arrest-specific 7C protein inhibits tumor metastasis via the N-WASP/FAK/F-actin and hnRNP U/β-TrCP/β-catenin pathways in lung cancer. Oncotarget 2016; 6:44207-21. [PMID: 26506240 PMCID: PMC4792552 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.6229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2015] [Accepted: 10/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth-arrest-specific 7 (GAS7) belongs to a group of adaptor proteins that coordinate the actin cytoskeleton. Among human GAS7 isoforms, only GAS7C possesses a Src homology 3 domain. We report here that GAS7C acts as a migration suppressor and can serve as a prognostic biomarker in lung cancer. GAS7C overexpression reduces lung cancer migration, whereas GAS7C knockdown enhances cancer cell migration. Importantly, ectopically overexpressed GAS7C binds tightly with N-WASP thus inactivates the fibronectin/integrin/FAK pathway, which in turn leads to the suppression of F-actin dynamics. In addition, overexpression of GAS7C sequesters hnRNP U and thus decreases the level of β-catenin protein via the β-TrCP ubiquitin-degradation pathway. The anti-metastatic effect of GAS7C overexpression was also confirmed using lung cancer xenografts. Our clinical data indicated that 23.6% (25/106) of lung cancer patients showed low expression of GAS7C mRNA which correlated with a poorer overall survival. In addition, low GAS7C mRNA expression was detected in 60.0% of metastatic lung cancer patients, indicating an association between low GAS7C expression and cancer progression. A significant inverse correlation between mRNA expression and promoter hypermethylation was also found, which suggests that the low level of GAS7C expression was partly due to promoter hypermethylation. Our results provide novel evidence that low GAS7C correlates with poor prognosis and promotes metastasis in lung cancer. Low GAS7C increases cancer cell motility by promoting N-WASP/FAK/F-actin cytoskeleton dynamics. It also enhances β-catenin stability via hnRNP U/β-TrCP complex formation. Therefore, GAS7C acts as a metastasis suppressor in lung cancer.
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Merhi Z, Polotsky AJ, Bradford AP, Buyuk E, Chosich J, Phang T, Jindal S, Santoro N. Adiposity Alters Genes Important in Inflammation and Cell Cycle Division in Human Cumulus Granulosa Cell. Reprod Sci 2015; 22:1220-8. [PMID: 25676576 DOI: 10.1177/1933719115572484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether obesity alters genes important in cellular growth and inflammation in human cumulus granulosa cells (GCs). METHODS Eight reproductive-aged women who underwent controlled ovarian hyperstimulation followed by oocyte retrieval for in vitro fertilization were enrolled. Cumulus GC RNA was extracted and processed for microarray analysis on Affymetrix Human Genome U133 Plus 2.0 chips. Gene expression data were validated on GCs from additional biologically similar samples using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Comparison in gene expression was made between women with body mass index (BMI) <25 kg/m(2) (group 1; n = 4) and those with BMI ≥25 kg/m(2) (group 2; n = 4). RESULTS Groups 1 and 2 had significantly different BMI (21.4 ± 1.4 vs 30.4 ± 2.7 kg/m(2), respectively; P = .02) but did not differ in age (30.5 ± 1.7 vs 32.7 ± 0.3 years, respectively; P = .3). Comparative analysis of gene expression profiles by supervised clustering between group 1 versus group 2 resulted in the selection of 7 differentially expressed genes: fibroblast growth factor 12 (FGF-12), protein phosphatase 1-like (PPM1L), zinc finger protein multitype 2 (ZFPM2), forkhead box M1 (FOXM1), cell division cycle 20 (CDC20), interleukin 1 receptor-like 1 (IL1RL1), and growth arrest-specific protein 7 (GAS7). FOXM1, CDC20, and GAS7 were downregulated while FGF-12 and PPM1L were upregulated in group 2 when compared to group 1. Validation with RT-PCR confirmed the microarray data except for ZFPM2 and IL1RL. As BMI increased, expression of FOXM1 significantly decreased (r = -.60, P = .048). CONCLUSIONS Adiposity is associated with changes in the expression of genes important in cellular growth, cell cycle progression, and inflammation. The upregulation of the metabolic regulator gene PPM1L suggests that adiposity induces an abnormal metabolic follicular environment, potentially altering folliculogenesis and oocyte quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaher Merhi
- Division of Reproductive Biology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, University of Vermont College of medicine, Burlington, VT, USA
| | - Alex J Polotsky
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Andrew P Bradford
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Erkan Buyuk
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Women's Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Justin Chosich
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Tzu Phang
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
| | - Sangita Jindal
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Women's Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Nanette Santoro
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
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Nakamura S, Igarashi M, Kinoshita M, Okano HJ, Okano H. Proposing a new RNA quadruplex structure: j-motif, with possible links to neural development. J Biochem 2014; 155:385-92. [PMID: 24596122 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvu013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
An RNA-binding protein, hnRNP K, has been studied extensively because of its involvement in neural development through the post-transcriptional regulation of its downstream target genes; however, its binding mode remains unclear. According to structural features of the binding sites, we have presumed the existence of possible unique structures 'j-motifs' that are similar to known i-motifs, the difference being that the initial cluster comprises successive U nucleic acids instead of C. It was suspected that the motifs could be recognized by hnRNP K to regulate the translation levels of target proteins, however, there were virtually no methods to verify their existence except computational methods: regular expression searches and theoretical molecular orbital (MO) calculations. Here, we first show a list of 16 genes having j-motif-like sequences we discovered under refined search conditions. The list was highly related to neural development from both subjective and objective aspects. Additionally, MO calculations revealed the similarity of non-canonical base pairs found in i- and j-motifs qualitatively, leading to a proposal of the possible existence of the j-motifs. When taken into consideration, it was indicated that the j-motifs could be formed and play some role in the neural development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shingo Nakamura
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582; Department of Science and Technology, Sophia University,7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554; and Division of Regenerative Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, 3-25-8 Nishishinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8461, Japan
| | - Mana Igarashi
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582; Department of Science and Technology, Sophia University,7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554; and Division of Regenerative Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, 3-25-8 Nishishinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8461, JapanPharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582; Department of Science and Technology, Sophia University,7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554; and Division of Regenerative Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, 3-25-8 Nishishinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8461, Japan
| | - Mika Kinoshita
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582; Department of Science and Technology, Sophia University,7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554; and Division of Regenerative Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, 3-25-8 Nishishinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8461, Japan
| | - Hirotaka J Okano
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582; Department of Science and Technology, Sophia University,7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554; and Division of Regenerative Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, 3-25-8 Nishishinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8461, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Okano
- Pharmaceutical Research Division, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, 26-1, Muraoka-Higashi 2-chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Keio University, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582; Department of Science and Technology, Sophia University,7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554; and Division of Regenerative Medicine, Jikei University School of Medicine, 3-25-8 Nishishinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8461, Japan
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11
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Chen X, Xu B, Han X, Mao Z, Talbot P, Chen M, Du G, Chen A, Liu J, Wang X, Xia Y. Effect of bisphenol A on pluripotency of mouse embryonic stem cells and differentiation capacity in mouse embryoid bodies. Toxicol In Vitro 2013; 27:2249-55. [PMID: 24090592 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 08/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) poses potential risks to reproduction and development. However, the mechanism of BPA's effects on early embryonic development is still unknown. Embryonic stem cells (ESC) and embryoid bodies (EB) provide valuable in vitro models for testing the toxic effects of environmental chemicals in early embryogenesis. In this study, mouse embryonic stem cells (mESC) were acutely exposed to BPA for 24h, and general cytotoxicity and the effect of BPA on pluripotency were then evaluated. Meanwhile, mouse embryoid bodies (mEB) were exposed to BPA up to 6 days and their differentiation capacity was evaluated. In mESC and mEB, we found that BPA up-regulated pluripotency markers (Oct4, Sox2 and Nanog) at mRNA and/or protein levels. Moreover, BPA increased the mRNA levels of endodermal markers (Gata4,Sox17) and mesodermal markers (Sma,Desmin), and reduced the mRNA levels of ectodermal markers (Nestin,Fgf5) in mEB. Furthermore, microRNA(miR)-134, an expression inhibitor of pluripotency markers including Oct4, Sox2 and Nanog, was decreased both in BPA-treated mESC and mEB. These results firstly indicate that BPA may disturb pluripotency in mESC and differentiation of mEB, and may inhibit ectodermal lineage differentiation of mEB while miR-134 may play a key role underlying this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojiao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China; Key Laboratory of Modern Toxicology of Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
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12
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Gas7 is required for mesenchymal stem cell-derived bone development. Stem Cells Int 2013; 2013:137010. [PMID: 23840221 PMCID: PMC3690905 DOI: 10.1155/2013/137010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can differentiate into osteoblasts and lead to bone formation in the body. Osteoblast differentiation and bone development are regulated by a network of molecular signals and transcription factors induced by several proteins, including BMP2, osterix, and Runx2. We recently observed that the growth-arrest-specific 7 gene (Gas7) is upregulated during differentiation of human MSCs into osteoblasts. Downregulation of Gas7 using short-hairpin RNA decreased the expression of Runx2, a master regulator of osteogenesis, and its target genes (alkaline phosphatase, type I collagen, osteocalcin, and osteopontin). In addition, knockdown of Gas7 decreased the mineralization of dexamethasone-treated MSCs in culture. Conversely, ectopic expression of Gas7 induced Runx2-dependent transcriptional activity and gene expression leading to osteoblast differentiation and matrix mineralization. Genetic mutations of the Gas7 gene increased body fat levels and decreased bone density in mice. These results showed that Gas7 plays a role in regulating the pathways which are essential for osteoblast differentiation and bone development. In this review, we summarize the involvement of Gas7 in MSC-based osteogenesis and osteoporosis and describe the possible mechanisms responsible for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis in MSCs and osteoblasts.
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13
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Chithra C, Devaraj H. Purification and characterisation of a 48kDa protein involved in the molting cycle of Penaeus monodon. Food Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.01.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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14
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Ohyama M, Kobayashi T, Sasaki T, Shimizu A, Amagai M. Restoration of the intrinsic properties of human dermal papilla in vitro. J Cell Sci 2012; 125:4114-25. [PMID: 22623722 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.105700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The dermal papilla (DP) plays pivotal roles in hair follicle morphogenesis and cycling. However, characterization and/or propagation of human DPs have been unsatisfactory because of the lack of efficient isolation methods and the loss of innate characteristics in vitro. We hypothesized that culture conditions sustaining the intrinsic molecular signature of the human DP could facilitate expansion of functional DP cells. To test this, we first characterized the global gene expression profile of microdissected, non-cultured human DPs. We performed a 'two-step' microarray analysis to exclude the influence of unwanted contaminants in isolated DPs and successfully identified 118 human DP signature genes, including 38 genes listed in the mouse DP signature. The bioinformatics analysis of the DP gene list revealed that WNT, BMP and FGF signaling pathways were upregulated in intact DPs and addition of 6-bromoindirubin-3'-oxime, recombinant BMP2 and basic FGF to stimulate these respective signaling pathways resulted in maintained expression of in situ DP signature genes in primarily cultured human DP cells. More importantly, the exposure to these stimulants restored normally reduced DP biomarker expression in conventionally cultured DP cells. Cell growth was moderate in the newly developed culture medium. However, rapid DP cell expansion by conventional culture followed by the restoration by defined activators provided a sufficient number of DP cells that demonstrated characteristic DP activities in functional assays. The study reported here revealed previously unreported molecular mechanisms contributing to human DP properties and describes a useful technique for the investigation of human DP biology and hair follicle bioengineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manabu Ohyama
- Department of Dermatology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan.
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15
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Abstract
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate messenger RNAs at the post-transcriptional level. They play an important role in the control of cell physiological functions, and their alterations have been related to cancer, where they can function as oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes. Recently, they have emerged as key regulators of "stemness", collaborating in the maintenance of pluripotency, control of self-renewal, and differentiation of stem cells. The miRNA pathway has been shown to be crucial in embryonic development and in embryonic stem (ES) cells, as shown by Dicer knockout analysis. Specific patterns of miRNAs have been reported to be expressed only in ES cells and in early phases of embryonic development. Moreover, many cancers present small populations of cells with stem cell characteristics, called cancer stem cells (CSCs). CSCs are responsible for relapse and treatment failure in many cancer patients, and the comparative analysis of expression patterns between ES cells and tumors can lead to the identification of a miRNA signature to define CSCs. Most of the key miRNAs identified to date in ES cells have been shown to play a role in tumor diagnosis or prognosis, and may well prove to be essential in cancer therapy in the foreseeable future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfons Navarro
- Human Anatomy and Embryology Unit, Molecular Oncology and Embryology Laboratory, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mariano Monzó
- Human Anatomy and Embryology Unit, Molecular Oncology and Embryology Laboratory, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
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Ponnusamy MP, Deb S, Dey P, Chakraborty S, Rachagani S, Senapati S, Batra SK. RNA polymerase II associated factor 1/PD2 maintains self-renewal by its interaction with Oct3/4 in mouse embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells 2010; 27:3001-11. [PMID: 19821493 DOI: 10.1002/stem.237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) maintain self-renewal while ensuring a rapid response to differentiation signals, but the exact mechanism of this process remains unknown. PD2 is the human homolog of the RNA polymerase II-associated factor 1 (Paf1). The Paf1/PD2 is a member of the human PAF complex that consists of four other subunits, hCdc73, hLeo1, hCtr9, and hSki8, and is involved in the regulation of transcriptional elongation and further downstream events. Here, we show that Paf1/PD2 is overexpressed in mouse ESCs and is involved in the maintenance of mouse ESCs. The Paf1/PD2 knockdown and knockout ESCs grown under self-renewal conditions express substantially reduced levels of self-renewal regulators, including Oct3/4, SOX2, Nanog, and Shh. We observed that the level of Paf1/PD2 expression is much higher in self-renewing mouse embryonic carcinoma cells than in the differentiating cells. Knockout of Paf1/PD2 altered ESC phenotype by increasing apoptosis and decreasing the percentage of cells in S-phase of the cell cycle. Interestingly, we found that the key genes that regulate endodermal differentiation (Gata4, Gata6, and Fgf8) are induced in the Paf1/PD2 heterozygous knockout ESCs. This suggests that Paf1/PD2 plays a specific role in regulating early commitment of ESCs to endodermal differentiation. Furthermore, for the first time, we showed that Paf1/PD2 protein interacts with Oct3/4 and RNA polymerase II, and through this interaction Paf1/PD2 may regulate Oct3/4-mediated gene expression. Thus, the Paf1/PD2 protein is a newly discovered element of the interconnected regulatory network that maintains the self-renewal of mouse ESCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moorthy P Ponnusamy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5870, USA
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17
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You JJ, Lin-Chao S. Gas7 functions with N-WASP to regulate the neurite outgrowth of hippocampal neurons. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:11652-66. [PMID: 20150425 PMCID: PMC3283256 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.051094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuritogenesis, or neurite outgrowth, is a critical process for neuronal differentiation and maturation in which growth cones are formed from highly dynamic actin structures. Gas7 (growth arrest-specific gene 7), a new member of the PCH (Pombe Cdc15 homology) protein family, is predominantly expressed in neurons and is required for the maturation of primary cultured Purkinje neurons as well as the neuron-like differentiation of PC12 cells upon nerve growth factor stimulation. We report that Gas7 co-localizes and physically interacts with N-WASP, a key regulator of Arp2/3 complex-mediated actin polymerization, in the cortical region of Gas7-transfected Neuro-2a cells and growth cones of hippocampal neurons. The interaction between Gas7 and N-WASP is mediated by WW-Pro domains, which is unique in the PCH protein family, where most interactions are of the SH3-Pro kind. The interaction contributes to the formation of membrane protrusions and processes by recruiting the Arp2/3 complex in a Cdc42-independent manner. Importantly, specific interaction between Gas7 and N-WASP is required for regular neurite outgrowth of hippocampal neurons. The data demonstrate an essential role of Gas7 through its interaction with N-WASP during neuronal maturation/differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jhong-Jhe You
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan
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18
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Yang X, Deignan JL, Qi H, Zhu J, Qian S, Zhong J, Torosyan G, Majid S, Falkard B, Kleinhanz RR, Karlsson J, Castellani LW, Mumick S, Wang K, Xie T, Coon M, Zhang C, Estrada-Smith D, Farber CR, Wang SS, van Nas A, Ghazalpour A, Zhang B, Macneil DJ, Lamb JR, Dipple KM, Reitman ML, Mehrabian M, Lum PY, Schadt EE, Lusis AJ, Drake TA. Validation of candidate causal genes for obesity that affect shared metabolic pathways and networks. Nat Genet 2009; 41:415-23. [PMID: 19270708 PMCID: PMC2837947 DOI: 10.1038/ng.325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2008] [Accepted: 01/13/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A major task in dissecting the genetics of complex traits is to identify causal genes for disease phenotypes. We previously developed a method to infer causal relationships among genes through the integration of DNA variation, gene transcription, and phenotypic information. Here we validated our method through the characterization of transgenic and knockout mouse models of candidate genes that were predicted to be causal for abdominal obesity. Perturbation of eight out of the nine genes, with Gas7, Me1 and Gpx3 being novel, resulted in significant changes in obesity related traits. Liver expression signatures revealed alterations in common metabolic pathways and networks contributing to abdominal obesity and overlapped with a macrophage-enriched metabolic network module that is highly associated with metabolic traits in mice and humans. Integration of gene expression in the design and analysis of traditional F2 intercross studies allows high confidence prediction of causal genes and identification of involved pathways and networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Yang
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Hatfield S, Ruohola-Baker H. microRNA and stem cell function. Cell Tissue Res 2007; 331:57-66. [PMID: 17987317 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-007-0530-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2007] [Accepted: 09/19/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The identification and characterization of stem cells for various tissues has led to a greater understanding of development, tissue maintenance, and cancer pathology. Stem cells possess the ability to divide throughout their life and to produce differentiated daughter cells while maintaining a population of undifferentiated cells that remain in the stem cell niche and that retain stem cell identity. Many cancers also have small populations of cells with stem cell characteristics. These cells have been called cancer stem cells and are a likely cause of relapse in cancer patients. Understanding the biology of stem cells and cancer stem cells offers great promise in the fields of regenerative medicine and cancer treatment. microRNAs (miRNAs) are emerging as important regulators of post-transcriptional gene expression and are considered crucial for proper stem cell maintenance and function. miRNAs have also been strongly implicated in the development and pathology of cancer. In this review, we discuss the characteristics of various stem cell types, including cancer stem cells, and the importance of miRNAs therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Hatfield
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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