Uncoated endocytic vesicles require the unconventional myosin, Myo6, for rapid transport through actin barriers

Timing of Phagosome Maturation Depends on Their Transport Switching from Actin to Microtubule Tracks

Phagosomes, specialized membrane compartments responsible for digesting internalized pathogens, undergo sequential dynamic and biochemical changes as they mature from nascent phagosomes to degradative phagolysosomes. Maturation of phagosomes depends on their transport along actin filaments and microtubules. However, the specific quantitative relationship between the biochemical transformation and transport dynamics remains poorly characterized. The autonomous nature of phagosomes, moving and maturing at different rates, makes understanding this relationship challenging. Addressing this challenge, in this study we engineered particle sensors to image and quantify single phagosomes' maturation. We found that as phagosomes move from the actin cortex to microtubule tracks, the timing of their actin-to-microtubule transition governs the duration of the early phagosome stage before acquiring degradative capacities. Prolonged entrapment of phagosomes in the actin cortex extends the early phagosome stage by delaying the dissociation of early endosome markers and phagosome acidification. Conversely, a shortened transition from actin- to microtubule-based movements causes the opposite effect on phagosome maturation. These results suggest that the actin- and microtubule-based transport of phagosomes functions like a "clock" to coordinate the timing of biochemical events during phagosome maturation, which is crucial for effective pathogen degradation.

Myosin motors on the pathway of viral infections

Molecular motors are microscopic machines that use energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis to generate movement. While kinesins and dynein are molecular motors associated with microtubule tracks, myosins bind to and move on actin filaments. Mammalian cells express several myosin motors. They power cellular processes such as endo- and exocytosis, intracellular trafficking, transcription, migration, and cytokinesis. As viruses navigate through cells, they may take advantage or be hindered by host components and machinery, including the cytoskeleton. This review delves into myosins' cell roles and compares them to their reported functions in viral infections. In most cases, the previously described myosin functions align with their reported role in viral infections, although not in all cases. This opens the possibility that knowledge obtained from studying myosins in viral infections might shed light on new physiological roles for myosins in cells. However, given the high number of myosins expressed and the variety of viruses investigated in the different studies, it is challenging to infer whether the interactions found are specific to a single virus or can be applied to other viruses with the same characteristics. We conclude that the participation of myosins in viral cycles is still a largely unexplored area, especially concerning unconventional myosins.

The role of motor proteins in photoreceptor protein transport and visual function

BACKGROUND

Rods and cones are photoreceptor neurons in the retina that are required for visual sensation in vertebrates, wherein the perception of vision is initiated when these neurons respond to photons in the light stimuli. The photoreceptor cell is structurally studied as outer segments (OS) and inner segments (IS) where proper protein sorting, localization, and compartmentalization are critical for phototransduction, visual function, and survival. In human retinal diseases, improper protein transport to the OS or mislocalization of proteins to the IS and other cellular compartments could lead to impaired visual responses and photoreceptor cell degeneration that ultimately cause loss of visual function.

RESULTS

Therefore, studying and identifying mechanisms involved in facilitating and maintaining proper protein transport in photoreceptor cells would help our understanding of pathologies involving retinal cell degeneration in inherited retinal dystrophies, age-related macular degeneration, and Usher Syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

Our mini-review will discuss mechanisms of protein transport within photoreceptors and introduce a novel role for an unconventional motor protein, MYO1C, in actin-based motor transport of the visual chromophore Rhodopsin to the OS, in support of phototransduction and visual function.

Multimodal regulation of myosin VI ensemble transport by cargo adaptor protein GIPC

A range of cargo adaptor proteins are known to recruit cytoskeletal motors to distinct subcellular compartments. However, the structural impact of cargo recruitment on motor function is poorly understood. Here, we dissect the multimodal regulation of myosin VI activity through the cargo adaptor GAIP-interacting protein, C terminus (GIPC), whose overexpression with this motor in cancer enhances cell migration. Using a range of biophysical techniques, including motility assays, FRET-based conformational sensors, optical trapping, and DNA origami-based cargo scaffolds to probe the individual and ensemble properties of GIPC-myosin VI motility, we report that the GIPC myosin-interacting region (MIR) releases an autoinhibitory interaction within myosin VI. We show that the resulting conformational changes in the myosin lever arm, including the proximal tail domain, increase the flexibility of the adaptor-motor linkage, and that increased flexibility correlates with faster actomyosin association and dissociation rates. Taken together, the GIPC MIR-myosin VI interaction stimulates a twofold to threefold increase in ensemble cargo speed. Furthermore, the GIPC MIR-myosin VI ensembles yield similar cargo run lengths as forced processive myosin VI dimers. We conclude that the emergent behavior from these individual aspects of myosin regulation is the fast, processive, and smooth cargo transport on cellular actin networks. Our study delineates the multimodal regulation of myosin VI by the cargo adaptor GIPC, while highlighting linkage flexibility as a novel biophysical mechanism for modulating cellular cargo motility.

Dynamic alteration of poroelastic attributes as determinant membrane nanorheology for endocytosis of organ specific targeted gold nanoparticles

Background

Efficacy of targeted drug delivery using nanoparticles relies on several factors including the uptake mechanisms such as phagocytosis, macropinocytosis, micropinocytosis and receptor mediated endocytosis. These mechanisms have been studied with respect to the alteration in signaling mechanisms, cellular morphology, and linear nanomechanical properties (NMPs). Commonly employed classical contact mechanics models to address cellular NMPs fail to address mesh like structure consisting of bilayer lipids and proteins of cell membrane. To overcome this technical challenge, we employed poroelastic model which accounts for the biphasic nature of cells including their porous behavior exhibiting both solid like (fluid storage) and liquid like (fluid dissipate) behavior.

Results

In this study, we employed atomic force microscopy to monitor the influence of surface engineering of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) to the alteration of nonlinear NMPs such as drained Poisson’s ratio, effective shear stress, diffusion constant and pore dimensions of cell membranes during their uptake. Herein, we used pancreatic cancer (PDAC) cell lines including Panc1, AsPC-1 and endothelial cell (HUVECs) to understand the receptor-dependent and -independent endocytosis of two different GNPs derived using plectin-1 targeting peptide (PTP-GNP) and corresponding scrambled peptide (sPEP-GNP). Compared to untreated cells, in case of receptor dependent endocytosis of PTP-GNPs diffusion coefficient altered ~ 1264-fold and ~ 1530-fold and pore size altered ~ 320-fold and ~ 260-fold in Panc1 and AsPC-1 cells, respectively. Whereas for receptor independent mechanisms, we observed modest alteration in diffusion coefficient and pore size, in these cells compared to untreated cells. Effective shear stress corresponding to 7.38 ± 0.15 kPa and 20.49 ± 0.39 kPa in PTP-GNP treatment in Panc1 and AsPC-1, respectively was significantly more than that for sPEP-GNP. These results demonstrate that with temporal recruitment of plectin-1 during receptor mediated endocytosis affects the poroelastic attributes of the membrane.

Conclusion

This study confirms that nonlinear NMPs of cell membrane are directly associated with the uptake mechanism of nanoparticles and can provide promising insights of the nature of endocytosis mechanism involved for organ specific drug delivery using nanoparticles. Hence, nanomechanical analysis of cell membrane using this noninvasive, label-free and live-cell analytical tool can therefore be instrumental to evaluate therapeutic benefit of nanoformulations.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-022-01276-1.

Polycation-Mediated Transfection: Mechanisms of Internalization and Intracellular Trafficking

Polyplex-mediated gene transfection is now in its' fourth decade of serious research, but the promise of polyplex-mediated gene therapy has yet to fully materialize. Only approximately one in a million applied plasmids actually expresses. A large part of this is due to an incomplete understanding of the mechanism of polyplex transfection. There is an assumption that internalization must follow a canonical mechanism of receptor mediated endocytosis. Herein, we present arguments that untargeted (and most targeted) polyplexes do not utilize these routes. By incorporating knowledge of syndecan-polyplex interactions, we can show that syndecans are the "target" for polyplexes. Further, it is known that free polycations (which disrupt cell-membranes by acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of phospholipid esters) are necessary for (untargeted) endocytosis. This can be incorporated into the model to produce a novel mechanism of endocytosis, which fits the observed phenomenology. After membrane translocation, polyplex containing vesicles reach the endosome after diffusing through the actin mesh below the cell membrane. From there, they are acidified and trafficked toward the lysosome. Some polyplexes are capable of escaping the endosome and unpacking, while others are not. Herein, it is argued that for some polycations, as acidification proceeds the polyplexes excluding free polycations, which disrupt the endosomal membrane by acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, allowing the polyplex to escape. The polyplex's internal charge ratio is now insufficient for stability and it releases plasmids which diffuse to the nucleus. A small proportion of these plasmids diffuse through the nuclear pore complex (NPC), with aggregation being the major cause of loss. Those plasmids that have diffused through the NPC will also aggregate, and this appears to be the reason such a small proportion of nuclear plasmids express mRNA. Thus, the structural features which promote unpacking in the endosome and allow for endosomal escape can be determined, and better polycations can be designed.

Myosins and Disease

Myosins constitute a superfamily of actin-based molecular motor proteins that mediates a variety of cellular activities including muscle contraction, cell migration, intracellular transport, the formation of membrane projections, cell adhesion, and cell signaling. The 12 myosin classes that are expressed in humans share sequence similarities especially in the N-terminal motor domain; however, their enzymatic activities, regulation, ability to dimerize, binding partners, and cellular functions differ. It is becoming increasingly apparent that defects in myosins are associated with diseases including cardiomyopathies, colitis, glomerulosclerosis, neurological defects, cancer, blindness, and deafness. Here, we review the current state of knowledge regarding myosins and disease.

Approaches to Identify and Characterise MYO6-Cargo Interactions

Given the prevalence and importance of the actin cytoskeleton and the host of associated myosin motors, it comes as no surprise to find that they are linked to a plethora of cellular functions and pathologies. Although our understanding of the biophysical properties of myosin motors has been aided by the high levels of conservation in their motor domains and the extensive work on myosin in skeletal muscle contraction, our understanding of how the nonmuscle myosins participate in such a wide variety of cellular processes is less clear. It is now well established that the highly variable myosin tails are responsible for targeting these myosins to distinct cellular sites for specific functions, and although a number of adaptor proteins have been identified, our current understanding of the cellular processes involved is rather limited. Furthermore, as more adaptor proteins, cargoes and complexes are identified, the importance of elucidating the regulatory mechanisms involved is essential. Ca2+, and now phosphorylation and ubiquitination, are emerging as important regulators of cargo binding, and it is likely that other post-translational modifications are also involved. In the case of myosin VI (MYO6), a number of immediate binding partners have been identified using traditional approaches such as yeast two-hybrid screens and affinity-based pull-downs. However, these methods have only been successful in identifying the cargo adaptors, but not the cargoes themselves, which may often comprise multi-protein complexes. Furthermore, motor-adaptor-cargo interactions are dynamic by nature and often weak, transient and highly regulated and therefore difficult to capture using traditional affinity-based methods. In this chapter we will discuss the various approaches including functional proteomics that have been used to uncover and characterise novel MYO6-associated proteins and complexes and how this work contributes to a fuller understanding of the targeting and function(s) of this unique myosin motor.

Non-localized Increase in Lipid Content and Striation Pattern Formation Characterize the Sonoporated Plasma Membrane

Eukaryotic cells can survive sonoporation and repair their plasma membrane wounds. However, it is not clear how the repaired plasma membranes will differ from the intact ones. To answer this question, we used high-resolution confocal microscopy and scanning electron microscopy to study plasma membrane lipid alterations induced by sonoporation. First, we found that the wound-induced increase in membrane lipid content was not limited to the sonoporation sites. The degree of lipid increase was dependent on pore distance, calcium influx and pore size. Second, we observed interesting lipid striation patterns on the sonoporated plasma membranes. This patterning effect was reversible in the cell subjected to small-scale sonoporation and could be recognized using digital image orientation analysis. Third, we showed that actin stress fibers underneath the plasma membrane hindered the addition and the protrusion of lipids to produce the patterning effect. Our findings demonstrated that the sonoporated and repaired plasma membranes have distinct lipid distribution characteristics.

MYH9 Aggregation Induced by Direct Interaction With PRRSV GP5 Ectodomain Facilitates Viral Internalization by Permissive Cells

Prevention and control of infection by porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) remains a challenge, due to our limited understanding of the PRRSV invasion mechanism. Our previous study has shown that PRRSV glycoprotein GP5 interacts with MYH9 C-terminal domain protein (PRA). Here we defined that the first ectodomain of GP5 (GP5-ecto-1) directly interacted with PRA and this interaction triggered PRA and endogenous MYH9 to form filament assembly. More importantly, MYH9 filament assembly was also formed in GP5-ecto-1-transfected MARC-145 cells. Notably, PRRSV infection of MARC-145 cells and porcine alveolar macrophages also induced endogenous MYH9 aggregation and polymerization that were required for subsequent PRRSV internalization. Moreover, overexpression of S100A4, a MYH9-specific disassembly inducer, in MARC-145 cells significantly resulted in diminished MYH9 aggregation and marked inhibition of subsequent virion internalization and infection by both PRRSV-1 and PRRSV-2 isolates. The collective results of this work reveal a novel molecular mechanism employed by MYH9 that helps PRRSV gain entry into permissive cells.

Identification of a novel MYO6 mutation associated with autosomal dominant non-syndromic hearing loss in a Chinese family by whole-exome sequencing

Autosomal dominant non-syndromic hearing loss (ADNSHL) is characterized by postlingual progressive onset. Due to its high genetic heterogeneity, it is difficult to perform a molecular diagnosis for most patients with ADNSHL. In our study, whole-exome sequencing (WES) was used to screen pathogenic gene candidates by analyzing genomic DNA samples from a large Chinese family (JSNY-067), including the proband and her father, who suffered from non-syndromic hearing loss. The pathogenicity of candidate nonsynonymous variants in ADNSHL genes was evaluated by co-segregation analysis in family members by direct PCR and Sanger sequencing. Furthermore, multiple in silico analyses (SIFT, Polyphen2, PROVEAN and MutationTaster) and molecular dynamics simulation were used to assess the potential pathogenicity of the candidate mutations. We identified a novel causative mutation, c.622A>G in MYO6 (DFNA22), that resulted in a p.K208E substitution. This mutation co-segregated with the hearing loss phenotype in extended family members, and was predicted to be pathogenic by SIFT, PolyPhen2, PROVEAN and MutationTaster. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulation analysis revealed that the p.K208E substitution had a limited influence on the whole protein structure and stability, but that it could affect the locations of the sidechains of nearby hydrophilic residues, which in turn resulted in the sidechains of Asn186 and Glu190 being exposed more frequently at the surface of the protein. WES has thus been shown to be a useful molecular diagnostic tool in screening uncommon gene mutations associated with hereditary hearing loss.

Rab and Arf proteins at the crossroad between membrane transport and cytoskeleton dynamics

The intracellular movement and positioning of organelles and vesicles is mediated by the cytoskeleton and molecular motors. Small GTPases like Rab and Arf proteins are main regulators of intracellular transport by connecting membranes to cytoskeleton motors or adaptors. However, it is becoming clear that interactions between these small GTPases and the cytoskeleton are important not only for the regulation of membrane transport. In this review, we will cover our current understanding of the mechanisms underlying the connection between Rab and Arf GTPases and the cytoskeleton, with special emphasis on the double role of these interactions, not only in membrane trafficking but also in membrane and cytoskeleton remodeling. Furthermore, we will highlight the most recent findings about the fine control mechanisms of crosstalk between different members of Rab, Arf, and Rho families of small GTPases in the regulation of cytoskeleton organization.

Engaging myosin VI tunes motility, morphology and identity in endocytosis

While unconventional myosins interact with different stages of the endocytic pathway, they are ascribed a transport function that is secondary to the protein complexes that control organelle identity. Endosomes are subject to a dynamic, continuous flux of proteins that control their characteristic properties, including their motility within the cell. Efforts to describe the changes in identity of this compartment have largely focused on the adaptors present on the compartment and not on the motile properties of the compartment itself. In this study, we use a combination of optogenetic and chemical-dimerization strategies to target exogenous myosin VI to early endosomes, and probe its influence on organelle motility, morphology and identity. Our analysis across timescales suggests a model wherein the artificial engagement of myosin VI motility on early endosomes restricts microtubule-based motion, followed by morphological changes characterized by the rapid condensation and disintegration of organelles, ultimately leading to the enhanced overlap of markers that demarcate endosomal compartments. Together, our findings show that synthetic engagement of myosin VI motility is sufficient to alter organelle homeostasis in the endocytic pathway.

Recombinant MYH9 protein C-terminal domain blocks porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus internalization by direct interaction with viral glycoprotein 5

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is one of the most economically important infectious diseases impacting the swine industry worldwide. Prevention and control of PRRS have been problematic, as vaccination has achieved little success. MYH9 (encoded by the gene MYH9) is an essential cellular factor for PRRS virus (PRRSV) infection. The MYH9 C-terminal domain (designated PRA) interacts with viral glycoprotein 5 (GP5), a major PRRSV envelope protein. In this study, we investigated whether soluble PRA could serve as a novel blocking agent of PRRSV infection. Our data showed that preincubation of PRRSV with PRA inhibited virus infection of susceptible cells in a dose-dependent manner. Notably, PRA also exhibited broad-spectrum ability to inhibit infection with diverse strains of both PRRSV genotype 1 and 2. Analysis of the interaction between PRA and PRRSV GP5 revealed that PRA is able to capture PRRSV virions. In conclusion, our data suggest that PRA could serve as a novel broad-spectrum inhibitor of infection by heterogeneous PRRSV strains in vivo.

The MYO6 interactome reveals adaptor complexes coordinating early endosome and cytoskeletal dynamics

The intracellular functions of myosin motors requires a number of adaptor molecules, which control cargo attachment, but also fine-tune motor activity in time and space. These motor-adaptor-cargo interactions are often weak, transient or highly regulated. To overcome these problems, we use a proximity labelling-based proteomics strategy to map the interactome of the unique minus end-directed actin motor MYO6. Detailed biochemical and functional analysis identified several distinct MYO6-adaptor modules including two complexes containing RhoGEFs: the LIFT (LARG-Induced F-actin for Tethering) complex that controls endosome positioning and motility through RHO-driven actin polymerisation; and the DISP (DOCK7-Induced Septin disPlacement) complex, a novel regulator of the septin cytoskeleton. These complexes emphasise the role of MYO6 in coordinating endosome dynamics and cytoskeletal architecture. This study provides the first in vivo interactome of a myosin motor protein and highlights the power of this approach in uncovering dynamic and functionally diverse myosin motor complexes.

Myosin-Driven Intracellular Transport

The delivery of intracellular material within cells is crucial for maintaining normal function. Myosins transport a wide variety of cargo, ranging from vesicles to ribonuclear protein particles (RNPs), in plants, fungi, and metazoa. The properties of a given myosin transporter are adapted to move on different actin filament tracks, either on the disordered actin networks at the cell cortex or along highly organized actin bundles to distribute their cargo in a localized manner or move it across long distances in the cell. Transport is controlled by selective recruitment of the myosin to its cargo that also plays a role in activation of the motor.

Myosin VI-Dependent Actin Cages Encapsulate Parkin-Positive Damaged Mitochondria

Mitochondrial quality control is essential to maintain cellular homeostasis and is achieved by removing damaged, ubiquitinated mitochondria via Parkin-mediated mitophagy. Here, we demonstrate that MYO6 (myosin VI), a unique myosin that moves toward the minus end of actin filaments, forms a complex with Parkin and is selectively recruited to damaged mitochondria via its ubiquitin-binding domain. This myosin motor initiates the assembly of F-actin cages to encapsulate damaged mitochondria by forming a physical barrier that prevents refusion with neighboring populations. Loss of MYO6 results in an accumulation of mitophagosomes and an increase in mitochondrial mass. In addition, we observe downstream mitochondrial dysfunction manifesting as reduced respiratory capacity and decreased ability to rely on oxidative phosphorylation for energy production. Our work uncovers a crucial step in mitochondrial quality control: the formation of MYO6-dependent actin cages that ensure isolation of damaged mitochondria from the network.

Investigations of human myosin VI targeting using optogenetically controlled cargo loading

Myosins play countless critical roles in the cell, each requiring it to be activated at a specific location and time. To control myosin VI with this specificity, we created an optogenetic tool for activating myosin VI by fusing the light-sensitive Avena sativa phototropin1 LOV2 domain to a peptide from Dab2 (LOVDab), a myosin VI cargo protein. Our approach harnesses the native targeting and activation mechanism of myosin VI, allowing direct inferences on myosin VI function. LOVDab robustly recruits human full-length myosin VI to various organelles in vivo and hinders peroxisome motion in a light-controllable manner. LOVDab also activates myosin VI in an in vitro gliding filament assay. Our data suggest that protein and lipid cargoes cooperate to activate myosin VI, allowing myosin VI to integrate Ca²⁺, lipid, and protein cargo signals in the cell to deploy in a site-specific manner.

A programmable DNA origami nanospring that reveals force-induced adjacent binding of myosin VI heads

Mechanosensitive biological nanomachines such as motor proteins and ion channels regulate diverse cellular behaviour. Combined optical trapping with single-molecule fluorescence imaging provides a powerful methodology to clearly characterize the mechanoresponse, structural dynamics and stability of such nanomachines. However, this system requires complicated experimental geometry, preparation and optics, and is limited by low data-acquisition efficiency. Here we develop a programmable DNA origami nanospring that overcomes these issues. We apply our nanospring to human myosin VI, a mechanosensory motor protein, and demonstrate nanometre-precision single-molecule fluorescence imaging of the individual motor domains (heads) under force. We observe force-induced transitions of myosin VI heads from non-adjacent to adjacent binding, which correspond to adapted roles for low-load and high-load transport, respectively. Our technique extends single-molecule studies under force and clarifies the effect of force on biological processes.

Characterizing the mechanical response of molecular motors involves the use of methods such as optical trapping to apply force. Here the authors develop a DNA origami nanospring to apply progressive force to human myosin VI, and discover that it adopts different stepping modes when subjected to low load or high load.

Bimodal dynamics of granular organelles in primary renin-expressing cells revealed using TIRF microscopy

Renin is the initiator and rate-limiting factor in the renin-angiotensin blood pressure regulation system. Although renin is not exclusively produced in the kidney, in nonmurine species the synthesis and secretion of the active circulatory enzyme is confined almost exclusively to the dense core granules of juxtaglomerular (JG) cells, where prorenin is processed and stored for release via a regulated pathway. Despite its importance, the structural organization and regulation of granules within these cells is not well understood, in part due to the difficulty in culturing primary JG cells in vitro and the lack of appropriate cell lines. We have streamlined the isolation and culture of primary renin-expressing cells suitable for high-speed, high-resolution live imaging using a Percoll gradient-based procedure to purify cells from RenGFP⁺ transgenic mice. Fibronectin-coated glass coverslips proved optimal for the adhesion of renin-expressing cells and facilitated live cell imaging at the plasma membrane of primary renin cells using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM). To obtain quantitative data on intracellular function, we stained mixed granule and lysosome populations with Lysotracker Red and stimulated cells using 100 nM isoproterenol. Analysis of membrane-proximal acidic granular organelle dynamics and behavior within renin-expressing cells revealed the existence of two populations of granular organelles with distinct functional responses following isoproterenol stimulation. The application of high-resolution techniques for imaging JG and other specialized kidney cells provides new opportunities for investigating renal cell biology.

Myosin-7b Promotes Distal Tip Localization of the Intermicrovillar Adhesion Complex

Transporting epithelial cells interact with the luminal environment using a tightly packed array of microvilli known as the brush border. During intestinal epithelial differentiation, microvillar packing and organization are driven by cadherin-dependent adhesion complexes that localize to the distal tips of microvilli, where they drive physical interactions between neighboring protrusions. Although enrichment of the "intermicrovillar adhesion complex" (IMAC) at distal tips is required for proper function, the mechanism driving tip accumulation of these factors remains unclear. Here, we report that the actin-based motor myosin-7b (Myo7b) promotes the accumulation of IMAC components at microvillar tips. Myo7b is highly enriched at the tips of microvilli in both kidney and intestinal brush borders, and loss of Myo7b in differentiating intestinal epithelial cells disrupts intermicrovillar adhesion and, thus, brush border assembly. Analysis of cells lacking Myo7b revealed that IMAC components and the resulting intermicrovillar adhesion links are mislocalized along the microvillar axis rather than enriched at the distal tips. We also found that Myo7b motor domains are capable of supporting tip-directed transport. However, motor activity is supplemented by other passive targeting mechanisms that together drive highly efficient IMAC accumulation at the tips. These findings illuminate the molecular basis of IMAC enrichment at microvillar tips and hold important implications for understanding apical morphogenesis in transporting and sensory epithelial tissues.

Molecular mechanisms regulating formation, trafficking and processing of annular gap junctions

Internalization of gap junction plaques results in the formation of annular gap junction vesicles. The factors that regulate the coordinated internalization of the gap junction plaques to form annular gap junction vesicles, and the subsequent events involved in annular gap junction processing have only relatively recently been investigated in detail. However it is becoming clear that while annular gap junction vesicles have been demonstrated to be degraded by autophagosomal and endo-lysosomal pathways, they undergo a number of additional processing events. Here, we characterize the morphology of the annular gap junction vesicle and review the current knowledge of the processes involved in their formation, fission, fusion, and degradation. In addition, we address the possibility for connexin protein recycling back to the plasma membrane to contribute to gap junction formation and intercellular communication. Information on gap junction plaque removal from the plasma membrane and the subsequent processing of annular gap junction vesicles is critical to our understanding of cell-cell communication as it relates to events regulating development, cell homeostasis, unstable proliferation of cancer cells, wound healing, changes in the ischemic heart, and many other physiological and pathological cellular phenomena.

Kinetic Adaptations of Myosins for Their Diverse Cellular Functions

Members of the myosin superfamily are involved in all aspects of eukaryotic life. Their function ranges from the transport of organelles and cargos to the generation of membrane tension, and the contraction of muscle. The diversity of physiological functions is remarkable, given that all enzymatically active myosins follow a conserved mechanoenzymatic cycle in which the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and inorganic phosphate is coupled to either actin-based transport or tethering of actin to defined cellular compartments. Kinetic capacities and limitations of a myosin are determined by the extent to which actin can accelerate the hydrolysis of ATP and the release of the hydrolysis products and are indispensably linked to its physiological tasks. This review focuses on kinetic competencies that - together with structural adaptations - result in myosins with unique mechanoenzymatic properties targeted to their diverse cellular functions.

Yeast Eps15-like endocytic protein Pan1p regulates the interaction between endocytic vesicles, endosomes and the actin cytoskeleton

The actin cytoskeleton plays important roles in the formation and internalization of endocytic vesicles. In yeast, endocytic vesicles move towards early endosomes along actin cables, however, the molecular machinery regulating interaction between endocytic vesicles and actin cables is poorly understood. The Eps15-like protein Pan1p plays a key role in actin-mediated endocytosis and is negatively regulated by Ark1 and Prk1 kinases. Here we show that pan1 mutated to prevent phosphorylation at all 18 threonines, pan1-18TA, displayed almost the same endocytic defect as ark1Δ prk1Δ cells, and contained abnormal actin concentrations including several endocytic compartments. Early endosomes were highly localized in the actin concentrations and displayed movement along actin cables. The dephosphorylated form of Pan1p also caused stable associations between endocytic vesicles and actin cables, and between endocytic vesicles and endosomes. Thus Pan1 phosphorylation is part of a novel mechanism that regulates endocytic compartment interactions with each other and with actin cables.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10276.001

The cells of all eukaryotes – including plants, animals and fungi – absorb many substances that they need from their surroundings by forming pockets around them, and then pinching off these pockets to create structures called vesicles. Clathrin is a protein that acts as a scaffold for these vesicles.

Inside a eukaryotic cell, clathrin-coated vesicles first go to a structure known as an endosome, possibly by following a track made from filaments of a protein called actin. Researchers have shown previously that a yeast protein called Pan1 binds to actin filaments and helps the cells to create clathrin-coated vesicles. However it was unclear if the Pan1 protein is also important for transporting clathrin-coated vesicles to endosomes.

Previous studies have also shown that adding phosphate groups on to the Pan1 protein prevents it from binding to clathrin-coated vesicles or actin filaments. Now, Toshima et al. show that a mutant version of the Pan1 protein, which cannot be modified in this way, can bind stably to both clathrin-coated vesicles and the actin filaments and connect them together. The experiments also showed that, in yeast cells that only produce the mutant version of Pan1, clathrin-coated vesicles bind stably to endosomes without the need for actin. Thus, these findings show that the addition of phosphate groups onto Pan1 is part of a mechanism that regulates the interactions between clathrin-coated vesicles, endosomes and actin filaments.

Following on from this work, one future challenge is to find which proteins directly connect clathrin-coated vesicles with endosomes. It will also be important to investigate if similar mechanisms are used in the cells of mammals.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10276.002

Functional characterisation of the osteoarthritis susceptibility locus at chromosome 6q14.1 marked by the polymorphism rs9350591

BACKGROUND

The arcOGEN genome-wide association study reported the rs9350591 C/T single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) as marking a region on chromosome 6q14.1 that is associated with hip osteoarthritis (OA) in Europeans, with an odds ratio (OR) of 1.18 and a p-value of 2.42 × 10(-9). rs9350591 is an intergenic SNP surrounded by seven genes within 1 Mb. Six of the genes are expressed in cartilage. We sought to characterise this signal to assess whether the association of rs9350591 with OA is mediated by modulating gene expression.

METHODS

Total RNA was extracted from hip or knee cartilage of 161 OA patients and from hip cartilage of 29 non-OA patients who had undergone hip replacements as a result of neck-of-femur (NOF) fractures. We used quantitative PCR (qPCR) to measure overall gene expression, and pyrosequencing to assess allelic expression of the genes. A mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation model was used to assess gene expression during chondrogenesis.

RESULTS

We identified a significant decrease in the expression of SENP6 (p = 0.005) and MYO6 (p = 0.026) in OA hip cartilage relative to the non-OA hip control cartilage. However, we found no evidence for a correlation between gene expression and rs9350591 genotype for any of the six genes. In addition, we identified expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs) operating on COL12A1, TMEM30A, SENP6 and MYO6, although these were not relevant to the OA associated signal. Finally, all genes were dynamically expressed during chondrogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

The regulation of gene expression at this locus is complex, highlighted by the down-regulation of SENP6 and MYO6 in OA hip cartilage and by eQTLs operating on four of the genes at the locus. However, modulation of gene expression in the end-stage OA cartilage that we have investigated is not the mechanism by which this association signal is operating. As implied by the dynamic patterns of gene expression throughout chondrogenesis, the association signal marked by rs9350591 could instead be exerting its effects during joint development.

Journey to the cell surface--the central role of the trans-Golgi network in plants

The secretion of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates to the cell surface is essential for plant development and adaptation. Secreted substances synthesized at the endoplasmic reticulum pass through the Golgi apparatus and trans-Golgi network (TGN) en route to the plasma membrane via the conventional secretion pathway. The TGN is morphologically and functionally distinct from the Golgi apparatus. The TGN is located at the crossroads of many trafficking pathways and regulates a range of crucial processes including secretion to the cell surface, transport to the vacuole, and the reception of endocytic cargo. This review outlines the TGN's central role in cargo secretion, showing that its behavior is more complex and controlled than the bulk-flow hypothesis suggests. Its formation, structure, and maintenance are discussed along with the formation and release of secretory vesicles.

Motor and tail homology 1 (Th1) domains antagonistically control myosin-1 dynamics

Class 1 myosins are monomeric motor proteins that fulfill diverse functions at the membrane/cytoskeletal interface. All myosins-1 contain a motor domain, which binds actin, hydrolyzes ATP, and generates forces, and a TH1 domain, which interacts directly with membrane lipids. In most cases, TH1 is needed for proper subcellular localization and presumably function, although little is known about how this domain regulates the behavior of class 1 myosins in live cells. To address this, we used single molecule total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to examine the dynamics of the well-characterized myosin-1a isoform during interactions with the cortex of living cells. Our studies revealed that full-length myosin-1a exhibits restricted mobility relative to TH1 alone. Motor domain mutations that disrupt actin binding increased the mobility of full-length myosin-1a, whereas mutations to the TH1 domain that are known to reduce steady-state targeting to the plasma membrane unexpectedly reduced mobility. Deletion of the calmodulin-binding lever arm in Myo1a mimicked the impact of actin-binding mutations. Finally, myosin-1b, which demonstrates exquisite sensitivity to mechanical load, exhibited dynamic behavior nearly identical to myosin-1a. These studies are the first, to our knowledge, to explore class 1 myosin dynamics at the single-molecule level in living cells; our results suggest a model where the motor domain restricts dynamics via a mechanism that requires the lever arm, whereas the TH1 domain allows persistent diffusion in close proximity to the plasma membrane.

Trafficking highways to the intercalated disc: new insights unlocking the specificity of connexin 43 localization

With each heartbeat, billions of cardiomyocytes work in concert to propagate the electrical excitation needed to effectively circulate blood. Regulated expression and timely delivery of connexin proteins to form gap junctions at the specialized cell-cell contact region, known as the intercalated disc, is essential to ventricular cardiomyocyte coupling. We focus this review on several regulatory mechanisms that have been recently found to govern the lifecycle of connexin 43 (Cx43), the short-lived and most abundantly expressed connexin in cardiac ventricular muscle. The Cx43 lifecycle begins with gene expression, followed by oligomerization into hexameric channels, and then cytoskeletal-based transport toward the disc region. Once delivered, hemichannels interact with resident disc proteins and are organized to effect intercellular coupling. We highlight recent studies exploring regulation of Cx43 localization to the intercalated disc, with emphasis on alternatively translated Cx43 isoforms and cytoskeletal transport machinery that together regulate Cx43 gap junction coupling between cardiomyocytes.

Localization and mobility of synaptic vesicles in Myosin VI mutants of Drosophila

Background

At the Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ), synaptic vesicles are mobile; however, the mechanisms that regulate vesicle traffic at the nerve terminal are not fully understood. Myosin VI has been shown to be important for proper synaptic physiology and morphology at the NMJ, likely by functioning as a vesicle tether. Here we investigate vesicle dynamics in Myosin VI mutants of Drosophila.

Results

In Drosophila, Myosin VI is encoded by the gene, jaguar (jar). To visualize active vesicle cycling we used FM dye loading and compared loss of function alleles of jar with controls. These studies revealed a differential distribution of vesicles at the jar mutant nerve terminal, with the newly endocytosed vesicles observed throughout the mutant boutons in contrast to the peripheral localization visualized at control NMJs. This finding is consistent with a role for Myosin VI in restraining vesicle mobility at the synapse to ensure proper localization. To further investigate regulation of vesicle dynamics by Myosin VI, FRAP analysis was used to analyze movement of GFP-labeled synaptic vesicles within individual boutons. FRAP revealed that synaptic vesicles are moving more freely in the jar mutant boutons, indicated by changes in initial bleach depth and rapid recovery of fluorescence following photobleaching.

Conclusion

This data provides insights into the role for Myosin VI in mediating synaptic vesicle dynamics at the nerve terminal. We observed mislocalization of actively cycling vesicles and an apparent increase in vesicle mobility when Myosin VI levels are reduced. These observations support the notion that a major function of Myosin VI in the nerve terminal is tethering synaptic vesicles to proper sub-cellular location within the bouton.

Transmembrane protein 55B is a novel regulator of cellular cholesterol metabolism

OBJECTIVE

Interindividual variation in pathways affecting cellular cholesterol metabolism can influence levels of plasma cholesterol, a well-established risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Inherent variation among immortalized lymphoblastoid cell lines from different donors can be leveraged to discover novel genes that modulate cellular cholesterol metabolism. The objective of this study was to identify novel genes that regulate cholesterol metabolism by testing for evidence of correlated gene expression with cellular levels of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR) mRNA, a marker for cellular cholesterol homeostasis, in a large panel of lymphoblastoid cell lines.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

Expression array profiling was performed on 480 lymphoblastoid cell lines established from participants of the Cholesterol and Pharmacogenetics (CAP) statin clinical trial, and transcripts were tested for evidence of correlated expression with HMGCR as a marker of intracellular cholesterol homeostasis. Of these, transmembrane protein 55b (TMEM55B) showed the strongest correlation (r=0.29; P=4.0E-08) of all genes not previously implicated in cholesterol metabolism and was found to be sterol regulated. TMEM55B knockdown in human hepatoma cell lines promoted the decay rate of the low-density lipoprotein receptor, reduced cell surface low-density lipoprotein receptor protein, impaired low-density lipoprotein uptake, and reduced intracellular cholesterol.

CONCLUSIONS

Here, we report identification of TMEM55B as a novel regulator of cellular cholesterol metabolism through the combination of gene expression profiling and functional studies. The findings highlight the value of an integrated genomic approach for identifying genes that influence cholesterol homeostasis.

Myosin lever arm directs collective motion on cellular actin network

The molecular motor myosin teams up to drive muscle contraction, membrane traffic, and cell division in biological cells. Myosin function in cells emerges from the interaction of multiple motors tethered to a scaffold, with surrounding actin filaments organized into 3D networks. Despite the importance of myosin function, the influence of intermotor interactions on collective motion remains poorly understood. In this study, we used precisely engineered myosin assemblies to examine emergence in collective myosin movement. We report that tethering multiple myosin VI motors, but not myosin V motors, modifies their movement trajectories on keratocyte actin networks. Single myosin V and VI dimers display similar skewed trajectories, albeit in opposite directions, when traversing the keratocyte actin network. In contrast, tethering myosin VI motors, but not myosin V motors, progressively straightens the trajectories with increasing myosin number. Trajectory shape of multimotor scaffolds positively correlates with the stiffness of the myosin lever arm. Swapping the flexible myosin VI lever arm for the relatively rigid myosin V lever increases trajectory skewness, and vice versa. A simplified model of coupled motor movement demonstrates that the differences in flexural rigidity of the two myosin lever arms is sufficient to account for the differences in observed behavior of groups of myosin V and VI motors. In accordance with this model trajectory, shapes for scaffolds containing both myosin V and VI are dominated by the myosin with a stiffer lever arm. Our findings suggest that structural features unique to each myosin type may confer selective advantages in cellular functions.

Myosins 1 and 6, myosin light chain kinase, actin and microtubules cooperate during antibody-mediated internalisation and trafficking of membrane-expressed viral antigens in feline infectious peritonitis virus infected monocytes

Monocytes infected with feline infectious peritonitis virus, a coronavirus, express viral proteins in their plasma membranes. Upon binding of antibodies, these proteins are quickly internalised through a new clathrin- and caveolae-independent internalisation pathway. By doing so, the infected monocytes can escape antibody-dependent cell lysis. In the present study, we investigated which kinases and cytoskeletal proteins are of importance during internalisation and subsequent intracellular transport. The experiments showed that myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) and myosin 1 are crucial for the initiation of the internalisation. With co-localisation stainings, it was found that MLCK and myosin 1 co-localise with antigens even before internalisation started. Myosin 6 co-localised with the internalising complexes during passage through the cortical actin, were it might play a role in moving or disintegrating actin filaments, to overcome the actin barrier. One minute after internalisation started, vesicles had passed the cortical actin, co-localised with microtubules and association with myosin 6 was lost. The vesicles were further transported over the microtubules and accumulated at the microtubule organising centre after 10 to 30 min. Intracellular trafficking over microtubules was mediated by MLCK, myosin 1 and a small actin tail. Since inhibiting MLCK with ML-7 was so efficient in blocking the internalisation pathway, this target can be used for the development of a new treatment for FIPV.

Proteins and mechanisms regulating gap-junction assembly, internalization, and degradation

Gap junctions (GJs) are the only known cellular structures that allow a direct cell-to-cell transfer of signaling molecules by forming densely packed arrays or "plaques" of hydrophilic channels that bridge the apposing membranes of neighboring cells. The crucial role of GJ-mediated intercellular communication (GJIC) for all aspects of multicellular life, including coordination of development, tissue function, and cell homeostasis, has been well documented. Assembly and degradation of these membrane channels is a complex process that includes biosynthesis of the connexin (Cx) subunit proteins (innexins in invertebrates) on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes, oligomerization of compatible subunits into hexameric hemichannels (connexons), delivery of the connexons to the plasma membrane (PM), head-on docking of compatible connexons in the extracellular space at distinct locations, arrangement of channels into dynamic spatially and temporally organized GJ channel plaques, as well as internalization of GJs into the cytoplasm followed by their degradation. Clearly, precise modulation of GJIC, biosynthesis, and degradation are crucial for accurate function, and much research currently addresses how these fundamental processes are regulated. Here, we review posttranslational protein modifications (e.g., phosphorylation and ubiquitination) and the binding of protein partners (e.g., the scaffolding protein ZO-1) known to regulate GJ biosynthesis, internalization, and degradation. We also look closely at the atomic resolution structure of a GJ channel, since the structure harbors vital cues relevant to GJ biosynthesis and turnover.

Myosin 6 is required for iris development and normal function of the outer retina

PURPOSE

To determine the molecular basis and the pathologic consequences of a chemically induced mutation in the translational vision research models 89 (tvrm89) mouse model with ERG defects.

METHODS

Mice from a G3 N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis program were screened for behavioral abnormalities and defects in retinal function by ERGs. The chromosomal position for the recessive tvrm89 mutation was determined in a genome-wide linkage analysis. The critical region was refined, and candidate genes were screened by direct sequencing. The tvrm89 phenotype was characterized by circling behavior, in vivo ocular imaging, detailed ERG-based studies of the retina and RPE, and histological analysis of these structures.

RESULTS

The tvrm89 mutation was localized to a region on chromosome 9 containing Myo6. Sequencing identified a T→C point mutation in the codon for amino acid 480 in Myo6 that converts a leucine to a proline. This mutation does not confer a loss of protein expression levels; however, mice homozygous for the Myo6(tvrm89) mutation display an abnormal iris shape and attenuation of both strobe-flash ERGs and direct-current ERGs by 4 age weeks, neither of which is associated with photoreceptor loss.

CONCLUSIONS

The tvrm89 phenotype mimics that reported for Myosin6-null mice, suggesting that the mutation confers a loss of myosin 6 protein function. The observation that homozygous Myo6(tvrm89) mice display reduced ERG a-wave and b-wave components, as well as components of the ERG attributed to RPE function, indicates that myosin 6 is necessary for the generation of proper responses of the outer retina to light.

Myosin VI and its cargo adaptors - linking endocytosis and autophagy

The coordinated trafficking and tethering of membrane cargo within cells relies on the function of distinct cytoskeletal motors that are targeted to specific subcellular compartments through interactions with protein adaptors and phospholipids. The unique actin motor myosin VI functions at distinct steps during clathrin-mediated endocytosis and the early endocytic pathway - both of which are involved in cargo trafficking and sorting - through interactions with Dab2, GIPC, Tom1 and LMTK2. This multifunctional ability of myosin VI can be attributed to its cargo-binding tail region that contains two protein-protein interaction interfaces, a ubiquitin-binding motif and a phospholipid binding domain. In addition, myosin VI has been shown to be a regulator of the autophagy pathway, because of its ability to link the endocytic and autophagic pathways through interactions with the ESCRT-0 protein Tom1 and the autophagy adaptor proteins T6BP, NDP52 and optineurin. This function has been attributed to facilitating autophagosome maturation and subsequent fusion with the lysosome. Therefore, in this Commentary, we discuss the relationship between myosin VI and the different myosin VI adaptor proteins, particularly with regards to the spatial and temporal regulation that is required for the sorting of cargo at the early endosome, and their impact on autophagy.

Adaptive evolution of the myo6 gene in old world fruit bats (family: pteropodidae)

Myosin VI (encoded by the Myo6 gene) is highly expressed in the inner and outer hair cells of the ear, retina, and polarized epithelial cells such as kidney proximal tubule cells and intestinal enterocytes. The Myo6 gene is thought to be involved in a wide range of physiological functions such as hearing, vision, and clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Bats (Chiroptera) represent one of the most fascinating mammal groups for molecular evolutionary studies of the Myo6 gene. A diversity of specialized adaptations occur among different bat lineages, such as echolocation and associated high-frequency hearing in laryngeal echolocating bats, large eyes and a strong dependence on vision in Old World fruit bats (Pteropodidae), and specialized high-carbohydrate but low-nitrogen diets in both Old World and New World fruit bats (Phyllostomidae). To investigate what role(s) the Myo6 gene might fulfill in bats, we sequenced the coding region of the Myo6 gene in 15 bat species and used molecular evolutionary analyses to detect evidence of positive selection in different bat lineages. We also conducted real-time PCR assays to explore the expression levels of Myo6 in a range of tissues from three representative bat species. Molecular evolutionary analyses revealed that the Myo6 gene, which was widely considered as a hearing gene, has undergone adaptive evolution in the Old World fruit bats which lack laryngeal echolocation and associated high-frequency hearing. Real-time PCR showed the highest expression level of the Myo6 gene in the kidney among ten tissues examined in three bat species, indicating an important role for this gene in kidney function. We suggest that Myo6 has undergone adaptive evolution in Old World fruit bats in relation to receptor-mediated endocytosis for the preservation of protein and essential nutrients.

Gipc1 has a dual role in Vangl2 trafficking and hair bundle integrity in the inner ear

Vangl2 is one of the central proteins controlling the establishment of planar cell polarity in multiple tissues of different species. Previous studies suggest that the localization of the Vangl2 protein to specific intracellular microdomains is crucial for its function. However, the molecular mechanisms that control Vangl2 trafficking within a cell are largely unknown. Here, we identify Gipc1 (GAIP C-terminus interacting protein 1) as a new interactor for Vangl2, and we show that a myosin VI-Gipc1 protein complex can regulate Vangl2 traffic in heterologous cells. Furthermore, we show that in the cochlea of MyoVI mutant mice, Vangl2 presence at the membrane is increased, and that a disruption of Gipc1 function in hair cells leads to maturation defects, including defects in hair bundle orientation and integrity. Finally, stimulated emission depletion microscopy and overexpression of GFP-Vangl2 show an enrichment of Vangl2 on the supporting cell side, adjacent to the proximal membrane of hair cells. Altogether, these results indicate a broad role for Gipc1 in the development of both stereociliary bundles and cell polarization, and suggest that the strong asymmetry of Vangl2 observed in early postnatal cochlear epithelium is mostly a 'tissue' polarity readout.

Myosin VI regulates actin dynamics and melanosome biogenesis

Myosin VI has been implicated in various steps of organelle dynamics. However, the molecular mechanism by which this myosin contributes to membrane traffic is poorly understood. Here, we report that myosin VI is associated with a lysosome-related organelle, the melanosome. Using an actin-based motility assay and video microscopy, we observed that myosin VI does not contribute to melanosome movements. Myosin VI expression regulates instead the organization of actin networks in the cytoplasm. Using a cell-free assay, we showed that myosin VI recruited actin at the surface of isolated melanosomes. Myosin VI is involved in the endocytic-recycling pathway, and this pathway contributes to the transport of a melanogenic enzyme to maturing melanosomes. We showed that depletion of myosin VI accumulated a melanogenic enzyme in enlarged melanosomes and increased their melanin content. We confirmed the requirement of myosin VI to regulate melanosome biogenesis by analysing the morphology of melanosomes in choroid cells from of the Snell's waltzer mice that do not express myosin VI. Together, our results provide new evidence that myosin VI regulates the organization of actin dynamics at the surface of a specialized organelle and unravel a novel function of this myosin in regulating the biogenesis of this organelle.

Myo1c regulates lipid raft recycling to control cell spreading, migration and Salmonella invasion

A balance between endocytosis and membrane recycling regulates the composition and dynamics of the plasma membrane. Internalization and recycling of cholesterol- and sphingolipid-enriched lipid rafts is an actin-dependent process that is mediated by a specialized Arf6-dependent recycling pathway. Here, we identify myosin1c (Myo1c) as the first motor protein that drives the formation of recycling tubules emanating from the perinuclear recycling compartment. We demonstrate that the single-headed Myo1c is a lipid-raft-associated motor protein that is specifically involved in recycling of lipid-raft-associated glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-linked cargo proteins and their delivery to the cell surface. Whereas Myo1c overexpression increases the levels of these raft proteins at the cell surface, in cells depleted of Myo1c function through RNA interference or overexpression of a dominant-negative mutant, these tubular transport carriers of the recycling pathway are lost and GPI-linked raft markers are trapped in the perinuclear recycling compartment. Intriguingly, Myo1c only selectively promotes delivery of lipid raft membranes back to the cell surface and is not required for recycling of cargo, such as the transferrin receptor, which is mediated by parallel pathways. The profound defect in lipid raft trafficking in Myo1c-knockdown cells has a dramatic impact on cell spreading, cell migration and cholesterol-dependent Salmonella invasion; processes that require lipid raft transport to the cell surface to deliver signaling components and the extra membrane essential for cell surface expansion and remodeling. Thus, Myo1c plays a crucial role in the recycling of lipid raft membrane and proteins that regulate plasma membrane plasticity, cell motility and pathogen entry.

Actin cytoskeleton rest stops regulate anterograde traffic of connexin 43 vesicles to the plasma membrane

RATIONALE

The intracellular trafficking of connexin 43 (Cx43) hemichannels presents opportunities to regulate cardiomyocyte gap junction coupling. Although it is known that Cx43 hemichannels are transported along microtubules to the plasma membrane, the role of actin in Cx43 forward trafficking is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

We explored whether the actin cytoskeleton is involved in Cx43 forward trafficking.

METHODS AND RESULTS

High-resolution imaging reveals that Cx43 vesicles colocalize with nonsarcomeric actin in adult cardiomyocytes. Live-cell fluorescence imaging reveals Cx43 vesicles as stationary or traveling slowly (average speed 0.09 μm/s) when associated with actin. At any time, the majority (81.7%) of vesicles travel at subkinesin rates, suggesting that actin is important for Cx43 transport. Using Cx43 containing a hemagglutinin tag in the second extracellular loop, we developed an assay to detect transport of de novo Cx43 hemichannels to the plasma membrane after release from Brefeldin A-induced endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi vesicular transport block. Latrunculin A (for specific interference of actin) was used as an intervention after reinitiation of vesicular transport. Disruption of actin inhibits delivery of Cx43 to the cell surface. Moreover, using the assay in primary cardiomyocytes, actin inhibition causes an 82% decrease (P<0.01) in de novo endogenous Cx43 delivery to cell-cell borders. In Langendorff-perfused mouse heart preparations, Cx43/β-actin complexing is disrupted during acute ischemia, and inhibition of actin polymerization is sufficient to reduce levels of Cx43 gap junctions at intercalated discs.

CONCLUSIONS

Actin is a necessary component of the cytoskeleton-based forward trafficking apparatus for Cx43. In cardiomyocytes, Cx43 vesicles spend a majority of their time pausing at nonsarcomeric actin rest stops when not undergoing microtubule-based transport to the plasma membrane. Deleterious effects on this interaction between Cx43 and the actin cytoskeleton during acute ischemia contribute to losses in Cx43 localization at intercalated discs.

Extension of a three-helix bundle domain of myosin VI and key role of calmodulins

The molecular motor protein myosin VI moves toward the minus-end of actin filaments with a step size of 30-36 nm. Such large step size either drastically limits the degree of complex formation between dimer subunits to leave enough length for the lever arms, or requires an extension of the lever arms' crystallographically observed structure. Recent experimental work proposed that myosin VI dimerization triggers the unfolding of the protein's proximal tail domain which could drive the needed lever-arm extension. Here, we demonstrate through steered molecular dynamics simulation the feasibility of sufficient extension arising from turning a three-helix bundle into a long α-helix. A key role is played by the known calmodulin binding that facilitates the extension by altering the strain path in myosin VI. Sequence analysis of the proximal tail domain suggests that further calmodulin binding sites open up when the domain's three-helix bundle is unfolded and that subsequent calmodulin binding stabilizes the extended lever arms.

Myosin VI contributes to synaptic transmission and development at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction

Background

Myosin VI, encoded by jaguar (jar) in Drosophila melanogaster, is a unique member of the myosin superfamily of actin-based motor proteins. Myosin VI is the only myosin known to move towards the minus or pointed ends of actin filaments. Although Myosin VI has been implicated in numerous cellular processes as both an anchor and a transporter, little is known about the role of Myosin VI in the nervous system. We previously recovered jar in a screen for genes that modify neuromuscular junction (NMJ) development and here we report on the genetic analysis of Myosin VI in synaptic development and function using loss of function jar alleles.

Results

Our experiments on Drosophila third instar larvae revealed decreased locomotor activity, a decrease in NMJ length, a reduction in synaptic bouton number, and altered synaptic vesicle localization in jar mutants. Furthermore, our studies of synaptic transmission revealed alterations in both basal synaptic transmission and short-term plasticity at the jar mutant neuromuscular synapse.

Conclusions

Altogether these findings indicate that Myosin VI is important for proper synaptic function and morphology. Myosin VI may be functioning as an anchor to tether vesicles to the bouton periphery and, thereby, participating in the regulation of synaptic vesicle mobilization during synaptic transmission.

Principles of unconventional myosin function and targeting

Unconventional myosins are a superfamily of actin-based motors implicated in diverse cellular processes. In recent years, much progress has been made in describing their biophysical properties, and headway has been made into analyzing their cellular functions. Here, we focus on the principles that guide in vivo motor function and targeting to specific cellular locations. Rather than describe each motor comprehensively, we outline the major themes that emerge from research across the superfamily and use specific examples to illustrate each. In presenting the data in this format, we seek to identify open questions in each field as well as to point out commonalities between them. To advance our understanding of myosins' roles in vivo, clearly we must identify their cellular cargoes and the protein complexes that regulate motor attachment to fully appreciate their functions on the cellular and developmental levels.

Receptor sorting within endosomal trafficking pathway is facilitated by dynamic actin filaments

Early endosomes (EEs) are known to be a sorting station for internalized molecules destined for degradation, recycling, or other intracellular organelles. Segregation is an essential step in such sorting, but the molecular mechanism of this process remains to be elucidated. Here, we show that actin is required for efficient recycling and endosomal maturation by producing a motile force. Perturbation of actin dynamics by drugs induced a few enlarged EEs containing several degradative vacuoles and also interfered with their transporting ability. Actin repolymerization induced by washout of the drug caused the vacuoles to dissociate and individually translocate toward the perinuclear region. We further elucidated that cortactin, an actin-nucleating factor, was required for transporting contents from within EEs. Actin filaments regulated by cortactin may provide a motile force for efficient sorting within early endosomes. These data suggest that actin filaments coordinate with microtubules to mediate segregation in EEs.

VEGF receptor 2 endocytic trafficking regulates arterial morphogenesis

VEGF is the key growth factor regulating arterial morphogenesis. However, molecular events involved in this process have not been elucidated. Synectin null mice demonstrate impaired VEGF signaling and a marked reduction in arterial morphogenesis. Here, we show that this occurs due to delayed trafficking of VEGFR2-containing endosomes that exposes internalized VEGFR2 to selective dephosphorylation by PTP1b on Y(1175) site. Synectin involvement in VEGFR2 intracellular trafficking requires myosin-VI, and myosin-VI knockout in mice or knockdown in zebrafish phenocopy the synectin null phenotype. Silencing of PTP1b restores VEGFR2 activation and significantly recovers arterial morphogenesis in myosin-VI(-/-) knockdown zebrafish and synectin(-/-) mice. We conclude that activation of the VEGF-mediated arterial morphogenesis cascade requires phosphorylation of the VEGFR2 Y(1175) site that is dependent on trafficking of internalized VEGFR2 away from the plasma membrane via a synectin-myosin-VI complex. This key event in VEGF signaling occurs at an intracellular site and is regulated by a novel endosomal trafficking-dependent process.

Myosin VI: an innovative motor that challenged the swinging lever arm hypothesis

The swinging crossbridge hypothesis states that energy from ATP hydrolysis is transduced to mechanical movement of the myosin head while bound to actin. The light chain-binding region of myosin is thought to act as a lever arm that amplifies movements near the catalytic site. This model has been challenged by findings that myosin VI takes larger steps along actin filaments than early interpretations of its structure seem to allow. We now know that myosin VI does indeed operate by an unusual approximately 180 degrees lever arm swing and achieves its large step size using special structural features in its tail domain.