Microtubule perturbation inhibits intracellular transport of an apical membrane glycoprotein in a substrate-dependent manner in polarized Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cells

Multi-omics analysis reveals the impact of influenza a virus host adaptation on immune signatures in pig tracheal tissue

Introduction

Influenza A virus (IAV) infection is a global respiratory disease, which annually leads to 3-5 million cases of severe illness, resulting in 290,000-650,000 deaths. Additionally, during the past century, four global IAV pandemics have claimed millions of human lives. The epithelial lining of the trachea plays a vital role during IAV infection, both as point of viral entry and replication as well as in the antiviral immune response. Tracheal tissue is generally inaccessible from human patients, which makes animal models crucial for the study of the tracheal host immune response.

Method

In this study, pigs were inoculated with swine- or human-adapted H1N1 IAV to gain insight into how host adaptation of IAV shapes the innate immune response during infection. In-depth multi-omics analysis (global proteomics and RNA sequencing) of the host response in upper and lower tracheal tissue was conducted, and results were validated by microfluidic qPCR. Additionally, a subset of samples was selected for histopathological examination.

Results

A classical innate antiviral immune response was induced in both upper and lower trachea after infection with either swine- or human-adapted IAV with upregulation of genes and higher abundance of proteins associated with viral infection and recognition, accompanied by a significant induction of interferon stimulated genes with corresponding higher proteins concentrations. Infection with the swine-adapted virus induced a much stronger immune response compared to infection with a human-adapted IAV strain in the lower trachea, which could be a consequence of a higher viral load and a higher degree of inflammation.

Discussion

Central components of the JAK-STAT pathway, apoptosis, pyrimidine metabolism, and the cytoskeleton were significantly altered depending on infection with swine- or human-adapted virus and might be relevant mechanisms in relation to antiviral immunity against putative zoonotic IAV. Based on our findings, we hypothesize that during host adaptation, IAV evolve to modulate important host cell elements to favor viral infectivity and replication.

Friend or Foe: The Role of the Cytoskeleton in Influenza A Virus Assembly

Influenza A Virus (IAV) is a respiratory virus that causes seasonal outbreaks annually and pandemics occasionally. The main targets of the virus are epithelial cells in the respiratory tract. Like many other viruses, IAV employs the host cell’s machinery to enter cells, synthesize new genomes and viral proteins, and assemble new virus particles. The cytoskeletal system is a major cellular machinery, which IAV exploits for its entry to and exit from the cell. However, in some cases, the cytoskeleton has a negative impact on efficient IAV growth. In this review, we highlight the role of cytoskeletal elements in cellular processes that are utilized by IAV in the host cell. We further provide an in-depth summary of the current literature on the roles the cytoskeleton plays in regulating specific steps during the assembly of progeny IAV particles.

Golgi structure formation, function, and post-translational modifications in mammalian cells

The Golgi apparatus is a central membrane organelle for trafficking and post-translational modifications of proteins and lipids in cells. In mammalian cells, it is organized in the form of stacks of tightly aligned flattened cisternae, and dozens of stacks are often linked laterally into a ribbon-like structure located in the perinuclear region of the cell. Proper Golgi functionality requires an intact architecture, yet Golgi structure is dynamically regulated during the cell cycle and under disease conditions. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the relationship between Golgi structure formation, function, and regulation, with focus on how post-translational modifications including phosphorylation and ubiquitination regulate Golgi structure and on how Golgi unstacking affects its functions, in particular, protein trafficking, glycosylation, and sorting in mammalian cells.

Migration of Nucleocapsids in Vesicular Stomatitis Virus-Infected Cells Is Dependent on both Microtubules and Actin Filaments

The distribution of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) nucleocapsids in the cytoplasm of infected cells was analyzed by scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy using a newly developed quantitative approach called the border-to-border distribution method. Nucleocapsids were located near the cell nucleus at early times postinfection (2 h) but were redistributed during infection toward the edges of the cell. This redistribution was inhibited by treatment with nocodazole, colcemid, or cytochalasin D, indicating it is dependent on both microtubules and actin filaments. The role of actin filaments in nucleocapsid mobility was also confirmed by live-cell imaging of fluorescent nucleocapsids of a virus containing P protein fused to enhanced green fluorescent protein. However, in contrast to the overall redistribution in the cytoplasm, the incorporation of nucleocapsids into virions as determined in pulse-chase experiments was dependent on the activity of actin filaments with little if any effect on inhibition of microtubule function. These results indicate that the mechanisms by which nucleocapsids are transported to the farthest reaches of the cell differ from those required for incorporation into virions. This is likely due to the ability of nucleocapsids to follow shorter paths to the plasma membrane mediated by actin filaments.

IMPORTANCE

Nucleocapsids of nonsegmented negative-strand viruses like VSV are assembled in the cytoplasm during genome RNA replication and must migrate to the plasma membrane for assembly into virions. Nucleocapsids are too large to diffuse in the cytoplasm in the time required for virus assembly and must be transported by cytoskeletal elements. Previous results suggested that microtubules were responsible for migration of VSV nucleocapsids to the plasma membrane for virus assembly. Data presented here show that both microtubules and actin filaments are responsible for mobility of nucleocapsids in the cytoplasm, but that actin filaments play a larger role than microtubules in incorporation of nucleocapsids into virions.

siRNA Screen Identifies Trafficking Host Factors that Modulate Alphavirus Infection

Little is known about the repertoire of cellular factors involved in the replication of pathogenic alphaviruses. To uncover molecular regulators of alphavirus infection, and to identify candidate drug targets, we performed a high-content imaging-based siRNA screen. We revealed an actin-remodeling pathway involving Rac1, PIP5K1- α, and Arp3, as essential for infection by pathogenic alphaviruses. Infection causes cellular actin rearrangements into large bundles of actin filaments termed actin foci. Actin foci are generated late in infection concomitantly with alphavirus envelope (E2) expression and are dependent on the activities of Rac1 and Arp3. E2 associates with actin in alphavirus-infected cells and co-localizes with Rac1-PIP5K1-α along actin filaments in the context of actin foci. Finally, Rac1, Arp3, and actin polymerization inhibitors interfere with E2 trafficking from the trans-Golgi network to the cell surface, suggesting a plausible model in which transport of E2 to the cell surface is mediated via Rac1- and Arp3-dependent actin remodeling.

Analysis of AQP4 trafficking vesicle dynamics using a high-content approach

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is found on the basolateral plasma membrane of a variety of epithelial cells, and it is widely accepted that microtubules play an important role in protein trafficking to the plasma membrane. In the particular case of polarized trafficking, however, most evidence on the involvement of microtubules has been obtained via biochemistry experiments and single-shot microscopy. These approaches have provided essential information, even though they neglect the dynamical details of microtubule transport. In this work, we present a high-content framework in which time-lapse imaging, and single-particle-tracking algorithms were used to study a large number (∼10(4)) of GFP-AQP4-carrying vesicles on a large number of cells (∼170). By analyzing several descriptors in this large sample of trajectories, we were able to obtain highly statistically significant results. Our results support the hypothesis that AQP4 is transported along microtubules, but to our surprise, this transport is not directed straight to the basolateral plasma membrane. On the contrary, these vesicles move stochastically along microtubules, changing direction repeatedly. We propose that the role of microtubules in the basolateral trafficking of AQP4 is to increase the efficiency, rather than determine the specificity of the target.

A comprehensive map of the influenza A virus replication cycle

Background

Influenza is a common infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. Annual epidemics cause severe illnesses, deaths, and economic loss around the world. To better defend against influenza viral infection, it is essential to understand its mechanisms and associated host responses. Many studies have been conducted to elucidate these mechanisms, however, the overall picture remains incompletely understood. A systematic understanding of influenza viral infection in host cells is needed to facilitate the identification of influential host response mechanisms and potential drug targets.

Description

We constructed a comprehensive map of the influenza A virus (‘IAV’) life cycle (‘FluMap’) by undertaking a literature-based, manual curation approach. Based on information obtained from publicly available pathway databases, updated with literature-based information and input from expert virologists and immunologists, FluMap is currently composed of 960 factors (i.e., proteins, mRNAs etc.) and 456 reactions, and is annotated with ~500 papers and curation comments. In addition to detailing the type of molecular interactions, isolate/strain specific data are also available. The FluMap was built with the pathway editor CellDesigner in standard SBML (Systems Biology Markup Language) format and visualized as an SBGN (Systems Biology Graphical Notation) diagram. It is also available as a web service (online map) based on the iPathways+ system to enable community discussion by influenza researchers. We also demonstrate computational network analyses to identify targets using the FluMap.

Conclusion

The FluMap is a comprehensive pathway map that can serve as a graphically presented knowledge-base and as a platform to analyze functional interactions between IAV and host factors. Publicly available webtools will allow continuous updating to ensure the most reliable representation of the host-virus interaction network. The FluMap is available at http://www.influenza-x.org/flumap/.

Regulation of protein glycosylation and sorting by the Golgi matrix proteins GRASP55/65

The Golgi receives the entire output of newly synthesized cargo from the endoplasmic reticulum, processes it in the stack largely through modification of bound oligosaccharides, and sorts it in the trans-Golgi network. GRASP65 and GRASP55, two proteins localized to the Golgi stack and early secretory pathway, mediate processes including Golgi stacking, Golgi ribbon linking and unconventional secretion. Previously, we have shown that GRASP depletion in cells disrupts Golgi stack formation. Here we report that knockdown of the GRASP proteins, alone or combined, accelerates protein trafficking through the Golgi membranes but also has striking negative effects on protein glycosylation and sorting. These effects are not caused by Golgi ribbon unlinking, unconventional secretion or endoplasmic reticulum stress. We propose that GRASP55/65 are negative regulators of exocytic transport and that this slowdown helps to ensure more complete protein glycosylation in the Golgi stack and proper sorting at the trans-Golgi network.

Highly dynamic microtubules improve the effectiveness of early stages of human influenza A/NWS/33 virus infection in LLC-MK2 cells

BACKGROUND

This study aims to investigate the role of microtubule dynamics in the initiation of NWS/33 human influenza A (NWS) virus infection in MDCK and LLC-MK2 mammalian kidney cells. We previously demonstrated a host-dependent role of the actin cytoskeleton in inducing restriction during the early phases of NWS infection. Furthermore, we showed the differential infectious entry of NWS virus in the above mentioned cell models.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

By first employing a panel of microtubule-modulators, we evidenced that microtubule-stabilization negatively interferes with NWS replication in LLC-MK2 but not in MDCK cells. Conversely, microtubule-depolymerization improves NWS growth in LLC-MK2 but not in the MDCK model. By using immunofluorescence labelling and Western blotting analyses upon NWS infection in mammalian kidney cells, it was observed that the occurrence of alpha-tubulin hyperacetylation--a post-translational modified form suggestive of stable microtubules--was significantly delayed in LLC-MK2 when compared to MDCK cells. Furthermore, mock-infected LLC-MK2 cells were shown to have higher levels of both acetylated alpha-tubulin and microtubule-associated protein 4 (MAP4), the latter being essential for the maintenance of normal microtubule polymer levels in interphase epithelial cells. Finally, to obtain highly dynamic microtubules in LLC-MK2 cells, we knocked down the expression of MAP4 by using a RNA-mediated RNA interference approach. The results evidenced that MAP4 silencing improves NWS growth in LLC-MK2 cells.

CONCLUSION

By evidencing the cell type-dependent regulatory role of microtubule dynamics on NWS replication in mammalian kidney cells, we demonstrated that microtubule-stabilization represents a restriction factor for the initiation of NWS infection in LLC-MK2 but not in MDCK cells.

Luminal flow modulates H+-ATPase activity in the cortical collecting duct (CCD)

Epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC)-mediated Na(+) absorption and BK channel-mediated K(+) secretion in the cortical collecting duct (CCD) are modulated by flow, the latter requiring an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)), microtubule integrity, and exocytic insertion of preformed channels into the apical membrane. As axial flow modulates HCO(3)(-) reabsorption in the proximal tubule due to changes in both luminal Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 3 and H(+)-ATPase activity (Du Z, Yan Q, Duan Y, Weinbaum S, Weinstein AM, Wang T. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 290: F289-F296, 2006), we sought to test the hypothesis that flow also regulates H(+)-ATPase activity in the CCD. H(+)-ATPase activity was assayed in individually identified cells in microperfused CCDs isolated from New Zealand White rabbits, loaded with the pH-sensitive dye BCECF, and then subjected to an acute intracellular acid load (NH(4)Cl prepulse technique). H(+)-ATPase activity was defined as the initial rate of bafilomycin-inhibitable cell pH (pH(i)) recovery in the absence of luminal K(+), bilateral Na(+), and CO(2)/HCO(3)(-), from a nadir pH of ∼6.2. We found that 1) an increase in luminal flow rate from ∼1 to 5 nl·min(-1)·mm(-1) stimulated H(+)-ATPase activity, 2) flow-stimulated H(+) pumping was Ca(2+) dependent and required microtubule integrity, and 3) basal and flow-stimulated pH(i) recovery was detected in cells that labeled with the apical principal cell marker rhodamine Dolichos biflorus agglutinin as well as cells that did not. We conclude that luminal flow modulates H(+)-ATPase activity in the rabbit CCD and that H(+)-ATPases therein are present in both principal and intercalated cells.

Apical trafficking in epithelial cells: signals, clusters and motors

In the early days of epithelial cell biology, researchers working with kidney and/or intestinal epithelial cell lines and with hepatocytes described the biosynthetic and recycling routes followed by apical and basolateral plasma membrane (PM) proteins. They identified the trans-Golgi network and recycling endosomes as the compartments that carried out apical-basolateral sorting. They described complex apical sorting signals that promoted association with lipid rafts, and simpler basolateral sorting signals resembling clathrin-coated-pit endocytic motifs. They also noticed that different epithelial cell types routed their apical PM proteins very differently, using either a vectorial (direct) route or a transcytotic (indirect) route. Although these original observations have generally held up, recent studies have revealed interesting complexities in the routes taken by apically destined proteins and have extended our understanding of the machinery required to sustain these elaborate sorting pathways. Here, we critically review the current status of apical trafficking mechanisms and discuss a model in which clustering is required to recruit apical trafficking machineries. Uncovering the mechanisms responsible for polarized trafficking and their epithelial-specific variations will help understand how epithelial functional diversity is generated and the pathogenesis of many human diseases.

Trk activation in the secretory pathway promotes Golgi fragmentation

Activation of nascent receptor tyrosine kinases within the secretory pathway has been reported, yet the consequences of intracellular activation are largely unexplored. We report that overexpression of the Trk neurotrophin receptors causes accumulation of autoactivated receptors in the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment. Autoactivated receptors exhibit inhibited Golgi-mediated processing and they inhibit Golgi-mediated processing of other co-expressed transmembrane proteins, apparently by inducing fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus. Signaling from G protein-coupled receptors is known to induce Trk transactivation. Transactivation of nascent TrkB in hippocampal neurons resulting from exposure to the neuropeptide PACAP caused Golgi fragmentation, whereas BDNF-dependent activation of TrkB did not. TrkB-mediated Golgi fragmentation employs a MEK-dependent signaling pathway resembling that implicated in regulation of Golgi fragmentation in mitotic cells. Neuronal Golgi fragments, in the form of dendritically localized Golgi outposts, are important determinants of dendritic growth and branching. The capacity of transactivated TrkB to enhance neuronal Golgi fragmentation may represent a novel mechanism regulating neural plasticity.

Ca2+ dependence of flow-stimulated K secretion in the mammalian cortical collecting duct

Apical low-conductance SK and high-conductance Ca(2+)-activated BK channels are present in distal nephron, including the cortical collecting duct (CCD). Flow-stimulated net K secretion (J(K)) in the CCD is 1) blocked by iberiotoxin, an inhibitor of BK but not SK channels, and 2) associated with an increase in [Ca(2+)](i), leading us to conclude that BK channels mediate flow-stimulated J(K). To examine the Ca(2+) dependence and sources of Ca(2+) contributing to flow-stimulated J(K), J(K) and net Na absorption (J(Na)) were measured at slow (approximately 1) and fast (approximately 5 nl.min(-1).mm(-1)) flow rates in rabbit CCDs microperfused in the absence of luminal Ca(2+) or after pretreatment with BAPTA-AM to chelate intracellular Ca(2+), 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate (2-APB), to inhibit the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) receptor or thapsigargin to deplete internal stores. These treatments, which do not affect flow-stimulated J(Na) (Morimoto et al. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 291: F663-F669, 2006), inhibited flow-stimulated J(K). Increases in [Ca(2+)](i) stimulate exocytosis. To test whether flow induces exocytic insertion of preformed BK channels into the apical membrane, CCDs were pretreated with 10 microM colchicine (COL) to disrupt microtubule function or 5 microg/ml brefeldin-A (BFA) to inhibit delivery of channels from the intracellular pool to the plasma membrane. Both agents inhibited flow-stimulated J(K) but not J(Na) (Morimoto et al. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 291: F663-F669, 2006), although COL but not BFA also blocked the flow-induced [Ca(2+)](i) transient. We thus speculate that BK channel-mediated, flow-stimulated J(K) requires an increase in [Ca(2+)](i) due, in part, to luminal Ca(2+) entry and ER Ca(2+) release, microtubule integrity, and exocytic insertion of preformed channels into the apical membrane.

Microtubule organization and function in epithelial cells

Microtubules are essential for many aspects of polarity in multicellular organisms, ranging from the asymmetric distribution of cell-fate determinants in the one-cell embryo to the transient polarity generated in migrating fibroblasts. Epithelial cells exhibit permanent cell polarity characterized by apical and basolateral surface domains of distinct protein and lipid composition that are segregated by tight junctions. They are also endowed with a microtubule network that reflects the asymmetry of their cell surface: microtubule minus-ends face the apical- and microtubule plus-ends the basal domain. Strikingly, the formation of distinct surface domains during epithelial differentiation is accompanied by the re-organization of microtubules from a uniform array focused at the centrosome to the noncentrosomal network that aligns along the apico-basolateral polarity axis. The significance of this coincidence for epithelial morphogenesis and the signaling mechanisms that drive microtubule repolymerization in developing epithelia remain major unresolved questions that we are only beginning to address. Studies in cultured polarized epithelial cells have established that microtubules serve as tracks that facilitate targeted vesicular transport. Novel findings suggest, moreover, that microtubule-based transport promotes protein sorting, and even the generation of transport carriers in the endo- and exocytic pathways.

Transcytosis: crossing cellular barriers

Transcytosis, the vesicular transport of macromolecules from one side of a cell to the other, is a strategy used by multicellular organisms to selectively move material between two environments without altering the unique compositions of those environments. In this review, we summarize our knowledge of the different cell types using transcytosis in vivo, the variety of cargo moved, and the diverse pathways for delivering that cargo. We evaluate in vitro models that are currently being used to study transcytosis. Caveolae-mediated transcytosis by endothelial cells that line the microvasculature and carry circulating plasma proteins to the interstitium is explained in more detail, as is clathrin-mediated transcytosis of IgA by epithelial cells of the digestive tract. The molecular basis of vesicle traffic is discussed, with emphasis on the gaps and uncertainties in our understanding of the molecules and mechanisms that regulate transcytosis. In our view there is still much to be learned about this fundamental process.

NHE3 and NHERF are targeted to the basolateral membrane in proximal tubules of colchicine-treated rats

BACKGROUND

Depolymerization of microtubules in proximal tubule (PT) cells of colchicine-treated rats causes disruption of vesicle recycling and redistribution of some brush-border membrane (BBM) transporters into cytoplasmic vesicles. NHE3, an isoform of the Na+/H+ exchanger in the PT cell BBM, is acutely regulated by a variety of mechanisms, including protein trafficking and interaction with the PDZ protein, NHERF. The effects of microtubule disruption by colchicine on NHE3 trafficking in PT and the potential role of NHERF in this process have not been studied.

METHODS

Immunofluorescence and immunogold cytochemistry were performed on cryosections of kidney tissue, and immunoblotting of BBM isolated from the renal cortex and outer stripe of control and colchicine-treated (3.2 mg/kg, IP, a single dose 12 hours before sacrifice) rats.

RESULTS

In cells of the convoluted PT (S1/S2 segments) of control rats, NHE3 was located mainly in the BBM; subapical endosomes were weakly stained. In cells of the straight PT (S3 segment), NHE3 was present in the BBM and in lysosomes. In colchicine-treated rats, there was a marked redistribution of NHE3 from the BBM into intracellular vesicles and the basolateral plasma membrane in the S1/S2 segments. In the S3 segment, the abundance of BBM NHE3 was not visibly changed, but NHE3-positive intracellular organelles largely disappeared, and the antigen was detectable in the basolateral plasma membrane. The PDZ protein NHERF followed a similar pattern: in control animals, it was strong in the BBM and negative in the basolateral membrane in cells along the PT. After colchicine treatment, expression of NHERF in the basolateral membrane strongly increased in all PT segments, where it colocalized with NHE3.

CONCLUSIONS

The data indicate that: (a) microtubules are involved in the apical targeting of NHE3 and NHERF in renal PT cells, and (b) the parallel basolateral insertion of NHE3 and NHERF may represent an indirect targeting pathway that involves transient, microtubule-independent basolateral insertion of these proteins, followed by microtubule-dependent, vesicle-mediated transcytosis to the BBM.

Over-expression of betaI tubulin in MDCK cells and incorporation of exogenous betaI tubulin into microtubules interferes with adhesion and spreading

Little is known about the presence and distribution of tubulin isotypes in MDCK cells although essential epithelial functions in these monolayers are regulated by dynamic changes in the microtubule architecture. Using specific antibodies, we show here that the betaI, betaII, and betaIV isotypes are differentially distributed in the microtubules of these cells. Microtubules in subconfluent cells radiating from the perinuclear region contain betaI and betaII tubulins, while those extending to the cell edges are enriched in betaII. Confluent cells contain similar proportions of betaI and betaII along the entire microtubule length. betaIV is the less abundant isotype and shows a similar distribution to betaII. The effect of modifying tubulin isotype ratios in the microtubules that could affect their dynamics and function was analyzed by stably expressing in MDCK cells betaI tubulin from CHO cells. Three recombinant clones expressing different levels of the exogenous betaI tubulin were selected and subcloned. Clone 17-2 showed the highest expression of CHO beta1 tubulin. Total betaI tubulin levels (MDCK+CHO) in the clones were approximately 1.8 to 1.1-fold higher than in mock-transfected cells only expressing MDCK beta1 tubulin. In all the cells, betaII tubulin levels remained unchanged. The cells expressing CHO beta1 tubulin showed defective attachment, spreading, and delayed formation of adhesion sites at short times after plating, whereas mock-transfected cells attached and spread normally. Analysis of cytoskeletal fractions from clone 17-2 showed a MDCK betaI/CHO betaI ratio of 1.89 at 2 h that gradually decreased to 1.0 by 24 h. The ratio of the two isotypes in the soluble fraction remained unchanged, although with higher values than those found for the polymerized betaI tubulin. By 24 h, the transfected cells had regained normal spreading and formed a confluent monolayer. Our results show that excess levels of total betaI tubulin, resulting from the expression of the exogenous beta1 isotype, and incorporation of it into microtubules affect their stability and some cellular functions. As the levels return to normal, the cells recover their normal phenotype. Regulation of betaI tubulin levels implies the release of the MDCK betaI isotype from the microtubules into the soluble fraction where it would be degraded.

Microtubule integrity is essential for apical polarization and epithelial morphogenesis in the thyroid

In this study, we examined the contribution of microtubules to epithelial morphogenesis in primary thyroid cell cultures. Thyroid follicles consist of a single layer of polarized epithelial cells surrounding a closed compartment, the follicular lumen. Freshly isolated porcine thyroid cells aggregate and reorganize to form follicles when grown in primary cultures. Follicular reorganization is principally a morphogenetic process that entails the assembly of biochemically distinct apical and basolateral membrane domains, delimited by tight junctions. The establishment of cell surface polarity during folliculogenesis coincided with the polarized redistribution of microtubules, predominantly in the developing apical poles of cells. Disruption of microtubule integrity using either colchicine or nocodazole caused loss of defined apical membrane domains, tight junctions and follicular lumina. Apical membrane and tight junction markers became randomly distributed at the outer surfaces of aggregates. In contrast, the basolateral surface markers, E-cadherin and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase, remained correctly localized at sites of cell-cell contact and at the free surfaces of cell aggregates. These findings demonstrate that microtubules play a necessary role in thyroid epithelial morphogenesis. Specifically, microtubules are essential to preserve the correct localization of apical membrane components within enclosed cellular aggregates, a situation that is also likely to pertain where lumina must be formed from solid aggregates of epithelial precursors.

VIP enhances the differentiation of retinal pigment epithelium in culture: from cAMP and pp60(c-src) to melanogenesis and development of fluid transport capacity

The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a single cell layer juxtaposed between the neural retina and the choroid and functions as a blood-retina barrier. The RPE performs functions essential for photoreceptor (PR) survival. Although the regulation of these functions has remained unknown, it is a distinct possibility that the RPE is under constant regulation by signaling molecules coming from the choroid and the retina. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), a 28-amino acid neuropeptide present in the retina and in the choroid, has been shown to promote the growth and differentiation of a variety of cells in tissue and organ cultures. In cultured RPE cells, VIP is the one most effective stimulator of the cAMP signaling pathway among a long list of neurotransmitters and modulators tested. For example, VIP, at 1 microM, stimulates the intracellular cAMP to 80-100- and 20-fold in 3 min in RPE cells cultured from chick embryos and adult human donor eyes, respectively. In cultured chick embryonic RPE, VIP is also shown to be a potent and effective modulator of pp60(c-src), the non-receptor tyrosine kinase present in differentiating and terminally differentiated cells. VIP stimulates both overall phosphorylation at unknown sites and phosphotyrosine dephosphorylation in pp60(c-src). A 190-kDa microtubule-associated protein is known to be one of the downstream targets in VIP-modulated signaling pathways. At the cellular level, VIP stimulates cell proliferation modestly and melanogenesis pronouncedly in growing chick embryonic RPE cultures. Ultimately, the differentiation goal of RPE cells in vivo is to perform functions that are essential for photoreceptor survival. On bare permeable supports (that is, without biological material coating), the chick embryonic RPE cells grow to become RPE sheets with a cytoarchitecture that allows the display of two of the RPE functions. These cultures demonstrate structural polarity and are functionally polarized, allowing for proper macromolecule secretion and fluid transport. VIP is shown to stimulate macromolecule secretion at the apical surface (retina facing) and the development of the capacity for fluid transport from the apical to the basal surface of the RPE sheet. In conclusion, studies in our laboratory indicate that VIP is a differentiation promotor during the development of a functional RPE. Recent advances in the molecular biology of melanogenesis and the fluid transport-linked Na-K-2Cl cotransporter in other cells will allow future studies of VIP modulated events in the RPE at the molecular level. Finally, identification of RPE differentiation factors may prove essential for the ultimate success of RPE transplantation, thus promoting the rescue of photoreceptor cells in retinal degeneration.

Uniform apicobasal polarity of microtubules and apical location of gamma-tubulin in polarized intestinal epithelium in situ

Polarized differentiation of the intestinal epithelium has been previously shown to depend on an intact microtubular system that is essential for vectorial delivery of apical membrane proteins to the apical cell surfaces. Uniform alignment and polarization of microtubules have been suggested to provide the ultrastructural basis for vectorial transport between the Golgi apparatus and the apical cell surface. In the present study we applied the hook decoration technique to analyse the polarity of microtubules in the rat jejunal epithelium. By immunocytochemistry we studied the subcellular location of gamma-tubulin, an essential component of microtubule-organizing centers. Microtubules were found to be mainly aligned parallel to the apicobasal axis of the cells and to extend from the subterminal space underneath the apical terminal web down to the cellular basis. We found that 98% out of 1122 decorated microtubules displayed uniform apicobasal polarity with the growing ends (plus ends) pointing basally and the non-growing ends (minus ends) pointing towards the cellular apex. No differences were observed with respect to microtubular polarity between the apical, perinuclear and infranuclear cellular portions. Immunostaining specific for gamma-tubulin was restricted to the apical subterminal space underneath the rootlets of microvilli. These findings indicate that the apical subterminal space of enterocytes serves as the predominant if not exclusive microtubule-organizing compartment from which uniformly polarized microtubules grow out with their plus ends towards the cellular basis.

Cytoplasmic dynein and dynactin as likely candidates for microtubule-dependent apical targeting of pancreatic zymogen granules

The critical role of microtubules in vectorial delivery of post-Golgi carrier vesicles to the apical cell surface has been established for various polarized epithelial cell types. In the present study we used secretory granules of the rat and chicken pancreas, termed zymogen granules, as model system for apically bound post-Golgi carrier vesicles that underlie the regulated exocytotic pathway. We found that targeting of zymogen granules to the apical cell surface requires an intact microtubule system which contains its colchicine-resistant organizing center and, thus, the microtubular minus ends close to the apical membrane domain. Purified zymogen granules and their membranes were found to be associated with cytoplasmic dynein intermediate and heavy chain and to contain the major components of the dynein activator complex, dynactin, i.e. p150Glued, p62, p50, Arp1, and beta-actin. Kinesin heavy chain and the kinesin receptor, 160 kD kinectin, were not detected as components of zymogen granules. Immunofluorescence staining showed a zymogen granule-like distribution for dynein and dynactin (p150Glued, p62, p50, Arpl) in the apical cytoplasm, whereas kinesin and kinectin were largely concentrated in the basal half of the cells in a pattern similar to the distribution of calreticulin, a component of the endoplasmic reticulum. Secretory granules of non-polarized chromaffin cells of the bovine adrenal medulla, that are assumed to underlie microtubular plus end targeting from the Golgi apparatus to the cell periphery, were not found to be associated with dynein or dynactin. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of major components of the dynein-dynactin complex associated with the membrane of a biochemically and functionally well-defined organelle which is considered to underlie a vectorial minus end-driven microtubular transport critically involved in precise delivery of digestive enzymes to the apically located acinar lumen.

Role of microtubules in the organization of the Golgi complex

The Golgi complex of mammalian cells is composed of cisternal stacks that function in processing and sorting of membrane and luminal proteins during transport from the site of synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum to lysosomes, secretory vacuoles, and the cell surface. Even though exceptions are found, the Golgi stacks are usually arranged as an interconnected network in the region around the centrosome, the major organizing center for cytoplasmic microtubules. A close relation thus exists between Golgi elements and microtubules (especially the stable subpopulation enriched in detyrosinated and acetylated tubulin). After drug-induced disruption of microtubules, the Golgi stacks are disconnected from each other, partly broken up, dispersed in the cytoplasm, and redistributed to endoplasmic reticulum exit sites. Despite this, intracellular protein traffic is only moderately disturbed. Following removal of the drugs, scattered Golgi elements move along reassembling microtubules back to the centrosomal region and reunite into a continuous system. The microtubule-dependent motor proteins cytoplasmic dynein and kinesin bind to Golgi membranes and have been implicated in vesicular transport to and from the Golgi complex. Microinjection of dynein heavy chain antibodies causes dispersal of the Golgi complex, and the Golgi complex of cells lacking cytoplasmic dynein is likewise spread throughout the cytoplasm. In a similar manner, kinesin antibodies have been found to inhibit Golgi-to-endoplasmic reticulum transport in brefeldin A-treated cells and scattering of Golgi elements along remaining microtubules in cells exposed to a low concentration of nocodazole. The molecular mechanisms in the interaction between microtubules and membranes are, however, incompletely understood. During mitosis, the Golgi complex is extensively reorganized in order to ensure an equal partitioning of this single-copy organelle between the daughter cells. Mitosis-promoting factor, a complex of cdc2 kinase and cyclin B, is a key regulator of this and other events in the induction of cell division. Cytoplasmic microtubules depolymerize in prophase and as a result thereof, the Golgi stacks become smaller, disengage from each other, and take up a perinuclear distribution. The mitotic spindle is thereafter put together, aligns the chromosomes in the metaphase plate, and eventually pulls the sister chromatids apart in anaphase. In parallel, the Golgi stacks are broken down into clusters of vesicles and tubules and movement of protein along the exocytic and endocytic pathways is inhibited. Using a cell-free system, it has been established that the fragmentation of the Golgi stacks is due to a continued budding of transport vesicles and a concomitant inhibition of the fusion of the vesicles with their target membranes. In telophase and after cytokinesis, a Golgi complex made up of interconnected cisternal stacks is recreated in each daughter cell and intracellular protein traffic is resumed. This restoration of a normal interphase morphology and function is dependent on reassembly of a radiating array of cytoplasmic microtubules along which vesicles can be carried and on reactivation of the machinery for membrane fusion.

New perspectives on mechanisms involved in generating epithelial cell polarity

Polarized epithelial cells form barriers that separate biological compartments and regulate homeostasis by controlling ion and solute transport between those compartments. Receptors, ion transporters and channels, signal transduction proteins, and cytoskeletal proteins are organized into functionally and structurally distinct domains of the cell surface, termed apical and basolateral, that face these different compartments. This review is about mechanisms involved in the establishment and maintenance of cell polarity. Previous reports and reviews have adopted a Golgi-centric view of how epithelial cell polarity is established, in which the sorting of apical and basolateral membrane proteins in the Golgi complex is a specialized process in polarized cells, and the generation of cell surface polarity is a direct consequence of this process. Here, we argue that events at the cell surface are fundamental to the generation of cell polarity. We propose that the establishment of structural asymmetry in the plasma membrane is the first, critical event, and subsequently, this asymmetry is reinforced and maintained by delivery of proteins that were constitutively sorted in the Golgi. We propose a hierarchy of stages for establishing cell polarity.

Actin filaments and microtubules are involved in different membrane traffic pathways that transport sphingolipids to the apical surface of polarized HepG2 cells

In polarized HepG2 hepatoma cells, sphingolipids are transported to the apical, bile canalicular membrane by two different transport routes, as revealed with fluorescently tagged sphingolipid analogs. One route involves direct, transcytosis-independent transport of Golgi-derived glucosylceramide and sphingomyelin, whereas the other involves basolateral to apical transcytosis of both sphingolipids. We show that these distinct routes display a different sensitivity toward nocodazole and cytochalasin D, implying a specific transport dependence on either microtubules or actin filaments, respectively. Thus, nocodazole strongly inhibited the direct route, whereas sphingolipid transport by transcytosis was hardly affected. Moreover, nocodazole blocked "hyperpolarization," i.e., the enlargement of the apical membrane surface, which is induced by treating cells with dibutyryl-cAMP. By contrast, the transcytotic route but not the direct route was inhibited by cytochalasin D. The actin-dependent step during transcytotic lipid transport probably occurs at an early endocytic event at the basolateral plasma membrane, because total lipid uptake and fluid phase endocytosis of horseradish peroxidase from this membrane were inhibited by cytochalasin D as well. In summary, the results show that the two sphingolipid transport pathways to the apical membrane must have a different requirement for cytoskeletal elements.

Polarized sorting of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to the postsynaptic membrane in Torpedo electrocyte

Several regulatory mechanisms contribute to the accumulation and maintenance of high concentrations of acetylcholine receptors (AChR) at the postsynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction, including compartmentalized gene transcription, targeting, clustering and anchoring to the cytoskeleton. The targeting of the AChR to the postsynaptic membrane is likely to involve a polarized sorting in the exocytic pathway. In this work, we used the electrocyte of Torpedo marmorata electric organ to study the intracellular trafficking of neosynthesized AChR and its delivery to the postsynaptic membrane. Gradient centrifugation and immunoisolation techniques have led to the isolation of two populations of post-Golgi transport vesicles (PGVs) enriched in proteins of either the innervated (AChR) or non-innervated (Na,K-ATPase) membrane domains of the cell. Immunolabelling of these vesicles at the EM level disclosed that very few PGVs contained both proteins. In AChR-enriched vesicles, high sialylation of AchR molecules, an expected post-translational modification of proteins exiting the trans-Golgi network, and the presence of a marker of the exocytic pathway (Rab6p), indicate that these vesicles are carriers engaged in the Golgi-to-plasma membrane transport. These data suggest that AChR and Na,K-ATPase are sorted intracellularly most likely within the trans-Golgi network. Furthermore, EM analysis and immunogold-labelling experiments provided in situ evidence that the AChR-containing PGVs are conveyed to the postsynaptic membrane, possibly by a microtubule-dependent transport mechanism. Our data therefore provide the first evidence that the targeting of receptors for neurotransmitters to synaptic sites could be contributed by intracellular sorting and polarized delivery in the exocytic pathway.

Apiconuclear organization of microtubules does not specify protein delivery from the trans-Golgi network to different membrane domains in polarized epithelial cells

In nonpolarized epithelial cells, microtubules originate from a broad perinuclear region coincident with the distribution of the Golgi complex and extend outward to the cell periphery (perinuclear [PN] organization). During development of epithelial cell polarity, microtubules reorganize to form long cortical filaments parallel to the lateral membrane, a meshwork of randomly oriented short filaments beneath the apical membrane, and short filaments at the base of the cell; the Golgi becomes localized above the nucleus in the subapical membrane cytoplasm (apiconuclear [AN] organization). The AN-type organization of microtubules is thought to be specialized in polarized epithelial cells to facilitate vesicle trafficking between the trans-Golgi Network (TGN) and the plasma membrane. We describe two clones of MDCK cells, which have different microtubule distributions: clone II/G cells, which gradually reorganize a PN-type distribution of microtubules and the Golgi complex to an AN-type during development of polarity, and clone II/J cells which maintain a PN-type organization. Both cell clones, however, exhibit identical steady-state polarity of apical and basolateral proteins. During development of cell surface polarity, both clones rapidly establish direct targeting pathways for newly synthesized gp80 and gp135/170, and E-cadherin between the TGN and apical and basolateral membrane, respectively; this occurs before development of the AN-type microtubule/Golgi organization in clone II/G cells. Exposure of both clone II/G and II/J cells to low temperature and nocodazole disrupts >99% of microtubules, resulting in: 1) 25-50% decrease in delivery of newly synthesized gp135/170 and E-cadherin to the apical and basolateral membrane, respectively, in both clone II/G and II/J cells, but with little or no missorting to the opposite membrane domain during all stages of polarity development; 2) approximately 40% decrease in delivery of newly synthesized gp80 to the apical membrane with significant missorting to the basolateral membrane in newly established cultures of clone II/G and II/J cells; and 3) variable and nonspecific delivery of newly synthesized gp80 to both membrane domains in fully polarized cultures. These results define several classes of proteins that differ in their dependence on intact microtubules for efficient and specific targeting between the Golgi and plasma membrane domains.

Atypical microtubule organization in undifferentiated human colon cancer cells

We previously reported that undifferentiated colonic cancer HT-29 cells, unlike the differentiated ones, exhibit unusual organelle distributions and atypical vesicle trafficking patterns, which are microtubule-independent and microfilament-dependent. In the present study, we have analyzed the microtubule network in both phenotypes, using confocal microscopy, and determined the expression levels of some microtubule-associated proteins by quantitative immunoblotting. Differentiated cells exhibited the microtubular organization of polarized epithelial cells. Non-polarized undifferentiated cells presented an atypical microtubule organization as microtubules were localized mainly at the cell 'top'. Immunoblot analysis indicated the absence or low content of several structural and motor microtubule-associated proteins in undifferentiated cells, compared to differentiated cells. This may explain in part their atypical microtubular organization. This study agrees with a crucial role for microfilaments in the intracellular organization of undifferentiated HT-29 cancer cells, while differentiated HT-29 cells exhibit intracellular organization similar to that of normal enterocytic cells, although they are also tumoral.

Involvement of the mutated M protein in altered budding polarity of a pantropic mutant, F1-R, of Sendai virus

Wild-type Sendai virus buds at the apical plasma membrane domain of polarized epithelial MDCK cells, whereas a pantropic mutant, F1-R, buds at both the apical and basolateral domains. In F1-R-infected cells, polarized protein transport and the microtubule network are impaired. It has been suggested that the mutated F and/or M proteins in F1-R are responsible for these changes (M. Tashiro, J. T. Seto, H.-D. Klenk, and R. Rott, J. Virol. 67:5902-5910, 1993). To clarify which gene or mutation(s) was responsible for the microtubule disruption which leads to altered budding of F1-R, MDCK cell lines containing the M gene of either the wild type or F1-R were established. When wild-type M protein was expressed at a level corresponding to that synthesized in virus-infected cells, cellular polarity and the integrity of the microtubules were affected to some extent. On the other hand, expression of the mutated F1-R M protein resulted in the formation of giant cells about 40 times larger than normal MDCK cells. Under these conditions, the effects on the microtubule network were enhanced. The microtubules were disrupted and polarized protein transport was impaired as indicated by the nonpolarized secretion of gp80, a host cell glycoprotein normally secreted from the apical domain, and bipolar budding of wild-type and F1-R Sendai viruses. The mutated F glycoprotein of F1-R was transported bipolarly in cells expressing the F1-R M protein, whereas it was transported predominantly to the apical domain when expressed alone or in cells coexpressing the wild-type M protein. These findings indicate that the M protein of F1-R is involved in the disruption of the microtubular network, leading to impairment of cellular polarity, bipolar transport of the F glycoprotein, and bipolar budding of the virus.

Centripetal transport of herpes simplex virus in human retinal pigment epithelial cells in vitro

Herpes simplex virus displays tropism for neurons and other polarized epithelial cells. We have grown human retinal pigment epithelial cells in culture to study potential mechanisms whereby herpes simplex virus (type I) is transported from the plasma membrane of the cell to the nucleus. The cells were highly polarized as determined by a variety of criteria. They were tightly coupled by junctional complexes, as determined by electron microscopy, immunofluorescent staining of tight junctions and measurements of transepithelial electrical resistances > 200 omega cm2. Immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy were used to visualize microtubule orientation. The microtubules were arranged (i) in a single apical cilium, (ii) in a meshwork beneath the apical membrane and (iii) in longitudinally arranged bundles near the lateral membranes and nucleus. The latter microtubules were primarily oriented with their plus ends directed toward the basal surface of the cells. We infected retinal pigment epithelial cells at the apical surface with virus and assayed the uptake and transport of virus to the nucleus by quantitative immunoblot and immunocytochemical staining for the viral immediate early gene product, infected cell protein 4. The antigen first appeared in retinal pigment epithelial cells 2 h after infection. Treatment of the cells with 33 microM nocodazole, a microtubule-destabilizing drug, delayed the appearance of the viral antigen by 1 h. The effect of nocodazole treatment on microtubule integrity was confirmed by immunofluorescent staining and immunoblots of tubulin. Both cytoplasmic dynein and the ubiquitous form of kinesin were identified in the cells using immunoblots. These novel data indicate that human retinal pigment epithelial cells, like neurons, are susceptible to infection by herpes simplex virus and that the centripetal transport of virus to the nucleus in both cell types is facilitated by microtubules. The orientation of microtubules in retinal pigment epithelial cells suggests that the transport of herpes simplex virus from the apical surface is mediated by a microtubule-activated motor enzyme, possibly kinesin.

Calbindin expression in renal tubular epithelial cells. Altered sodium phosphate co-transport in association with cytoskeletal rearrangement

Sodium-phosphate transport in the opossum kidney (OK) cell line was studied in an OK clonal cell line that was transfected with an episomal vector expressing high levels of rat calbindin (28 kDa). High level expression of calbindin buffered the influx of calcium induced by ionomycin by 53% and raised the basal intracellular calcium from 100 +/- 6 to 150 +/- 8 nM. The decrement in sodium phosphate uptake induced by parathyroid hormone or forskolin was identical in the two cell lines. However, phorbol esters (10(-10)-10(-7) M), which decreased sodium phosphate uptake in the parental OK line, increased it in the calbindin-expressing line. Similarly, the parental clone did not respond to phosphate deprivation, while the calbindin-expressing clone did increase phosphate uptake in response to phosphate deprivation. In the calbindin-expressing cells, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate or low phosphate medium, which increased phosphate transport, produced actin filament aggregation, dissociation of the myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate protein from sub-apical actin, and membrane-associated tyrosine phosphate staining. Agonists that reduced sodium phosphate uptake (cAMP, parathyroid hormone) did not affect these cellular features. The cytoskeletal rearrangement, redistribution of the myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate protein, and membrane tyrosine phosphorylation are suggested to be involved in the events by which phosphate transport is increased in this cell line.

Organization of organelles and membrane traffic by microtubules

Organelles of the central membrane system of higher eukaryotes have been shown to utilize microtubules both for maintenance of their characteristic spatial distributions and for efficient transport of their protein and lipid to diverse sites within the cell. Recent work addressing the mechanisms that underlie this organization provides new insights regarding the roles of microtubules and microtubule motors in influencing organelle dynamics and specific membrane traffic routes through the cytoplasm.

The AQP2 water channel: effect of vasopressin treatment, microtubule disruption, and distribution in neonatal rats

Aquaporin 2 is a collecting duct water channel that is located in apical vesicles and in the apical plasma membrane of collecting duct principal cells. It shares 42% identity with the proximal tubule/thin descending limb water channel, CHIP28. The present study was aimed at addressing three questions concerning the location and behavior of the AQP2 protein under different conditions. First, does the AQP2 channel relocate to the apical membrane after vasopressin treatment? Our results show that AQP2 is diffusely distributed in cytoplasmic vesicles in collecting duct principal cells of homozygous Brattleboro rats that lack vasopressin. In rats injected with exogenous vasopressin, however, AQP2 became concentrated in the apical plasma membrane of principal cells, as determined by immunofluorescence and immunogold electron microscopy. This behavior is consistent with the idea that AQP2 is the vasopressin-sensitive water channel. Second, is the cellular location of AQP2 modified by microtubule disruption? In normal rats, AQP2 has a mainly apical and subapical location in principal cells, but in colchicine-treated rats, it is distributed on vesicles that are scattered throughout the entire cytoplasm. This is consistent with the dependence on microtubules of apical protein targeting in many cell types, and explains the inhibitory effect of microtubule disruption on the hydroosmotic response to vasopressin in sensitive epithelia, including the collecting duct. Third, is AQP2 present in neonatal rat kidneys? We show that AQP2 is abundant in principal cells from neonatal rats at all days after birth. The detection of AQP2 in early neonatal kidneys indicates that a lack of this protein is not responsible for the relatively weak urinary concentrating response to vasopressin seen in neonatal rats.

Involvement of microtubule motors in basolateral and apical transport in kidney cells

The maintenance of a polarized cell surface requires vectorial transport of vesicles to the apical and the basolateral membrane domains. Transport of newly synthesized apical proteins and trans-cytosis from the basolateral to the apical surface have been demonstrated to depend on microtubules. In contrast, movement of membrane proteins to the basolateral surface has been claimed to occur by diffusion and to be microtubule- and actin-independent. We have re-examined the role of microtubules using a recently developed polarized transport assay in permeabilized Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. Here we report that both apical and basolateral transport is inhibited by nocodazole treatment. Transport to the basolateral surface was inhibited by immunodepletion of cytosolic kinesin. In contrast, apical transport involved both dynein and kinesin. Our data demonstrate that in epithelial cells, microtubule motors are involved in the movement of apical and basolateral vesicles. Moreover, we propose that the differential requirement for microtubule-based motors is related to the microtubule organization.

Organization and function of the cytoskeleton in polarized epithelial cells: a component of the protein sorting machinery

Development and maintenance of cell-surface polarity in epithelial cells requires specialized localization of proteins to functionally and structurally distinct plasma membrane domains. The organization of these domains is dependent upon targeted delivery of transport vesicles between different membrane compartments, and upon protein sorting in the membranes of the Golgi complex and cell surface. Increasing evidence has been gathered in recent years that cytoskeletal components facilitate these processes.

Effects of NH4Cl and nocodazole on polarized fibronectin secretion vary amongst different epithelial cell types

The extracellular matrix protein fibronectin was found to be secreted by three polarized epithelial cell lines Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK), Caco-2 and LLC-PK1. About 54 and 46% of fibronectin was secreted from the apical and basolateral cell surfaces, respectively, in MDCK cells. In Caco-2 and LLC-PK1 cells, the majority (about 92-93%) of fibronectin secretion occurs from the basolateral cell surface, with the remaining 7-8% from the apical surface. In all three cell types, NH4Cl was found to inhibit basolateral secretion (resulting in enhanced apical secretion), while total fibronectin secretion was not significantly affected (although a delay in secretion was observed). Nocodazole reduced total fibronectin secretion to about 70% of control levels in MDCK and Caco-2 cells, with significant inhibition on secretion from both surfaces. In contrast, total fibronectin secretion was enhanced by nocodazole in LLC-PK1 cells. Furthermore, the majority of fibronectin secretion was redirected to the apical cell surface in LLC-PK1 cells. These observations demonstrate that the nature as well as the extent of the effects of NH4-Cl and nocodazole on polarized fibronectin secretion varies amongst different epithelial cell types.

Regulation of cell surface polarity in renal epithelia

In the kidney, polarized epithelial cells play critical roles in ion, fluid and solute reabsorption from the ultrafiltrate to the blood supply. Detailed analysis of protein distributions has revealed that ion channels, transporters and pumps are restricted to distinct domains of the plasma membrane that face either the ultrafiltrate (apical membrane) or the blood supply (basal-lateral membrane). The importance of the development and maintenance of the polarized distributions of these proteins in renal epithelia for normal cell function is demonstrated by the fact that several disease states are characterized by abnormal distributions of proteins; for example in polycystic kidney disease, Na+/K(+)-ATPase has been detected in the apical and lateral membranes, compared with normal cells where Na+/K(+)-ATPase is localized in the basal-lateral membrane domain. Recent studies indicate that the development of restricted distributions of proteins at the cell surface of Madin Darby canine kidney epithelial cells is determined by direct sorting of proteins in the trans Golgi network into vesicles that are delivered vectorially to either the apical or basal-lateral membrane. Upon arrival at the plasma membrane, some proteins, such as Na+/K(+)-ATPase, may be selectively retained by binding to the membrane cytoskeleton.

Possible involvement of microtubule disruption in bipolar budding of a Sendai virus mutant, F1-R, in epithelial MDCK cells

Envelope glycoproteins F and HN of wild-type Sendai virus are transported to the apical plasma membrane domain of polarized epithelial MDCK cells, where budding of progeny virus occurs. On the other hand, a pantropic mutant, F1-R, buds bipolarly at both the apical and basolateral domains, and the viral glycoproteins have also been shown to be transported to both of these domains (M. Tashiro, M. Yamakawa, K. Tobita, H.-D. Klenk, R. Rott, and J.T. Seto, J. Virol. 64:4672-4677, 1990). MDCK cells were infected with wild-type virus and treated with the microtubule-depolymerizing drugs colchicine and nocodazole. Budding of the virus and surface expression of the glycoproteins were found to occur in a nonpolarized fashion similar to that found in cells infected with F1-R. In uninfected cells, the drugs were shown to interfere with apical transport of a secretory cellular glycoprotein, gp80, and basolateral uptake of [35S]methionine as well as to disrupt microtubule structure, indicating that cellular polarity of MDCK cells depends on the presence of intact microtubules. Infection by the F1-R mutant partially affected the transport of gp80, uptake of [35S]methionine, and the microtubule network, whereas wild-type virus had a marginal effect. These results suggest that apical transport of the glycoproteins of wild-type Sendai virus in MDCK cells depends on intact microtubules and that bipolar budding by F1-R is possibly due, at least in part, to the disruption of microtubules. Nucleotide sequence analyses of the viral genes suggest that the mutated M protein of F1-R might be involved in the alteration of microtubules.

Epithelial sphingolipid sorting is insensitive to reorganization of the Golgi by nocodazole, but is abolished by monensin in MDCK cells and by brefeldin A in Caco-2 cells

In epithelial MDCK and Caco-2 cells, short-chain analogs of glucosylceramide and sphingomyelin are delivered from the Golgi to the cell surface with different apical/basolateral polarities, which results in an apical enrichment of the glycolipid glucosylceramide over the phospholipid sphingomyelin. Here, we have interfered with the integrity of the Golgi complex in various ways and tested the effects on lipid transport and sorting. Nocodazole, which depolymerizes microtubules, dispersed the Golgi over the cytoplasm of MDCK cells and reduced transport of newly synthesized C6-NBD-(N-6[7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl]aminocaproyl)-glucosy lceramide and C6-NBD-sphingomyelin to the apical surface by 40%. The lipids were not mistargeted to the basolateral surface and upon removal of nocodazole, apical transport recovered. Nocodazole did not affect the apical enrichment of glucosylceramide over sphingomyelin. The ionophore monensin led to swelling of the Golgi of MDCK cells and inhibited lipid transport to the cell surface by 30–50%. Whereas sphingomyelin transport to both surface domains was equally affected, monensin mainly inhibited apical transport of glucosylceramide. At 10–20 microM of monensin, the two lipids displayed the same polarity of delivery: sorting between the two lipids was abolished. Brefeldin A at 1 microgram/ml, which resulted in disruption of the Golgi in HepG2 cells and completely inhibited protein secretion, had no inhibitory effect on transport of the C6-NBD-lipids to the surface. The same was observed in Caco-2 cells. However, brefeldin A selectively shifted transport of sphingomyelin towards the apical direction which abolished the apical enrichment of glucosylceramide over sphingomyelin. Caco-2 cells were used because in MDCK cells brefeldin A did not change Golgi structure nor lipid transport and sorting. In summary, modification of the Golgi by monensin and brefeldin A, but not nocodazole, interfered with the sorting event by which glucosylceramide is enriched over sphingomyelin in the transport pathway from the Golgi to the apical surface.

Regulation of cell surface polarity from bacteria to mammals

The generation of unique domains on the cell, cell surface polarity, is critical for differentiation into the diversity of cell structures and functions found in a wide variety of organisms and cells, including the bacterium Caulobacter crescentus, the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and mammalian polarized epithelial cells. Comparison of the mechanisms for establishing polarity in these cells indicates that restricted membrane protein distributions are generated by selective protein targeting to, and selective protein retention at, the cell surface. Initiation of these mechanisms involves reorientation of components of the cytoskeleton and protein transport pathways toward restricted sites at the cell surface and formation of a targeting patch at those sites for selective recruitment and retention of proteins.

Antimicrotubule drugs inhibit the polarized insertion of an intracellular glycoprotein pool into the apical membrane of Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells

Previous experiments on MDCK cells have demonstrated that the polarized appearance of a 135 kDa glycoprotein (gp135) on the apical plasma membrane can occur through the insertion of both newly synthesized gp135 as well as a pre-existing gp135 intracellular pool. In this study, anticytoskeletal drugs were utilized to determine the role of the cytoskeleton in the polarized delivery of gp135. Colchicine and nocodazole produced a 15–20% inhibition in the apical surface accumulation of newly synthesized gp135 and inhibited the appearance of the gp135 pool by approximately 33%, while cytochalasin D had no affect on the apical accumulation of either newly synthesized gp135 or the gp135 pool. These results indicate that microtubules, but not microfilaments, are involved in the intracellular targeting of gp135. Quantitative immunogold electron microscopy of nocodazole-treated cells demonstrated that gp135 was not mistargeted to the basolateral membrane, suggesting the possibility that some vesicles containing gp135 did not fuse with the apical membrane and remained in the cells. These experiments demonstrate that microtubules are an important component of gp135 insertion into the apical membrane. They also suggest that gp135 resides within vesicles which have an apical membrane recognition signal and cannot fuse with the basolateral membrane. The possibility that these data, and those of others, could support a hypothesis for the presence of two constitutive apical transport pathways is discussed.

The establishment of polarized membrane traffic in Xenopus laevis embryos

Delineation of apical and basolateral membrane domains is a critical step in the epithelialization of the outer layer of cells in the embryo. We have examined the initiation of polarized membrane traffic in Xenopus and show that membrane traffic is not polarized in oocytes but polarized membrane domains appear at first cleavage. The following proteins encoded by injected RNA transcripts were used as markers to monitor membrane traffic: (a) VSV G, a transmembrane glycoprotein preferentially inserted into the basolateral surface of polarized epithelial cells; (b) GThy-1, a fusion protein of VSV G and Thy-1 that is localized to the apical domains of polarized epithelial cells; and (c) prolactin, a peptide hormone that is not polarly secreted. In immature oocytes, there is no polarity in the expression of VSV G or GThy-1, as shown by the constitutive expression of both proteins at the surface in the animal and vegetal hemispheres. At meiotic maturation, membrane traffic to the surface is blocked; the plasma membrane no longer accepts the vesicles synthesized by the oocyte (Leaf, D. L., S. J. Roberts, J. C. Gerhart, and H.-P. Moore. 1990. Dev. Biol. 141:1-12). When RNA transcripts are injected after fertilization, VSV G is expressed only in the internal cleavage membranes (basolateral orientation) and is excluded from the outer surface (apical orientation, original oocyte membrane). In contrast, GThy-1 and prolactin, when expressed in embryos, are inserted or released at both the outer membrane derived from the oocyte and the inner cleavage membranes. Furthermore, not all of the cleavage membrane comes from an embryonic pool of vesicles--some of the cleavage membrane comes from vesicles synthesized during oogenesis. Using prolactin as a marker, we found that a subset of vesicles synthesized during oogenesis was only released after fertilization. However, while embryonic prolactin was secreted from both apical and basolateral surfaces, the secretion of oogenic prolactin was polarized. Oogenic prolactin was secreted only into the blastocoel (from the cleavage membrane), none could be detected in the external medium (from the original oocyte membrane). These results provide the first direct evidence that the oocyte synthesizes a cache of vesicles for specific recruitment to the embryonic cleavage membranes which are polarized beginning with the first cleavage division.

Remodeling the cell surface distribution of membrane proteins during the development of epithelial cell polarity

The development of polarized epithelial cells from unpolarized precursor cells follows induction of cell-cell contacts and requires resorting of proteins into different membrane domains. We show that in MDCK cells the distributions of two membrane proteins, Dg-1 and E-cadherin, become restricted to the basal-lateral membrane domain within 8 h of cell-cell contact. During this time, however, 60-80% of newly synthesized Dg-1 and E-cadherin is delivered directly to the forming apical membrane and then rapidly removed, while the remainder is delivered to the basal-lateral membrane and has a longer residence time. Direct delivery of greater than 95% of these proteins from the Golgi complex to the basal-lateral membrane occurs greater than 48 h later. In contrast, we show that two apical proteins are efficiently delivered and restricted to the apical cell surface within 2 h after cell-cell contact. These results provide insight into mechanisms involved in the development of epithelial cell surface polarity, and the establishment of protein sorting pathways in polarized cells.

Distinct pathways for basolateral targeting of membrane and secretory proteins in polarized epithelial cells

Polarized epithelial cells target distinct sets of membrane and secretory proteins to their apical and basolateral domains. Here we examine whether constitutively secreted and membrane proteins that are bound for the same domain share the same carrier vesicles. To address the issue, differential effects of microtubule depolymerization on basolateral protein targeting in the polarized Madin-Darby canine kidney II cell line were studied. We find that the basolateral insertion of the active, ouabain-binding Na+,K(+)-ATPase and of a set of very late antigen integrins is little affected by microtubule disruption. Under equivalent conditions, the basolateral secretion of the basement membrane protein laminin is strongly suppressed. More specifically, it is demonstrated that microtubules are involved in targeting laminin, but not integrins, from the compartment related to the accumulation of newly synthesized proteins at 20 degrees C (trans-Golgi network) to the basolateral domain. Our study also reveals that laminin associated with basolateral binding sites interacts with those sites only secondarily to secretion. The data provide evidence for a branch in the basolateral targeting pathway, with secreted and membrane proteins loaded into distinct carrier vesicles.

The emerging kinesin family of microtubule motor proteins

A family of proteins related to the microtubule motor, kinesin, is emerging. Members of this family, which includes both plus- and minus-end motors, are involved in nuclear functions such as nuclear fusion after karyogamy, spindle pole-body separation and chromosome segregation, as well as in transport in neuronal cells.

Organization and dynamics of microtubules in Torpedo marmorata electrocyte: selective association with specialized domains of the postsynaptic membrane

The distribution and subcellular organization of two components of the secretory pathway, the Golgi apparatus and microtubules, have been investigated in Torpedo marmorata electrocyte. This highly polarized syncytium, embryologically derived from skeletal muscle cells, displays distinct plasma membrane domains on its innervated and non-innervated faces, and it played a critical role in the identification of the acetylcholine receptor. By immunocytochemical analysis, we show that in the electrocyte, numerous focal Golgi bodies are dispersed throughout the cytoplasm in frequent association with nuclei. Under experimental conditions known to stabilize microtubules, we reveal an elaborate network composed of two populations of microtubules exhibiting different dynamic properties as evaluated by cold-stability, resistance to nocodazole and post-translational modification. This network appears organized from several nucleating centers located in the medial plane of the cell that are devoided of centrioles. The network displays an asymmetric distribution with individual microtubules converging towards the troughs of the postsynaptic membrane folds. In these particular regions, we consistently observed clusters of non-coated vesicles in association with the microtubules. The organization of the microtubules in the electrocyte may thus result in a functional polarization of the cytoplasm. In other polarized cells, the particular organization of the secretory pathway accounts for the intracellular routing of membrane proteins. The organization that we have observed in the electrocyte may thus lead to the vectorial delivery of synaptic proteins to the innervated plasma membrane. Furthermore, the abundance of synaptic proteins makes the electrocyte a unique model with which to decipher the mechanisms involved in the sorting and targeting of these glycoproteins.