Phosphoinositides, ezrin/moesin, and rac1 regulate fusion of rhodopsin transport carriers in retinal photoreceptors

Ribosomal targeting strategy and nuclear labeling to analyze photoreceptor phosphoinositide signatures

Reversible phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol by phosphoinositide (PI) kinases and phosphatases generates seven distinct phosphoinositide phosphates, called phosphoinositides or PIPs. All seven PIPs are formed in the retina and photoreceptor cells. Around 50 genes in the mammalian genome encode PI kinases and PI phosphatases. There are no studies available on the distribution of these enzymes in the retina and photoreceptors.

AIM

To employ Ribosomal Targeting Strategy and Nuclear Labeling to Analyze Phosphoinositide Signatures in rod-photoreceptor cells.

METHODS

HA-tagging of ribosomal protein Rpl22 was induced with Cre-recombinase under the control of the rhodopsin promoter. Actively translating mRNAs associated with polyribosomes were isolated by immunoprecipitation with HA antibody, followed by RNA isolation and gene identification. We also isolated biotinylated-rod nuclei from NuTRAP mice under the control of the rhodopsin-Cre promoter and analyzed nuclear phosphoinositides.

RESULTS

Our results indicate that the expression of class I and class III PI 3-kinase, PI4K IIIβ, PI 5-kinase, PIKfyve, PI3-phosphatases, MTMR2, 4, 6, 7, 14, PI4-phosphatase, TMEM55A, PI 5-phosphatases, SYNJI, INPP5B, INPP5E, INPP5F, SKIP and other phosphatases with dual substrate specificity, PTPMT1, SCAM1, and FIG4 are highly enriched in rod photoreceptor cells compared with the retina and cone-like retina. Our analysis identified the presence of PI(4)P, PI(3,4)P2, PI(3,5)P2, and PI(4,5)P2 in the rod nuclei.

CONCLUSIONS

Our studies for the first time demonstrate the expression of PI kinases, PI phosphatases, and nuclear PIPs in rod photoreceptor cells. The NuTRAP mice may be useful not only for epigenetic and transcriptomic studies but also for in vivo cell-specific lipidomics research.

The Expression of Rab8, Ezrin, Radixin and Moesin in the Ciliary Body of Cynomolgus Monkeys

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine what proteins are present in the ciliary body (CB). To accomplish this, we conducted a proteomic analysis of the CB of cynomolgus monkeys. We also determined the location of the proteins in CB by immunohistology.

Methods

The eyes of euthanized cynomolgus monkeys were enucleated, and the CB, were isolated from the eyes. Proteins were extracted from the CB and determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Separated CB epithelial cells were cultured, and the proteins expressed in the CB were determined by Western blotting. The location of these proteins in the CB was determined by immunohistochemical staining. We also investigated whether adding dexamethasone to the culture medium changed protein expression by the epithelial cells.

Results

Proteomic analysis of the CBs showed that 813 proteins were expressed in the epithelium and stroma. These proteins included the small guanosine triphosphate-binding protein Rab8 and the ezrin/radixin/moesin (ERM) family. Tissue and immunohistological staining confirmed the colocalization of these proteins in non-pigmented CB epithelium. Western blotting of cultured CB epithelial cell lysates showed a tendency that adding dexamethasone changed Rab8 protein expression levels.

Conclusions

Proteomic analysis of CBs identified several proteins involved in the transport and secretion of proteins. These proteins may be involved in the production of aqueous humor and protein secretion by the CB.

Induction of Autophagy Promotes Clearance of RHOP23H Aggregates and Protects From Retinal Degeneration

Autophagy is a critical metabolic process that acts as a major self-digestion and recycling pathway contributing to maintain cellular homeostasis. An emerging field of research supports the therapeutic modulation of autophagy for treating human neurodegenerative disorders, in which toxic aggregates are accumulated in neurons. Our previous study identified Ezrin protein as an inhibitor of autophagy and lysosomal functions in the retina; thus, in turn, identifying it as a potential pharmacological target for increasing retinal cell clearance to treat inherited retinal dystrophies in which misfolded proteins have accumulated. This study aimed to verify the therapeutic inhibition of Ezrin to induce clearance of toxic aggregates in a mouse model for a dominant form of retinitis pigmentosa (i.e., RHOP23H/+). We found that daily inhibition of Ezrin significantly decreased the accumulation of misfolded RHOP23H aggregates. Remarkably, induction of autophagy, by a drug-mediated pulsatile inhibition of Ezrin, promoted the lysosomal clearance of disease-linked RHOP23H aggregates. This was accompanied with a reduction of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stress, robust decrease of photoreceptors' cell death, amelioration in both retinal morphology and function culminating in a better preservation of vision. Our study opens new perspectives for a pulsatile pharmacological induction of autophagy as a mutation-independent therapy paving the way toward a more effective therapeutic strategy to treat these devastating retinal disorders due to an accumulation of intracellular toxic aggregates.

Dynamic lipid turnover in photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium throughout life

The retinal pigment epithelium-photoreceptor interphase is renewed each day in a stunning display of cellular interdependence. While photoreceptors use photosensitive pigments to convert light into electrical signals, the RPE supports photoreceptors in their function by phagocytizing shed photoreceptor tips, regulating the blood retina barrier, and modulating inflammatory responses, as well as regenerating the 11-cis-retinal chromophore via the classical visual cycle. These processes involve multiple protein complexes, tightly regulated ligand-receptors interactions, and a plethora of lipids and protein-lipids interactions. The role of lipids in maintaining a healthy interplay between the RPE and photoreceptors has not been fully delineated. In recent years, novel technologies have resulted in major advancements in understanding several facets of this interplay, including the involvement of lipids in phagocytosis and phagolysosome function, nutrient recycling, and the metabolic dependence between the two cell types. In this review, we aim to integrate the complex role of lipids in photoreceptor and RPE function, emphasizing the dynamic exchange between the cells as well as discuss how these processes are affected in aging and retinal diseases.

Functional compartmentalization of photoreceptor neurons

Retinal photoreceptors are neurons that convert dynamically changing patterns of light into electrical signals that are processed by retinal interneurons and ultimately transmitted to vision centers in the brain. They represent the essential first step in seeing without which the remainder of the visual system is rendered moot. To support this role, the major functions of photoreceptors are segregated into three main specialized compartments-the outer segment, the inner segment, and the pre-synaptic terminal. This compartmentalization is crucial for photoreceptor function-disruption leads to devastating blinding diseases for which therapies remain elusive. In this review, we examine the current understanding of the molecular and physical mechanisms underlying photoreceptor functional compartmentalization and highlight areas where significant knowledge gaps remain.

Signaling roles of phosphoinositides in the retina

The field of phosphoinositide signaling has expanded significantly in recent years. Phosphoinositides (also known as phosphatidylinositol phosphates or PIPs) are universal signaling molecules that directly interact with membrane proteins or with cytosolic proteins containing domains that directly bind phosphoinositides and are recruited to cell membranes. Through the activities of phosphoinositide kinases and phosphoinositide phosphatases, seven distinct phosphoinositide lipid molecules are formed from the parent molecule, phosphatidylinositol. PIP signals regulate a wide range of cellular functions, including cytoskeletal assembly, membrane budding and fusion, ciliogenesis, vesicular transport, and signal transduction. Given the many excellent reviews on phosphoinositide kinases, phosphoinositide phosphatases, and PIPs in general, in this review, we discuss recent studies and advances in PIP lipid signaling in the retina. We specifically focus on PIP lipids from vertebrate (e.g., bovine, rat, mouse, toad, and zebrafish) and invertebrate (e.g., Drosophila, horseshoe crab, and squid) retinas. We also discuss the importance of PIPs revealed from animal models and human diseases, and methods to study PIP levels both in vitro and in vivo. We propose that future studies should investigate the function and mechanism of activation of PIP-modifying enzymes/phosphatases and further unravel PIP regulation and function in the different cell types of the retina.

Compartmentalization of Photoreceptor Sensory Cilia

Functional compartmentalization of cells is a universal strategy for segregating processes that require specific components, undergo regulation by modulating concentrations of those components, or that would be detrimental to other processes. Primary cilia are hair-like organelles that project from the apical plasma membranes of epithelial cells where they serve as exclusive compartments for sensing physical and chemical signals in the environment. As such, molecules involved in signal transduction are enriched within cilia and regulating their ciliary concentrations allows adaptation to the environmental stimuli. The highly efficient organization of primary cilia has been co-opted by major sensory neurons, olfactory cells and the photoreceptor neurons that underlie vision. The mechanisms underlying compartmentalization of cilia are an area of intense current research. Recent findings have revealed similarities and differences in molecular mechanisms of ciliary protein enrichment and its regulation among primary cilia and sensory cilia. Here we discuss the physiological demands on photoreceptors that have driven their evolution into neurons that rely on a highly specialized cilium for signaling changes in light intensity. We explore what is known and what is not known about how that specialization appears to have driven unique mechanisms for photoreceptor protein and membrane compartmentalization.

The entangled relationship between cilia and actin

Primary cilia are microtubule-based sensory cell organelles that are vital for tissue and organ development. They act as an antenna, receiving and transducing signals, enabling communication between cells. Defects in ciliogenesis result in severe genetic disorders collectively termed ciliopathies. In recent years, the importance of the direct and indirect involvement of actin regulators in ciliogenesis came into focus as it was shown that F-actin polymerisation impacts ciliation. The ciliary basal body was further identified as both a microtubule and actin organising centre. In the current review, we summarize recent studies on F-actin in and around primary cilia, focusing on different actin regulators and their effect on ciliogenesis, from the initial steps of basal body positioning and regulation of ciliary assembly and disassembly. Since primary cilia are also involved in several intracellular signalling pathways such as planar cell polarity (PCP), subsequently affecting actin rearrangements, the multiple effectors of this pathway are highlighted in more detail with a focus on the feedback loops connecting actin networks and cilia proteins. Finally, we elucidate the role of actin regulators in the development of ciliopathy symptoms and cancer.

C-terminal phosphorylation modulates ERM-1 localization and dynamics to control cortical actin organization and support lumen formation during Caenorhabditiselegans development

ERM proteins are conserved regulators of cortical membrane specialization that function as membrane-actin linkers and molecular hubs. The activity of ERM proteins requires a conformational switch from an inactive cytoplasmic form into an active membrane- and actin-bound form, which is thought to be mediated by sequential PIP2 binding and phosphorylation of a conserved C-terminal threonine residue. Here, we use the single Caenorhabditiselegans ERM ortholog, ERM-1, to study the contribution of these regulatory events to ERM activity and tissue formation in vivo Using CRISPR/Cas9-generated erm-1 mutant alleles, we demonstrate that a PIP2-binding site is crucially required for ERM-1 function. By contrast, dynamic regulation of C-terminal T544 phosphorylation is not essential but modulates ERM-1 apical localization and dynamics in a tissue-specific manner, to control cortical actin organization and support lumen formation in epithelial tubes. Our work highlights the dynamic nature of ERM protein regulation during tissue morphogenesis and the importance of C-terminal phosphorylation in fine-tuning ERM activity in a tissue-specific context.

Phosphoinositide Lipids in Ocular Tissues

Inositol phospholipids play an important role in cell physiology. The inositol head groups are reversibly phosphorylated to produce seven distinct phosphorylated inositides, commonly referred to as phosphoinositides (PIs). These seven PIs are dynamically interconverted from one PI to another by the action of PI kinases and PI phosphatases. The PI signals regulate a wide variety of cellular functions, including organelle distinction, vesicular transport, cytoskeletal organization, nuclear events, regulation of ion channels, cell signaling, and host–pathogen interactions. Most of the studies of PIs in ocular tissues are based on the PI enzymes and PI phosphatases. In this study, we examined the PI levels in the cornea, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), and retina using PI-binding protein as probes. We have examined the lipids PI(3)P, PI(4)P, PI(3,4)P₂, PI(4,5)P₂, and PI(3,4,5)P₃, and each is present in the cornea, RPE, and retina. Alterations in the levels of these PIs in mouse models of retinal disease and corneal infections have been reported, and the results of our study will help in the management of anomalous phosphoinositide metabolism in ocular tissues.

Phosphoinositide Profile of the Mouse Retina

Phosphoinositides are known to play multiple roles in eukaryotic cells. Although dysregulation of phosphoinositide metabolism in the retina has been reported to cause visual dysfunction in animal models and human patients, our understanding of the phosphoinositide composition of the retina is limited. Here, we report a characterization of the phosphoinositide profile of the mouse retina and an analysis of the subcellular localization of major phosphorylated phosphoinositide forms in light-sensitive photoreceptor neurons. Using chromatography of deacylated phosphatidylinositol headgroups, we established PI(4,5)P₂ and PI(4)P as two major phosphorylated phosphoinositides in the retina. Using high-resolution mass spectrometry, we revealed 18:0/20:4 and 16:0/20:4 as major fatty-acyl chains of retinal phosphoinositides. Finally, analysis of fluorescent phosphoinositide sensors in rod photoreceptors demonstrated distinct subcellular distribution patterns of major phosphoinositides. The PI(4,5)P₂ reporter was enriched in the inner segments and synapses, but was barely detected in the light-sensitive outer segments. The PI(4)P reporter was mostly found in the outer and inner segments and the areas around nuclei, but to a lesser degree in the synaptic region. These findings provide support for future mechanistic studies defining the biological significance of major mono- (PI(4)P) and bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P₂) phosphatidylinositols in photoreceptor biology and retinal health.

Phosphoinositides in Retinal Function and Disease

Phosphatidylinositol and its phosphorylated derivatives, the phosphoinositides, play many important roles in all eukaryotic cells. These include modulation of physical properties of membranes, activation or inhibition of membrane-associated proteins, recruitment of peripheral membrane proteins that act as effectors, and control of membrane trafficking. They also serve as precursors for important second messengers, inositol (1,4,5) trisphosphate and diacylglycerol. Animal models and human diseases involving defects in phosphoinositide regulatory pathways have revealed their importance for function in the mammalian retina and retinal pigmented epithelium. New technologies for localizing, measuring and genetically manipulating them are revealing new information about their importance for the function and health of the vertebrate retina.

An interaction network between the SNARE VAMP7 and Rab GTPases within a ciliary membrane-targeting complex

The Arf4-rhodopsin complex (mediated by the VxPx motif in rhodopsin) initiates expansion of vertebrate rod photoreceptor cilia-derived light-sensing organelles through stepwise assembly of a conserved trafficking network. Here, we examine its role in the sorting of VAMP7 (also known as TI-VAMP) - an R-SNARE possessing a regulatory longin domain (LD) - into rhodopsin transport carriers (RTCs). During RTC formation and trafficking, VAMP7 colocalizes with the ciliary cargo rhodopsin and interacts with the Rab11-Rabin8-Rab8 trafficking module. Rab11 and Rab8 bind the VAMP7 LD, whereas Rabin8 (also known as RAB3IP) interacts with the SNARE domain. The Arf/Rab11 effector FIP3 (also known as RAB11FIP3) regulates VAMP7 access to Rab11. At the ciliary base, VAMP7 forms a complex with the cognate SNAREs syntaxin 3 and SNAP-25. When expressed in transgenic animals, a GFP-VAMP7ΔLD fusion protein and a Y45E phosphomimetic mutant colocalize with endogenous VAMP7. The GFP-VAMP7-R150E mutant displays considerable localization defects that imply an important role of the R-SNARE motif in intracellular trafficking, rather than cognate SNARE pairing. Our study defines the link between VAMP7 and the ciliary targeting nexus that is conserved across diverse cell types, and contributes to general understanding of how functional Arf and Rab networks assemble SNAREs in membrane trafficking.

Photoreceptor actin dysregulation in syndromic and non-syndromic retinitis pigmentosa

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is the leading cause of inherited blindness. RP is a genetically heterogeneous disorder, with more than 100 different causal genes identified in patients. Central to disease pathogenesis is the progressive loss of retinal photoreceptors. Photoreceptors are specialised sensory neurons that exhibit a complex and highly dynamic morphology. The highly polarised and elaborated architecture of photoreceptors requires precise regulation of numerous cytoskeletal elements. In recent years, significant work has been placed on investigating the role of microtubules (specifically, the acetylated microtubular axoneme of the photoreceptor connecting cilium) and their role in normal photoreceptor function. This has been driven by the emerging field of ciliopathies, human diseases arising from mutations in genes required for cilia formation or function, of which RP is a frequently reported phenotype. Recent studies have highlighted an intimate relationship between cilia and the actin cystoskeleton. This review will focus on the role of actin in photoreceptors, examining the connection between actin dysregulation in RP.

Aberrant protein trafficking in retinal degenerations: The initial phase of retinal remodeling

Retinal trafficking proteins are involved in molecular assemblies that govern protein transport, orchestrate cellular events involved in cilia formation, regulate signal transduction, autophagy and endocytic trafficking, all of which if not properly controlled initiate retinal degeneration. Improper function and or trafficking of these proteins and molecular networks they are involved in cause a detrimental cascade of neural retinal remodeling due to cell death, resulting as devastating blinding diseases. A universal finding in retinal degenerative diseases is the profound detection of retinal remodeling, occurring as a phased modification of neural retinal function and structure, which begins at the molecular level. Retinal remodeling instigated by aberrant trafficking of proteins encompasses many forms of retinal degenerations, such as the diverse forms of retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and disorders that resemble RP through mutations in the rhodopsin gene, retinal ciliopathies, and some forms of glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). As a large majority of genes associated with these different retinopathies are overlapping, it is imperative to understand their underlying molecular mechanisms. This review will discuss some of the most recent discoveries in vertebrate retinal remodeling and retinal degenerations caused by protein mistrafficking.

Cdc42 and sec10 Are Required for Normal Retinal Development in Zebrafish

PURPOSE

To characterize the function and mechanisms of cdc42 and sec10 in eye development in zebrafish.

METHODS

Knockdown of zebrafish cdc42 and sec10 was carried out using antisense morpholino injection. The phenotype of morphants was characterized by histology, immunohistology, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). To investigate a synergistic genetic interaction between cdc42 and sec10, we titrated suboptimal doses of cdc42 and sec10 morpholinos, and coinjected both morpholinos. To study trafficking, a melanosome transport assay was performed using epinephrine.

RESULTS

Cdc42 and sec10 knockdown in zebrafish resulted in both abnormal eye development and increased retinal cell death. Cdc42 morphants had a relatively normal retinal structure, aside from the absence of most connecting cilia and outer segments, whereas in sec10 morphants, much of the outer nuclear layer, which is composed of the photoreceptor nuclei, was missing and RPE cell thickness was markedly irregular. Knockdown of cdc42 and sec10 also resulted in an intracellular transport defect affecting retrograde melanosome transport. Furthermore, there was a synergistic genetic interaction between zebrafish cdc42 and sec10, suggesting that cdc42 and sec10 act in the same pathway in retinal development.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose a model whereby sec10 and cdc42 play a central role in development of the outer segment of the retinal photoreceptor cell by trafficking proteins necessary for ciliogenesis.

Light, lipids and photoreceptor survival: live or let die?

Due to its constant exposure to light and its high oxygen consumption the retina is highly sensitive to oxidative damage, which is a common factor in inducing the death of photoreceptors after light damage or in inherited retinal degenerations. The high content of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), the major polyunsaturated fatty acid in the retina, has been suggested to contribute to this sensitivity. DHA is crucial for developing and preserving normal visual function. However, further roles of DHA in the retina are still controversial. Current data support that it can tilt the scale either towards degeneration or survival of retinal cells. DHA peroxidation products can be deleterious to the retina and might lead to retinal degeneration. However, DHA has also been shown to act as, or to be the source of, a survival molecule that protects photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium cells from oxidative damage. We have established that DHA protects photoreceptors from oxidative stress-induced apoptosis and promotes their differentiation in vitro. DHA activates the retinoid X receptor (RXR) and the ERK/MAPK pathway, thus regulating the expression of anti and pro-apoptotic proteins. It also orchestrates a diversity of signaling pathways, modulating enzymatic pathways that control the sphingolipid metabolism and activate antioxidant defense mechanisms to promote photoreceptor survival and development. A deeper comprehension of DHA signaling pathways and context-dependent behavior is required to understand its dual functions in retinal physiology.

CD44 functions in Wnt signaling by regulating LRP6 localization and activation

Wnt reception at the membrane is complex and not fully understood. CD44 is a major Wnt target gene in the intestine and is essential for Wnt-induced tumor progression in colorectal cancer. Here we show that CD44 acts as a positive regulator of the Wnt receptor complex. Downregulation of CD44 expression decreases, whereas CD44 overexpression increases Wnt activity in a concentration-dependent manner. Epistasis experiments place CD44 function at the level of the Wnt receptor LRP6. Mechanistically, CD44 physically associates with LRP6 upon Wnt treatment and modulates LRP6 membrane localization. Moreover, CD44 regulates Wnt signaling in the developing brain of Xenopus laevis embryos as shown by a decreased expression of Wnt targets tcf-4 and en-2 in CD44 morphants.

The Arf and Rab11 effector FIP3 acts synergistically with ASAP1 to direct Rabin8 in ciliary receptor targeting

Primary cilia have gained considerable importance in biology and disease now that their involvement in a wide range of human ciliopathies has been abundantly documented. However, detailed molecular mechanisms for specific targeting of sensory receptors to primary cilia are still unknown. Here, we show that the Arf and Rab11 effector FIP3 (also known as RAB11FIP3) promotes the activity of Rab11a and the Arf GTPase-activating protein (GAP) ASAP1 in the Arf4-dependent ciliary transport of the sensory receptor rhodopsin. During its passage out of the photoreceptor Golgi and trans-Golgi network (TGN), rhodopsin indirectly interacts with FIP3 through Rab11a and ASAP1. FIP3 competes with rhodopsin for binding to ASAP1 and displaces it from the ternary complex with Arf4-GTP and ASAP1. Resembling the phenotype resulting from </emph>lack of ASAP1, ablation of FIP3 abolishes ciliary targeting and causes rhodopsin mislocalization. FIP3 coordinates the interactions of ASAP1 and Rab11a with the Rab8 guanine nucleotide exchange factor Rabin8 (also known as RAB3IP). Our study implies that FIP3 functions as a crucial targeting regulator, which impinges on rhodopsin-ASAP1 interactions and shapes the binding pocket for Rabin8 within the ASAP1-Rab11a-FIP3 targeting complex, thus facilitating the orderly assembly and activation of the Rab11-Rabin8-Rab8 cascade during ciliary receptor trafficking.

Greasing the protein biosynthesis machinery of photoreceptor neurons: Role for postprenylation processing of proteins

Daily phagocytosis of outer segments (OS) places extraordinary demands on protein biosynthesis and trafficking in photoreceptor neurons. While the members and roles of the phototransduction pathway in the OS are well characterized, details about protein trafficking are just beginning to emerge. Phosphodiesterase6 (PDE6), the effector enzyme in phototransduction cascade, serves as an example of the steps multimeric proteins must pass through to achieve their functional state in the OS. Genetic model systems have recently provided snapshots of various steps in the pathway, as experimental difficulties such as an inability to maintain ciliated photoreceptor outer segments or express functional PDE6 holoenzyme in vitro necessitate in vivo studies. We will highlight the significant findings, their implications to blinding diseases, as well as discuss the gaps requiring further investigation.

The interaction network of rhodopsin involving the heterotrimeric G-protein transducin and the monomeric GTPase Rac1 is determined by distinct binding processes

The monomeric G-protein Rac1, a member of the family of Rho/Rac/Cdc42 GTPases, is involved in light-induced photoreceptor degeneration, but its specific role remains elusive. In particular, reports on Rac1 interacting with the visual pigment rhodopsin are puzzling and need a more quantitative examination. We probed the presence of Rac1 in rod outer segments by immunohistochemical staining of bovine retinae and western blot analysis of isolated rod outer segments. Rac1 was present throughout the whole retina except in the outer and inner nuclear layers, but was strongly expressed in photoreceptor cells. Rac1 was distributed in three different fractions of rod outer segments: one fraction was soluble in detergents, a second fraction cosegregated with lipid rafts, and a third fraction was associated with lipid bilayer free axonemal/cytoskeletal structures. We also investigated the interaction between rhodopsin and Rac1 by using surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy under dark and light conditions. Biophysical interaction studies revealed that Rac1 could interact with rhodopsin, but in a light-independent manner, and kinetic analysis indicated that binding of Rac1 occurred with lower affinity and speed than the association of transducin and rhodopsin. Thus, in dark-adapted rod cells, Rac1 cannot compete with transducin for binding to rhodopsin, and signalling can proceed normally. Instead, the concentration of transducin has to drop significantly so that Rac1 can bind to rhodopsin; in the outer segment, this occurs only under intense illumination, when transducin is translocated to the inner segment.

Transgenic expression of constitutively active RAC1 disrupts mouse rod morphogenesis

PURPOSE

Dominant-active RAC1 rescues photoreceptor structure in Drosophila rhodopsin-null mutants, indicating an important role in morphogenesis. This report assesses the morphogenetic effect of activated RAC1 during mammalian rod photoreceptor development using transgenic mice that express constitutively active (CA) RAC1.

METHODS

Transgenic mice were generated by expressing CA RAC1 under control of the Rhodopsin promoter, and morphological features of the photoreceptors were evaluated by histology, immunohistochemistry, and transmission electron microscopy. Function was evaluated by electroretinography. Potential protein partners of CA RAC1 were identified by co-immunoprecipitation of retinal extracts.

RESULTS

Constitutively active RAC1 expression in differentiating rods disrupted outer retinal lamination as early as postnatal day (P)6, and many photoreceptor cell nuclei were displaced apically into the presumptive subretinal space. These photoreceptors did not develop normal inner and outer segments and had abnormal placement of synaptic elements. Some photoreceptor nuclei were also mislocalized into the inner nuclear layer. Extensive photoreceptor degeneration was subsequently observed in the adult animal. Constitutively active RAC1 formed a complex with the polarity protein PAR6 and with microtubule motor dynein in mouse retina. The normal localization of the PAR6 complex was disrupted in CA RAC1-expressing rod photoreceptors.

CONCLUSIONS

Constitutively active RAC1 had a profound negative effect on mouse rod cell viability and development. Rod photoreceptors in the CA RAC1 retina exhibited a defect in polarity and migration. Constitutively active RAC1 disrupted rod morphogenesis and gave a phenotype resembling that found in the Crumbs mutant. PAR6 and dynein are two potential downstream effectors that may be involved in CA RAC1-mediated defective mouse photoreceptor morphogenesis.

Crosstalk of Arf and Rab GTPases en route to cilia

Small GTPases are versatile temporal and spatial regulators of virtually all cellular processes including signal transduction, cytoskeleton dynamics and membrane trafficking. They function as molecular switches, aided by a multitude of regulatory and effector proteins that link them into functional networks. A picture is beginning to emerge whereupon scaffold proteins with many functional domains perform the regulatory and effector functions, thus allowing the ordered recruitment and activation of small GTPases. This leads to the formation of scaffolding patches that coordinate cargo concentration and capture, with the recruitment and activation of the membrane tethering complexes and fusion regulators. This review will focus on the crosstalk of Arf and Rab GTPases at the Golgi complex and the scaffolds that facilitate their activation during trafficking of sensory receptors to primary cilia. The evolutionary conservation of the GTPase cascades in ciliogenesis and yeast budding will be discussed.

Intracellular lumen extension requires ERM-1-dependent apical membrane expansion and AQP-8-mediated flux

Many unicellular tubes such as capillaries form lumens intracellularly, a process that is not well understood. Here we show that the cortical membrane organizer ERM-1 is required to expand the intracellular apical/lumenal membrane and its actin undercoat during single-cell C.elegans excretory canal morphogenesis. We characterize AQP-8, identified in an ERM-1 overexpression (ERM-1[++]) suppressor screen, as a canalicular aquaporin that interacts with ERM-1 in lumen extension in a mercury-sensitive manner, implicating water-channel activity. AQP-8 is transiently recruited to the lumen by ERM-1, co-localizing in peri-lumenal cuffs interspaced along expanding canals. An ERM-1[++]-mediated increase in the number of lumen-associated canaliculi is reversed by AQP-8 depletion. We propose that the ERM-1-AQP-8 interaction propels lumen extension by translumenal flux, suggesting a direct morphogenetic effect of water-channel-regulated fluid pressure.

Scoring a backstage pass: mechanisms of ciliogenesis and ciliary access

Cilia are conserved, microtubule-based cell surface projections that emanate from basal bodies, membrane-docked centrioles. The beating of motile cilia and flagella enables cells to swim and epithelia to displace fluids. In contrast, most primary cilia do not beat but instead detect environmental or intercellular stimuli. Inborn defects in both kinds of cilia cause human ciliopathies, diseases with diverse manifestations such as heterotaxia and kidney cysts. These diseases are caused by defects in ciliogenesis or ciliary function. The signaling functions of cilia require regulation of ciliary composition, which depends on the control of protein traffic into and out of cilia.

Molecular assemblies that control rhodopsin transport to the cilia

This review will focus on the conserved molecular mechanisms for the specific targeting of rhodopsin and rhodopsin-like sensory receptors to the primary cilia. We will discuss the molecular assemblies that control the movement of rhodopsin from the central sorting station of the cell, the trans-Golgi network (TGN), into membrane-enclosed rhodopsin transport carriers (RTCs), and their delivery to the primary cilia and the cilia-derived sensory organelle, the rod outer segment (ROS). Recent studies reveal that these processes are initiated by the synergistic interaction of rhodopsin with the active form of the G-protein Arf4 and the Arf GTPase activating protein (GAP) ASAP1. During rhodopsin progression, ASAP1 serves as an activation platform that brings together the proteins necessary for transport to the cilia, including the Rab11a-Rabin8-Rab8 complex involved in ciliogenesis. These specialized molecular assemblies, through successive action of discrete modules, cooperatively determine how rhodopsin and other rhodopsin-like signaling receptors gain access to primary cilia.

Prominin-1 localizes to the open rims of outer segment lamellae in Xenopus laevis rod and cone photoreceptors

PURPOSE

Prominin-1 expresses in rod and cone photoreceptors. Mutations in the prominin-1 gene cause retinal degeneration in humans. In this study, the authors investigated the expression and subcellular localization of xlProminin-1 protein, the Xenopus laevis ortholog of prominin-1, in rod and cone photoreceptors of this frog.

METHODS

Antibodies specific for xlProminin-1 were generated. Immunoblotting was used to study the expression and posttranslational processing of xlProminin-1 protein. Immunocytochemical light and electron microscopy and transgenesis were used to study the subcellular distribution of xlProminin-1.

RESULTS

xlProminin-1 is expressed and is subject to posttranslational proteolytic processing in the retina, brain, and kidney. xlProminin-1 is differently expressed and localized in outer segments of rod and cone photoreceptors of X. laevis. Antibodies specific for the N or C termini of xlProminin-1 labeled the open rims of lamellae of cone outer segments (COS) and the open lamellae at the base of rod outer segments (ROS). By contrast, anti-peripherin-2/rds antibody, Xper5A11, labeled the closed rims of cone lamellae adjacent to the ciliary axoneme and the rims of the closed ROS disks. The extent of labeling of the basal ROS by anti-xlProminin-1 antibodies varied with the light cycle in this frog. The entire ROS was also faintly labeled by both antibodies, a result that contrasts with the current notion that prominin-1 localizes only to the basal ROS.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that xlProminin-1 may serve as an anti-fusogenic factor in the regulation of disk morphogenesis and may help to maintain the open lamellar structure of basal ROS and COS disks in X. laevis photoreceptors.

Defective trafficking of rhodopsin and its role in retinal degenerations

Retinitis pigmentosa is a retinal degeneration transmitted by varied modes of inheritance and affects approximately 1 in 4000 individuals. The photoreceptors of the outer retina, as well as the retinal pigmented epithelium which supports the outer retina metabolically and structurally, are the retinal regions most affected by the disorder. In several forms of retinitis pigmentosa, the mislocalization of the rod photoreceptor protein rhodopsin is thought to be a contributing factor underlying the pathophysiology seen in patients. The mutations causing this mislocalization often occur in genes coding proteins involved in ciliary formation, vesicular transport, rod outer segment disc formation, and stability, as well as the rhodopsin protein itself. Often, these mutations result in the most early-onset cases of both recessive and dominant retinitis pigmentosa, and the following presents a discussion of the proteins, their degenerative phenotypes, and possible treatments of the disease.

Current understanding of usher syndrome type II

Usher syndrome is the most common deafness-blindness caused by genetic mutations. To date, three genes have been identified underlying the most prevalent form of Usher syndrome, the type II form (USH2). The proteins encoded by these genes are demonstrated to form a complex in vivo. This complex is localized mainly at the periciliary membrane complex in photoreceptors and the ankle-link of the stereocilia in hair cells. Many proteins have been found to interact with USH2 proteins in vitro, suggesting that they are potential additional components of this USH2 complex and that the genes encoding these proteins may be the candidate USH2 genes. However, further investigations are critical to establish their existence in the USH2 complex in vivo. Based on the predicted functional domains in USH2 proteins, their cellular localizations in photoreceptors and hair cells, the observed phenotypes in USH2 mutant mice, and the known knowledge about diseases similar to USH2, putative biological functions of the USH2 complex have been proposed. Finally, therapeutic approaches for this group of diseases are now being actively explored.

The role of RPGR in cilia formation and actin stability

Mutations in the retinitis pigmentosa GTPase regulator (RPGR) protein cause one of the most common and severe forms of inherited retinal dystrophy. In spite of numerous studies, the precise function of RPGR remains unclear, as is the mechanism by which RPGR mutations cause retinal degeneration. We have analysed the function of RPGR by RNA interference-mediated translational suppression [knockdown (KD)] using a model cellular system for studying the formation, maintenance and function of primary cilia (human telomerase-immortalized retinal pigmented epithelium 1 cells). We observed that RPGR-deficient cells exhibited reduced numbers of cilia, slower cell cycle progression and impaired attachment to fibronectin, but showed no migration defects in a wound-healing assay. RPGR KD cells showed stronger actin filaments, associated with basal dysregulation of the Akt, Erk1/2, focal adhesion kinase and Src signalling pathways, as well as a 20% reduction in β1-integrin receptors at the cell surface and impaired fibronectin-induced signalling. Stronger actin filaments and impairment of the above signalling pathways suggest a common underlying mechanism for all of the cellular phenotypes observed in RPGR KD cells. Our data underline a novel function for RPGR in cilia formation and in the regulation of actin stress filaments, suggesting that, in the retina, it may regulate nascent photoreceptor disc formation by regulating actin-mediated membrane extension.

Rabs and other small GTPases in ciliary transport

The non-motile primary cilium is a single, microtubule-based hair-like projection that emanates from most, if not all, non-dividing mammalian cells. Enriched in a variety of signalling receptors and accessories, the cilium mediates crucial sensory and regulatory functions during development and postnatal tissue homoeostasis. Maintenance of ciliary morphology and function requires continuous IFT (intraflagellar transport), and recent findings have shed light on some molecular details of how ciliogenesis is dependent on targeted exocytic membrane trafficking from the Golgi. The ARL [Arf (ADP ribosylation factor)-related] small GTPase Arf4 functions in TGN (trans-Golgi network) sorting of cilia-targeted rhodopsin into carrier vesicles, while Arl6 (Arf-like 6) and Arl13b regulate aspects of ciliary transport and IFT. Ciliogenesis and ciliary functions are also regulated by small Rabs. Rab8a, in conjunction with Rab11a, and via its interaction with a multitude of proteins associated with the ciliary basal body and axoneme/membrane, appears to be critical for ciliogenesis. Rab8's close homologue Rab10 may also play a ciliogenic role in some cells. Rab23, the depletion or inactivation of which affects cilia formation, may regulate specific ciliary protein targeting and turnover, particularly those involved in Shh (Sonic hedgehog) signalling. Recent findings have also implicated Ran, a small GTPase better known for nuclear import, in ciliary targeting of the KIF17 motor protein. We highlight and discuss recent findings on how Rabs and other small GTPases mediate ciliogenesis and ciliary traffic.

Immunocytochemical evidence of Tulp1-dependent outer segment protein transport pathways in photoreceptor cells

Tulp1 is a protein of unknown function exclusive to rod and cone photoreceptor cells. Mutations in the gene cause autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa in humans and photoreceptor degeneration in mice. In tulp1-/- mice, rod and cone opsins are mislocalized, and rhodopsin-bearing extracellular vesicles accumulate around the inner segment, indicating that Tulp1 is involved in protein transport from the inner segment to the outer segment. To investigate this further, we sought to define which outer segment transport pathways are Tulp1-dependent. We used immunohistochemistry to examine the localization of outer segment proteins in tulp1-/- photoreceptors, prior to retinal degeneration. We also surveyed the condition of inner segment organelles and rhodopsin transport machinery proteins. Herein, we show that guanylate cyclase 1 and guanylate cyclase activating proteins 1 and 2 are mislocalized in the absence of Tulp1. Furthermore, arrestin does not translocate to the outer segment in response to light stimulation. Additionally, data from the tulp1-/- retina adds to the understanding of peripheral membrane protein transport, indicating that rhodopsin kinase and transducin do not co-transport in rhodopsin carrier vesicles and phosphodiesterase does not co-transport in guanylate cyclase carrier vesicles. These data implicate Tulp1 in the transport of selective integral membrane outer segment proteins and their associated proteins, specifically, the opsin and guanylate cyclase carrier pathways. The exact role of Tulp1 in outer segment protein transport remains elusive. However, without Tulp1, two rhodopsin transport machinery proteins exhibit abnormal distribution, Rab8 and Rab11, suggesting a role for Tulp1 in vesicular docking and fusion at the plasma membrane near the connecting cilium.

800 facets of retinal degeneration

In today's world of genomics and large computational analyses, rapid progress has been made in identifying genes associated with human retinal diseases. Nevertheless, before significant advances toward effective therapeutic intervention is made, a clearer understanding of the molecular and cellular role of these gene products in normal and diseased photoreceptor cell biology is required. Given the complexity of the vertebrate retina, these advancements are unlikely to be revealed in isolated human cell lines, but instead, will require the use of numerous model systems. Here, we describe several parallels between vertebrate and invertebrate photoreceptor cell biology that are beginning to emerge and advocate the use of Drosophila melanogaster as a powerful genetic model system for uncovering molecular mechanisms of human retinal pathologies, in particular photoreceptor neurodegeneration.

Regulating survival and development in the retina: key roles for simple sphingolipids

Many sphingolipids have key functions in the regulation of crucial cellular processes. Ceramide (Cer) and sphingosine (Sph) induce growth arrest and cell death in multiple situations of cellular stress. On the contrary, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), the product of Sph phosphorylation, promotes proliferation, differentiation, and survival in different cell systems. This review summarizes the roles of these simple sphingolipids in different tissues and then analyzes their possible functions in the retina. Alterations in proliferation, neovascularization, differentiation, and cell death are critical in major retina diseases and collective evidence points to a role for sphingolipids in these processes. Cer induces inflammation and apoptosis in endothelial and retinal pigmented epithelium cells, leading to several retinopathies. S1P can prevent this death but also promotes cell proliferation that might lead to neovascularization and fibrosis. Recent data support Cer and Sph as crucial mediators in the induction of photoreceptor apoptosis in diverse models of oxidative damage and neurodegeneration, and suggest that regulating their metabolism can prevent this death. New evidence proposes a central role for S1P controlling photoreceptor survival and differentiation. Finally, this review discusses the ability of trophic factors to regulate sphingolipid metabolism and transactivate S1P signaling pathways to control survival and development in retina photoreceptors.

Molecular mechanisms of protein and lipid targeting to ciliary membranes

Cilia are specialized surface regions of eukaryotic cells that serve a variety of functions, ranging from motility to sensation and to regulation of cell growth and differentiation. The discovery that a number of human diseases, collectively known as ciliopathies, result from defective cilium function has expanded interest in these structures. Among the many properties of cilia, motility and intraflagellar transport have been most extensively studied. The latter is the process by which multiprotein complexes associate with microtubule motors to transport structural subunits along the axoneme to and from the ciliary tip. By contrast, the mechanisms by which membrane proteins and lipids are specifically targeted to the cilium are still largely unknown. In this Commentary, we review the current knowledge of protein and lipid targeting to ciliary membranes and outline important issues for future study. We also integrate this information into a proposed model of how the cell specifically targets proteins and lipids to the specialized membrane of this unique organelle.

Building a fly eye: terminal differentiation events of the retina, corneal lens, and pigmented epithelia

In the past, vast differences in ocular structure, development, and physiology throughout the animal kingdom led to the widely accepted notion that eyes are polyphyletic, that is, they have independently arisen multiple times during evolution. Despite the dissimilarity between vertebrate and invertebrate eyes, it is becoming increasingly evident that the development of the eye in both groups shares more similarity at the genetic level than was previously assumed, forcing a reexamination of eye evolution. Understanding the molecular underpinnings of cell type specification during Drosophila eye development has been a focus of research for many labs over the past 25 years, and many of these findings are nicely reviewed in Chapters 1 and 4. A somewhat less explored area of research, however, considers how these cells, once specified, develop into functional ocular structures. This review aims to summarize the current knowledge related to the terminal differentiation events of the retina, corneal lens, and pigmented epithelia in the fly eye. In addition, we discuss emerging evidence that the different functional components of the fly eye share developmental pathways and functions with the vertebrate eye.

Assay for in vitro budding of ciliary-targeted rhodopsin transport carriers

Primary cilia and cilia-derived sensory organelles are cell's antennas that contain sensory receptors and signal transduction modules. Defects in the expression and targeting of ciliary proteins to this specialized cellular compartment lead to human disorders collectively known as ciliopathies. To examine the molecular basis for the ciliary targeting of the light receptor rhodopsin, we have developed a cell-free assay that reconstitutes its packaging into the specific post-Golgi rhodopsin transport carriers (RTCs). This assay accurately reproduces the in vivo process of carrier budding, while allowing examination of individual components of the macromolecular complexes, thus providing insight into a more general mechanism for the regulation of ciliary membrane targeting. Examples are shown for the use of this assay in rhodopsin trafficking. The cell-free assay is applicable to other ciliary-targeted sensory molecules.

What drives cell morphogenesis: a look inside the vertebrate photoreceptor

Vision mediating photoreceptor cells are specialized light-sensitive neurons in the outer layer of the vertebrate retina. The human retina contains approximately 130 million of such photoreceptors, which enable images of the external environment to be captured at high resolution and high sensitivity. Rod and cone photoreceptor subtypes are further specialized for sensing light in low and high illumination, respectively. To enable visual function, these photoreceptors have developed elaborate morphological domains for the detection of light (outer segments), for changing cell shape (inner segments), and for communication with neighboring retinal neurons (synaptic terminals). Furthermore, rod and cone subtypes feature unique morphological variations of these specialized characteristics. Here, we review the major aspects of vertebrate photoreceptor morphology and key genetic mechanisms that drive their formation. These mechanisms are necessary for cell differentiation as well as function. Their defects lead to cell death.

Depleting Rac1 in mouse rod photoreceptors protects them from photo-oxidative stress without affecting their structure or function

In nonphagocytic cells, Rac1 is a component of NADPH oxidase that produces reactive oxygen species [Ushio-Fukai M (2006) Sci STKE 2006:re8]. Rac1 is expressed abundantly in mammalian retinal photoreceptors, where it is activated in response to light stimuli [Balasubramanian N, Slepak VZ (2003) Curr Biol 13:1306-1310]. We used Cre-LoxP conditional gene targeting to knock down Rac1 expression in mouse rod photoreceptors and found protection against light-induced photoreceptor death compared with WT litter-mates. We also found a similar protective effect on rods using apocynin, which inhibits NADPH oxidase activity. These results implicate both neuronal Rac1 and NADPH oxidase in cell death in this model of CNS degeneration. Studies in which dominant-mutants of Rac1 were expressed in transgenic Drosophila species demonstrated that Rac1 is a key regulator of photoreceptor morphogenesis and polarity [Chang HY, Ready DF (2000) Science 290:1978-1980]. However, we found that diminished Rac1 expression in mouse rods had no effect on retinal structure or function examined by light microscopy, electron microscopy, rhodopsin measurement, electroretinogram activity, and visual acuity, indicating rod outer segment morphogenesis proceeded normally in Rac1 conditional knockout mice. The lack of structural or functional effect of Rac1 depletion on photoreceptors, but protection under conditions of stress, indicate that the Rac1 pathway warrants exploration as a target for therapy in retinal neurodegenerative diseases.

Syntaxin 3 and SNAP-25 pairing, regulated by omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid, controls the delivery of rhodopsin for the biogenesis of cilia-derived sensory organelles, the rod outer segments

The biogenesis of cilia-derived sensory organelles, the photoreceptor rod outer segments (ROS), is mediated by rhodopsin transport carriers (RTCs). The small GTPase Rab8 regulates ciliary targeting of RTCs, but their specific fusion sites have not been characterized. Here, we report that the Sec6/8 complex, or exocyst, is a candidate effector for Rab8. We also show that the Qa-SNARE syntaxin 3 is present in the rod inner segment (RIS) plasma membrane at the base of the cilium and displays a microtubule-dependent concentration gradient, whereas the Qbc-SNARE SNAP-25 is uniformly distributed in the RIS plasma membrane and the synapse. Treatment with omega-3 docosahexaenoic acid [DHA, 22:6(n-3)] causes increased co-immunoprecipitation and colocalization of SNAP-25 and syntaxin 3 at the base of the cilium, which results in the increased delivery of membrane to the ROS. This is particularly evident in propranolol-treated retinas, in which the DHA-mediated increase in SNARE pairing overcomes the tethering block, including dissociation of Sec8 into the cytosol. Together, our data indicate that the Sec6/8 complex, syntaxin 3 and SNAP-25 regulate rhodopsin delivery, probably by mediating docking and fusion of RTCs. We show further that DHA, an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid of the ROS, increases pairing of syntaxin 3 and SNAP-25 to regulate expansion of the ciliary membrane and ROS biogenesis.

GEF1 is a ciliary Sec7 GEF of Tetrahymena thermophila

Ciliary guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) potentially activate G proteins in intraflagellar transport (IFT) cargo release. Several classes of GEFs have been localized to cilia or basal bodies and shown to be functionally important in the prevention of ciliopathies, but ciliary Arl-type Sec 7 related GEFs have not been well characterized. Nair et al. [ 1999] identified a Paramecium ciliary Sec7 GEF, PSec7. In Tetrahymena, Gef1p (GEF1), tentatively identified by PSec7 antibody, possesses ciliary and nuclear targeting sequences and like PSec7 localizes to cilia and macronuclei. Upregulation of GEF1 RNA followed deciliation and subsequent ciliary regrowth. Corresponding to similar Psec7 domains, GEF1domains contain IQ-like motifs and putative PH domains, in addition to GBF/BIG canonical motifs. Genomic analysis identified two additional Tetrahymena GBF/BIG Sec7 family GEFs (GEF2, GEF3), which do not possess ciliary targeting sequences. GEF1 and GEF2 were HA modified to determine cellular localization. Cells transformed to produce appropriately truncated GEF1-HA showed localization to somatic and oral cilia, but not to macronuclei. Subtle defects in ciliary stability and function were detected. GEF2-HA localized near basal bodies but not to cilia. These results indicate that GEF1 is the resident Tetrahymena ciliary protein orthologous to PSec7. Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Localizations of visual cycle components in retinal pigment epithelium

PURPOSE

We used immunocytochemistry and confocal microscopy to determine whether enzymes of the rod visual cycle were uniformly distributed in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells. The localizations of these enzymes were compared to known localizations of retinoid-binding proteins and associated proteins.

METHODS

Antibodies to proteins and enzymes associated with the rod visual cycle were used for fluorescence immunocytochemistry with frozen sections of albino mouse and rat retina. Images were obtained with a laser scanning confocal microscope.

RESULTS

Components associated with the rod visual cycle were distributed in three distinct patterns in mouse and rat RPE. Three visual cycle enzymes (RDH5, LRAT, and RPE65) were restricted to the somata of RPE cells and were not detected within apical processes. Ezrin, an actin-binding protein, and ERM-binding phosphoprotein50/sodium-hydrogen exchanger regulatory factor1 (EBP50/NHERF1), an ezrin-binding PDZ-domain protein, were largely restricted to RPE apical processes. The fluorescence intensity over Müller cell apical processes was less intense. Cellular retinaldehyde-binding protein (CRALBP), which binds to EBP50/NHERF1, and cellular retinol-binding protein type 1 (CRBP1) were found throughout RPE cells and Müller cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Visual cycle enzymes were confined to the somata of RPE cells and did not occur within the long apical processes, either in dark- or light-adapted animals. Other components previously linked to the visual cycle (EBP50/NHERF1 and ezrin) were largely confined to the apical processes, where they could be associated with release of 11-cis-retinal or uptake of all-trans-retinol. CRALBP and CRBP1 were distributed throughout the RPE cell, where they could mediate diffusion of retinoids between apical processes and somata.

Ciliary targeting motif VxPx directs assembly of a trafficking module through Arf4

Dysfunctions of primary cilia and cilia-derived sensory organelles underlie a multitude of human disorders, including retinal degeneration, yet membrane targeting to the cilium remains poorly understood. Here, we show that the newly identified ciliary targeting VxPx motif present in rhodopsin binds the small GTPase Arf4 and regulates its association with the trans-Golgi network (TGN), which is the site of assembly and function of a ciliary targeting complex. This complex is comprised of two small GTPases, Arf4 and Rab11, the Rab11/Arf effector FIP3, and the Arf GTPase-activating protein ASAP1. ASAP1 mediates GTP hydrolysis on Arf4 and functions as an Arf4 effector that regulates budding of post-TGN carriers, along with FIP3 and Rab11. The Arf4 mutant I46D, impaired in ASAP1-mediated GTP hydrolysis, causes aberrant rhodopsin trafficking and cytoskeletal and morphological defects resulting in retinal degeneration in transgenic animals. As the VxPx motif is present in other ciliary membrane proteins, the Arf4-based targeting complex is most likely a part of conserved machinery involved in the selection and packaging of the cargo destined for delivery to the cilium.

Merlin regulates transmembrane receptor accumulation and signaling at the plasma membrane in primary mouse Schwann cells and in human schwannomas

The NF2 gene product, merlin/schwannomin, is a cytoskeleton organizer with unique growth-inhibiting activity in specific cell types. A narrow spectrum of tumors is associated with NF2 deficiency, mainly schwannomas and meningiomas, suggesting cell-specific mechanisms of growth control. We have investigated merlin function in mouse Schwann cells (SCs). We found that merlin regulates contact inhibition of proliferation by limiting the delivery of several growth factor receptors at the plasma membrane of primary SCs. Notably, upon cell-to-cell contact, merlin downregulates the membrane levels of ErbB2 and ErbB3, thus inhibiting the activity of the downstream mitogenic signaling pathways protein kinase B and mitogen-activated protein kinase. Consequently, loss of merlin activity is associated with elevated levels of ErbB receptors in primary SCs. We also observed accumulation of growth factor receptors such as ErbB2 and 3, insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor and platelet-derived growth factor receptor in peripheral nerves of Nf2-mutant mice and in human NF2 schwannomas, suggesting that this mechanism could play an important role in tumorigenesis.

The outer segment serves as a default destination for the trafficking of membrane proteins in photoreceptors

Photoreceptors are compartmentalized neurons in which all proteins responsible for evoking visual signals are confined to the outer segment. Yet, the mechanisms responsible for establishing and maintaining photoreceptor compartmentalization are poorly understood. Here we investigated the targeting of two related membrane proteins, R9AP and syntaxin 3, one residing within and the other excluded from the outer segment. Surprisingly, we have found that only syntaxin 3 has targeting information encoded in its sequence and its removal redirects this protein to the outer segment. Furthermore, proteins residing in the endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria were similarly redirected to the outer segment after removing their targeting signals. This reveals a pattern where membrane proteins lacking specific targeting information are delivered to the outer segment, which is likely to reflect the enormous appetite of this organelle for new material necessitated by its constant renewal. This also implies that every protein residing outside the outer segment must have a means to avoid this "default" trafficking flow.

The protein kinase A-anchoring protein moesin is bound to pigment granules in melanophores

Major signaling cascades have been shown to play a role in the regulation of intracellular transport of organelles. In Xenopus melanophores, aggregation and dispersion of pigment granules are regulated by the second messenger cyclic AMP through the protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway. PKA is bound to pigment granules where it forms complexes with molecular motors involved in pigment transport. Association of PKA with pigment granules occurs through binding to A-kinase-anchoring proteins (AKAPs), whose identity remains largely unknown. In this study, we used mass spectrometry to examine an 80 kDa AKAP detected in preparations of purified pigment granules. We found that tryptic digests of granule protein fractions enriched in the 80 kDa AKAP contained peptides that corresponded to the actin-binding protein moesin, which has been shown to function as an AKAP in mammalian cells. We also found that recombinant Xenopus moesin interacted with PKA in vitro, copurified with pigment granules and bound to pigment granules in cells. Overexpression in melanophores of a mutant moesin lacking conserved PKA-binding domain did not affect aggregation of pigment granules but partially inhibited their dispersion. We conclude that Xenopus moesin is an AKAP whose PKA-scaffolding activity plays a role in the regulation of pigment dispersion in Xenopus melanophores.

The translocation of signaling molecules in dark adapting mammalian rod photoreceptor cells is dependent on the cytoskeleton

In vertebrate rod photoreceptor cells, arrestin and the visual G-protein transducin move between the inner segment and outer segment in response to changes in light. This stimulus dependent translocation of signalling molecules is assumed to participate in long term light adaptation of photoreceptors. So far the cellular basis for the transport mechanisms underlying these intracellular movements remains largely elusive. Here we investigated the dependency of these movements on actin filaments and the microtubule cytoskeleton of photoreceptor cells. Co-cultures of mouse retina and retinal pigment epithelium were incubated with drugs stabilizing and destabilizing the cytoskeleton. The actin and microtubule cytoskeleton and the light dependent distribution of signaling molecules were subsequently analyzed by light and electron microscopy. The application of cytoskeletal drugs differentially affected the cytoskeleton in photoreceptor compartments. During dark adaptation the depolymerization of microtubules as well as actin filaments disrupted the translocation of arrestin and transducin in rod photoreceptor cells. During light adaptation only the delivery of arrestin within the outer segment was impaired after destabilization of microtubules. Movements of transducin and arrestin required intact cytoskeletal elements in dark adapting cells. However, diffusion might be sufficient for the fast molecular movements observed as cells adapt to light. These findings indicate that different molecular translocation mechanisms are responsible for the dark and light associated translocations of arrestin and transducin in rod photoreceptor cells.

Targeting proteins to the ciliary membrane

Most vertebrate cell types display solitary nonmotile cilia on their surface that serve as cellular antennae to sense the extracellular environment. These organelles play key roles in the development of mammals by coordinating the actions of a single cell with events occurring around them. Severe defects in cilia lead to midgestational lethality in mice while more subtle defects lead to pathology in most organs of the body. These pathologies range from cystic diseases of the kidney, liver, and pancreas, to retinal degeneration, to bone and skeletal defects, hydrocephaly, and obesity. The sensory functions of cilia rely on proteins localized specifically to the ciliary membrane. Even though the ciliary membrane is a subdomain of the plasma membrane and is continuous with the plasma membrane, cells have the ability to specifically localize proteins to this domain. In this chapter, we will review what is currently known about the structure and function of the ciliary membrane. We will further discuss ongoing work to understand how the ciliary membrane is assembled and maintained, and discuss protein machinery that is thought to play a role in sorting or trafficking proteins to the ciliary membrane.

A novel Usher protein network at the periciliary reloading point between molecular transport machineries in vertebrate photoreceptor cells

The human Usher syndrome (USH) is the most frequent cause of combined deaf-blindness. USH is genetically heterogeneous with at least 12 chromosomal loci assigned to three clinical types, USH1-3. Although these USH types exhibit similar phenotypes in human, the corresponding gene products belong to very different protein classes and families. The scaffold protein harmonin (USH1C) was shown to integrate all identified USH1 and USH2 molecules into protein networks. Here, we analyzed a protein network organized in the absence of harmonin by the scaffold proteins SANS (USH1G) and whirlin (USH2D). Immunoelectron microscopic analyses disclosed the colocalization of all network components in the apical inner segment collar and the ciliary apparatus of mammalian photoreceptor cells. In this complex, whirlin and SANS directly interact. Furthermore, SANS provides a linkage to the microtubule transport machinery, whereas whirlin may anchor USH2A isoform b and VLGR1b (very large G-protein coupled receptor 1b) via binding to their cytodomains at specific membrane domains. The long ectodomains of both transmembrane proteins extend into the gap between the adjacent membranes of the connecting cilium and the apical inner segment. Analyses of Vlgr1/del7TM mice revealed the ectodomain of VLGR1b as a component of fibrous links present in this gap. Comparative analyses of mouse and Xenopus photoreceptors demonstrated that this USH protein network is also part of the periciliary ridge complex in Xenopus. Since this structural specialization in amphibian photoreceptor cells defines a specialized membrane domain for docking and fusion of transport vesicles, we suggest a prominent role of the USH proteins in cargo shipment.

G protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin

The rhodopsin crystal structure provides a structural basis for understanding the function of this and other G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The major structural motifs observed for rhodopsin are expected to carry over to other GPCRs, and the mechanism of transformation of the receptor from inactive to active forms is thus likely conserved. Moreover, the high expression level of rhodopsin in the retina, its specific localization in the internal disks of the photoreceptor structures [termed rod outer segments (ROS)], and the lack of other highly abundant membrane proteins allow rhodopsin to be examined in the native disk membranes by a number of methods. The results of these investigations provide evidence of the propensity of rhodopsin and, most likely, other GPCRs to dimerize, a property that may be pertinent to their function.