Invited commentary: disaggregating preterm birth to determine etiology

Prenatal metal(loid) exposure and preterm birth: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence

BACKGROUND

Preterm birth (PTB) is a common pregnancy complication associated with significant neonatal morbidity. Prenatal exposure to environmental chemicals, including toxic and/or essential metal(loid)s, may contribute to PTB risk.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to summarize the epidemiologic evidence of the associations among levels of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) assessed during the prenatal period and PTB or gestational age at delivery; to assess the quality of the literature and strength of evidence for an effect for each metal; and to provide recommendations for future research.

METHODS

We adapted the Navigation Guide methodology and followed PRISMA guidelines. We searched the MEDLINE/PubMed database for epidemiologic studies from 1995 to 2023. We used a customized risk of bias protocol and evaluated the sufficiency of evidence for an effect of each metal(loid) on PTB risk.

RESULTS

A total of 1206 studies were identified and screened. Of these, 139 were assessed for eligibility by reading the full-text, and 92 studies were ultimately included (arsenic: 40, cadmium: 30, chromium: 11, copper: 21, mercury: 27, manganese: 17, lead: 41, zinc: 18, metal(loid) mixtures: 12). We found sufficient evidence that lead increases the risk of PTB and, while the evidence was limited, suggestive evidence that cadmium and chromium increase the risk of PTB. The evidence was deemed inadequate to determine an effect for the other metal(loid)s.

SIGNIFICANCE

Future research would benefit from more precise PTB clinical phenotyping, measuring exposure early and longitudinally throughout pregnancy, using an appropriate media for metal(loid)s under study, and evaluating metal mixtures. Given the strength of evidence linking lead exposure and PTB, active and comprehensive prenatal screening for lead exposure among pregnant individuals is warranted.

IMPACT

By summarizing 92 epidemiologic studies that investigated the associations between metal exposure and preterm birth using the rigorous Navigation Guide methodology, our review provides compelling evidence for a strong link between prenatal lead exposure and preterm birth. Additionally, it suggests potential associations between cadmium and chromium exposure and preterm birth. Given the robust nature of this evidence, there is an urgent need for prenatal screening for lead exposure during pregnancy, along with targeted interventions to reduce exposure. These actions are critical for advancing maternal and child health.

Conceptual framework for preterm birth review in San Francisco

Preterm birth persists as a leading cause of infant mortality and morbidity despite decades of intervention effort. Intervention null effects may reflect failure to account for social determinants of health (SDH) or jointly acting risk factors. In some communities, persistent preterm birth trends and disparities have been consistently associated with SDH such as race/ethnicity, zip code, and housing conditions. Health authorities recommend conceptual frameworks for targeted action on SDH and precision public health approaches for preterm birth prevention. We document San Francisco, California's experience identifying the need, rationale, methods, and pilot work for developing a conceptual framework for preterm birth review (PTBR) in San Francisco. The PTBR conceptual framework is intended to enable essential public health services in San Francisco that prevent a range of preterm birth phenotypes by guiding plans for data collection, hypothesis testing, analytical methods, reports, and intervention strategy. Key elements of the PTBR conceptual framework are described including, 10 domains of SDH, 9 domains at the whole person level, such as lived experience and health behaviors, 8 domains at the within-person level, such as biomarkers and clinical measures, 18 preterm birth phenotypes, and the interconnections between domains. Assumptions for the PTBR conceptual framework were supported by a scoping review of literature on SDH effects on preterm birth, health authority consensus reports, and PTBR pilot data. Researcher and health authority interest in each of the domains warrants the framework to prompt systematic consideration of variables in each proposed domain. PTBR pilot data, illustrated in heatmaps, confirm the feasibility of data collection based on the framework, prevalence of co-occurring risk factors, potential for joint effects on specific preterm birth phenotypes, and opportunity for intervention to block SDH effects on preterm birth. The proposed PTBR conceptual framework has practical implications for specifying (1) population groups at risk, (2) grids or heatmap visualization of risk factors, (3) multi-level analyses, and (4) multi-component intervention design in terms of patterns of co-occurring risk factors. Lessons learned about PTBR data collection logistics, variable choice, and data management will be incorporated into future work to build PTBR infrastructure based on the PTBR conceptual framework.

Toward a new taxonomy of obstetrical disease: improved performance of maternal blood biomarkers for the great obstetrical syndromes when classified according to placental pathology

BACKGROUND

The major challenge for obstetrics is the prediction and prevention of the great obstetrical syndromes. We propose that defining obstetrical diseases by the combination of clinical presentation and disease mechanisms as inferred by placental pathology will aid in the discovery of biomarkers and add specificity to those already known.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the longitudinal profile of placental growth factor (PlGF), soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1), and the PlGF/sFlt-1 ratio throughout gestation, and to determine whether the association between abnormal biomarker profiles and obstetrical syndromes is strengthened by information derived from placental examination, eg, the presence or absence of placental lesions of maternal vascular malperfusion.

STUDY DESIGN

This retrospective case cohort study was based on a parent cohort of 4006 pregnant women enrolled prospectively. The case cohort of 1499 pregnant women included 1000 randomly selected patients from the parent cohort and all additional patients with obstetrical syndromes from the parent cohort. Pregnant women were classified into six groups: 1) term delivery without pregnancy complications (n=540; control); 2) preterm labor and delivery (n=203); 3) preterm premature rupture of the membranes (n=112); 4) preeclampsia (n=230); 5) small-for-gestational-age neonate (n=334); and 6) other pregnancy complications (n=182). Maternal plasma concentrations of PlGF and sFlt-1 were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in 7560 longitudinal samples. Placental pathologists, masked to clinical outcomes, diagnosed the presence or absence of placental lesions of maternal vascular malperfusion. Comparisons between mean biomarker concentrations in cases and controls were performed by utilizing longitudinal generalized additive models. Comparisons were made between controls and each obstetrical syndrome with and without subclassifying cases according to the presence or absence of placental lesions of maternal vascular malperfusion.

RESULTS

1) When obstetrical syndromes are classified based on the presence or absence of placental lesions of maternal vascular malperfusion, significant differences in the mean plasma concentrations of PlGF, sFlt-1, and the PlGF/sFlt-1 ratio between cases and controls emerge earlier in gestation; 2) the strength of association between an abnormal PlGF/sFlt-1 ratio and the occurrence of obstetrical syndromes increases when placental lesions of maternal vascular malperfusion are present (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 13.6 vs 6.7 for preeclampsia; aOR, 8.1 vs 4.4 for small-for-gestational-age neonates; aOR, 5.5 vs 2.1 for preterm premature rupture of the membranes; and aOR, 3.3 vs 2.1 for preterm labor (all P<0.05); and 3) the PlGF/sFlt-1 ratio at 28 to 32 weeks of gestation is abnormal in patients who subsequently delivered due to preterm labor with intact membranes and in those with preterm premature rupture of the membranes if both groups have placental lesions of maternal vascular malperfusion. Such association is not significant in patients with these obstetrical syndromes who do not have placental lesions.

CONCLUSION

Classification of obstetrical syndromes according to the presence or absence of placental lesions of maternal vascular malperfusion allows biomarkers to be informative earlier in gestation and enhances the strength of association between biomarkers and clinical outcomes. We propose that a new taxonomy of obstetrical disorders informed by placental pathology will facilitate the discovery and implementation of biomarkers as well as the prediction and prevention of such disorders.

Revisiting the association between maternal and offspring preterm birth using a sibling design

Background

Previous studies have reported an intergenerational association between maternal and offspring preterm birth (PTB) but the nature of the association remains unclear. We assessed the association between maternal and offspring preterm birth using a quasi-experimental sibling design and distinguishing between preterm birth types.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective intergenerational cohort study of 39,573 women born singleton in Manitoba, Canada (1980–2002) who gave birth to 79,198 singleton infants (1995–2016). To account for familial confounding we defined a subcohort of 1033 sisters with discordant PTB status who subsequently gave birth and compared offspring PTB rates between 2499 differentially exposed cousins using log-binomial fixed-effects generalized estimating equation models. PTB was defined as a delivery < 37 gestation weeks, divided into spontaneous and provider-initiated.

Results

In the population cohort, mothers born preterm were more likely to give birth preterm [Adjusted Relative Risk (ARR): 1.39; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.25, 1.54] and very preterm birth [ARR: 1.76; 95% CI: 1.29, 2.41]. However, in the siblings cohort, the intergenerational association was not apparent among births to sisters with discordant PTB status [ARR: 1.02; 95% CI: 0.77, 1.34 for preterm birth and ARR: 0.88; 95% CI: 0.38, 2.02 for very preterm birth]. Mothers born at term with a sister born preterm had a similarly elevated risk of delivering a preterm infant (10%) than their preterm sisters. Intergenerational patterns were observed for spontaneous PTB but not for provider-initiated PTB.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that it is not the fact of having been born preterm that puts women at higher risk of delivering preterm, but the fact of having been born to a mother who ever delivered preterm. Consideration of a female family history of PTB may better identify women at higher risk of preterm delivery than relying on maternal preterm birth status alone. Further research may benefit from distinguishing preterm birth types.

Prenatal exposure to organophosphates and associations with birthweight and gestational length

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are often used as flame retardants and plasticizers. Animal data suggest exposure to OPEs could impact children's growth and development, yet impacts on human birth outcomes are understudied. We evaluate impacts of OPE exposure on the timing of delivery and infant's birthweight in the Pregnancy Infection and Nutrition Study (PIN). North Carolina women enrolled in PIN in early pregnancy and participated in follow-up through delivery. Analyses were limited to mothers recruited from 2002 to 2005, whose children participated in additional follow-up in early childhood (n = 349). Mothers collected urine samples in which OPE metabolites were assessed and birth outcomes were abstracted from medical records. Bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCIPP), diphenyl phosphate (DPHP), isopropyl-phenyl phenyl phosphate (ip-PPP), bis(1-chloro-2-propyl) 1-hydroxy-2-propyl phosphate (BCIPHIPP) were detected in >80% of samples. Average birthweight and gestational age were 3326 g and 39.1 weeks, respectively. As data suggest that the mechanisms of action by which OPEs impact birth outcomes may be fetal sex dependent, we conducted sex-stratified statistical analyses. Women with the highest ip-PPP concentrations delivered girls 1 week earlier than women with lower levels (95% Confidence Interval (CI): -1.85, -0.15). Women with BDCIPP levels above the median had 3.99 (95% CI: 1.08, 14.78) times the odds of delivering their daughters preterm. Similarly, higher ip-PPP levels were associated with lower birthweight, but not after standardizing for gestational age. Among males, maternal ip-PPP was associated with decreased odds of preterm birth (OR = 0.21, 95% CI: 0.06, 0.68). DPHP and BCIPHIPP levels were not associated with outcomes in either sex. Results indicate that prenatal OPE exposure may impact timing of birth, though results are imprecise. Given widespread OPE exposure and the urgent need to identify and mitigate causes of preterm birth, further investigation is warranted.

Psychobiobehavioral Model for Preterm Birth in Pregnant Women in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Preterm birth (PTB) is a final common outcome resulting from many interrelated etiological pathways; of particular interest is antenatal psychosocial distress (i.e., stress, anxiety, and depression). In LMI countries, both exposure to severe life stressors and rate of PTB are on average greater when compared with high-income countries. In LMI countries women are exposed to some of the most extreme psychosocial stress worldwide (e.g., absolute poverty, limited social resources). High prevalence of antenatal stress and depression have been observed in some studies from LMI countries. We propose a psychosocial, biological, and behavioral model for investigating the complex multisystem interactions in stress responses leading to PTB and explain the basis of this approach. We discuss ethical considerations for a psychosocial, biological, and behavioral screening tool to predict PTB from a LMI country perspective.

Traffic-related air pollution and risk of preterm birth in the San Joaquin Valley of California

PURPOSE

To evaluate associations between traffic-related air pollution during pregnancy and preterm birth in births in four counties in California during years 2000 to 2006.

METHODS

We used logistic regression to examine the association between the highest quartile of ambient air pollutants (carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter <10 and 2.5 μm) and traffic density during pregnancy and each of five levels of prematurity based on gestational age at birth (20-23, 24-27, 28-31, 32-33, and 34-36 weeks) versus term (37-42 weeks). We examined trimester averages and the last month and the last 6 weeks of pregnancy. Models were adjusted for birthweight, maternal age, race/ethnicity, education, prenatal care, and birth costs payment. Neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) was evaluated as a potential effect modifier.

RESULTS

There were increased odds ratios (ORs) for early preterm birth for those exposed to the highest quartile of each pollutant during the second trimester and the end of pregnancy (adjusted OR, 1.4-2.8). Associations were stronger among mothers living in low SES neighborhoods (adjusted OR, 2.1-4.3). We observed exposure-response associations for multiple pollutant exposures and early preterm birth. Inverse associations during the first trimester were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results confirm associations between traffic-related air pollution and prematurity, particularly among very early preterm births and low SES neighborhoods.

Prospective study of time to pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between time to pregnancy (TTP) and adverse birth outcomes.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Not applicable.

PATIENT(S)

A total of 3,521 singletons born to women aged 18-40 years at cohort entry.

INTERVENTION(S)

None.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Selected birth outcomes, including preterm birth (PTB, <37 weeks' gestation), low birth weight (<2,500 g), small for gestational age, large for gestational age, and placental disorders, ascertained from the Danish Medical Birth Registry and Danish National Registry of Patients. Risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated using log-binomial regression, with adjustment for potential confounders and fertility treatment.

RESULT(S)

Multivariable RRs for PTB in relation to TTP of 3-5, 6-11, and ≥12 vs. <3 cycles were 1.59 (95% CI 0.94-2.69), 0.85 (95% CI 0.48-1.50), and 1.57 (95% CI 0.93-2.65). The association was slightly stronger for spontaneous PTB (TTP ≥12 vs. <3 cycles: RR 1.69, 95% CI 0.84-3.42) than for medically indicated PTB (RR 1.39, 95% CI 0.62-3.12). Longer TTPs (≥12 cycles) were associated with increased risks of low birth weight (RR 1.80, 95% CI 0.97-3.35), cesarean delivery (RR 1.64, 95% CI 1.27-2.12), placental disorders (RR 2.21, 95% CI 1.07-4.56), ischemic placental disease (RR 1.56, 95% CI 0.99-2.44), pre-eclampsia (RR 1.45, 95% CI 0.79-2.65), and postpartum hemorrhage (RR 1.58, CI 1.14-2.19), and decreased risks of macrosomia (≥4,500 g; RR 0.63, 95% CI 0.35-1.13) and large for gestational age (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.58-1.00). Longer TTP showed little association with small for gestational age.

CONCLUSION(S)

In a prospective cohort study of Danish pregnancy planners, delayed conception was a marker for adverse birth outcomes, after accounting for fertility treatment.

Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation early in pregnancy may prevent deep placentation disorders

Uteroplacental ischemia may cause preterm birth, either due to preterm labor, preterm premature rupture of membranes, or medical indication (in the presence of preeclampsia or fetal growth restriction). Uteroplacental ischemia is the product of defective deep placentation, a failure of invasion, and transformation of the spiral arteries by the trophoblast. The failure of normal placentation generates a series of clinical abnormalities nowadays called "deep placentation disorders"; they include preeclampsia, fetal growth restriction, preterm labor, preterm premature rupture of membranes, in utero fetal death, and placental abruption. Early reports suggested that a LC-PUFAs (long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids) rich diet reduces the incidence of deep placentation disorders. Recent randomized controlled trials are inconsistent to show the benefit of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation during pregnancy to prevent deep placentation disorders, but most of them showed that DHA supplementation was associated with lower risk of early preterm birth. We postulate that DHA supplementation, early in pregnancy, may reduce the incidence of deep placentation disorders. If our hypothesis is correct, DHA supplementation, early in pregnancy, will become a safe and effective strategy for primary prevention of highly relevant pregnancy diseases, such as preterm birth, preeclampsia, and fetal growth restriction.

Effects of socioeconomic position and clinical risk factors on spontaneous and iatrogenic preterm birth

BACKGROUND

The literature shows a variable and inconsistent relationship between socioeconomic position and preterm birth. We examined risk factors for spontaneous and iatrogenic preterm birth, with a focus on socioeconomic position and clinical risk factors, in order to explain the observed inconsistency.

METHODS

We carried out a retrospective population-based cohort study of all singleton deliveries in Nova Scotia from 1988 to 2003. Data were obtained from the Nova Scotia Atlee Perinatal Database and the federal income tax T1 Family Files. Separate logistic models were used to quantify the association between socioeconomic position, clinical risk factors and spontaneous preterm birth and iatrogenic preterm birth.

RESULTS

The study population included 132,714 singleton deliveries and the rate of preterm birth was 5.5%. Preterm birth rates were significantly higher among the women in the lowest (versus the highest) family income group for spontaneous (rate ratio 1.14, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.03, 1.25) but not iatrogenic preterm birth (rate ratio 0.95, 95% CI 0.75, 1.19). Adjustment for maternal characteristics attenuated the family income-spontaneous preterm birth relationship but strengthened the relationship with iatrogenic preterm birth. Clinical risk factors such as hypertension were differentially associated with spontaneous (rate ratio 3.92, 95% CI 3.47, 4.44) and iatrogenic preterm (rate ratio 14.1, 95% CI 11.4, 17.4) but factors such as diabetes mellitus were not (rate ratio 4.38, 95% CI 3.21, 5.99 for spontaneous and 4.02, 95% CI 2.07, 7.80 for iatrogenic preterm birth).

CONCLUSIONS

Socioeconomic position and clinical risk factors have different effects on spontaneous and iatrogenic preterm. Recent temporal increases in iatrogenic preterm birth appear to be responsible for the inconsistent relationship between socioeconomic position and preterm birth.

Candidate gene linkage approach to identify DNA variants that predispose to preterm birth

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to identify genetic variants contributing to preterm birth (PTB) using a linkage candidate gene approach.

METHODS

We studied 99 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for 33 genes in 257 families with PTBs segregating. Nonparametric and parametric analyses were used. Premature infants and mothers of premature infants were defined as affected cases in independent analyses.

RESULTS

Analyses with the infant as the case identified two genes with evidence of linkage: CRHR1 (P = 0.0012) and CYP2E1 (P = 0.0011). Analyses with the mother as the case identified four genes with evidence of linkage: ENPP1 (P = 0.003), IGFBP3 (P = 0.006), DHCR7 (P = 0.009), and TRAF2 (P = 0.01). DNA sequence analysis of the coding exons and splice sites for CRHR1 and TRAF2 identified no new likely etiologic variants.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest the involvement of six genes acting through the infant and/or the mother in the etiology of PTB.

Environmental contaminant exposures and preterm birth: a comprehensive review

Preterm birth is a significant public health concern, as it is associated with high risk of infant mortality, various morbidities in both the neonatal period and later in life, and a significant societal economic burden. As many cases are of unknown etiology, identification of the contribution of environmental contaminant exposures is a priority in the study of preterm birth. This is a comprehensive review of all known studies published from 1992 through August 2012 linking maternal exposure to environmental chemicals during pregnancy with preterm birth. Using PubMed searches, studies were identified that examined associations between preterm birth and exposure to five categories of environmental toxicants, including persistent organic pollutants, drinking-water contaminants, atmospheric pollutants, metals and metalloids, and other environmental contaminants. Individual studies were summarized and specific suggestions were made for future work in regard to exposure and outcome assessment methods as well as study design, with the recommendation of focusing on potential mediating toxicological mechanisms. In conclusion, no consistent evidence was found for positive associations between individual chemical exposures and preterm birth. By identifying limitations and addressing the gaps that may have impeded the ability to identify true associations thus far, this review can guide future epidemiologic studies of environmental exposures and preterm birth.

Rate of gestational weight gain, pre-pregnancy body mass index and preterm birth subtypes: a retrospective cohort study from Peru

OBJECTIVE

To examine the shape (functional form) of the association between the rate of gestational weight gain, pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), and preterm birth and its subtypes.

DESIGN

  Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

  National reference obstetric centre in Lima, Peru.

POPULATION

  Pregnant women who delivered singleton babies during the period 2006-2009, resident in Lima, and beginning prenatal care at ≤ 12 weeks of gestation (n=8964).

METHODS

  Data were collected from the centre database. The main analyses consisted of logistic regression with fractional polynomial modelling.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

  Preterm birth and its subtypes.

RESULTS

  Preterm birth occurred in 12.2% of women, being mostly idiopathic (85.7%). The rate of gestational weight gain was independently associated with preterm birth, and the shape of this association varied by pre-pregnancy BMI. In women who were underweight, the association was linear (per 0.1 kg/week increase) and protective (OR 0.88; 95% CI 0.82-1.00). In women of normal weight or who were overweight, the association was U-shaped: the odds of delivering preterm increased exponentially with rates <0.10 or >0.66 kg/week, and <0.04 or >0.50 kg/week, respectively. In women who were obese, the association was linear, but non-significant (OR 1.01; 95% CI 0.95-1.06). The association described for preterm birth closely resembled that of idiopathic preterm birth, although the latter was stronger. The rate of gestational weight gain was not associated with indicated preterm birth or preterm prelabour rupture of membranes.

CONCLUSIONS

  In Peruvian pregnant women starting prenatal care at ≤ 12 weeks of gestation, the rate of gestational weight gain is independently associated with preterm birth, mainly because of its association with idiopathic preterm birth, and the shape of both associations varies by pre-pregnancy BMI.

Epidemiology: the changing face of preterm birth

Preterm birth, defined as a pregnancy ending at less than 37 completed weeks of gestation, is the leading cause of infant mortality in the United States. The occurrence of preterm births rose steadily from 9.4% of all pregnancies in the United States in 1981 to 12.8% in 2006, before declining to 12.7% in 2007 and 12.3% in 2008. Most of the increase was attributable to increases in multiple gestations. Recent research has sought to understand this condition by evaluating its familial occurrence and both clinical and pathologic information to derive an etiologically homogeneous categorization.

Might rare factors account for most of the mortality of preterm babies?

BACKGROUND

Preterm delivery has a variety of causes, with each of these presumably carrying its own mortality risk. To the extent that they add to the risk of mortality, the various pathologic factors triggering preterm delivery will confound the causal contribution of gestational age to mortality, inflating the observed rates of gestational-age-specific mortality. We have previously estimated that about half of the mortality of US preterm singletons may be due to unmeasured pathologies that increase mortality risk and also cause preterm birth. In this paper, we examine the impact that rare factors may have, at least in theory, on preterm mortality.

METHODS

We constructed a simple model of gestational-age-specific mortality, in which we arbitrarily selected a function to represent the mortality due to immaturity alone ("baseline" risk). We then added "unmeasured" confounding factors that cause mortality and also cause preterm birth. This construct allowed us to calculate, in simple scenarios, the proportion of preterm mortality that could be caused by unmeasured confounding.

RESULTS

We found that rare pathologies with moderate-to-strong effects can substantially contribute to preterm mortality. The presence of such rare factors can also produce an intersection of gestational-age-specific mortality curves when stratifying by known risk factors.

CONCLUSIONS

It is possible that a few relatively rare factors may account for a large fraction of preterm mortality. The search for such factors should be a primary focus of future research on preterm delivery.

Evaluation of the reproductive and developmental risks of caffeine

A risk analysis of in utero caffeine exposure is presented utilizing epidemiological studies and animal studies dealing with congenital malformation, pregnancy loss, and weight reduction. These effects are of interest to teratologists, because animal studies are useful in their evaluation. Many of the epidemiology studies did not evaluate the impact of the "pregnancy signal," which identifies healthy pregnancies and permits investigators to identify subjects with low pregnancy risks. The spontaneous abortion epidemiology studies were inconsistent and the majority did not consider the confounding introduced by not considering the pregnancy signal. The animal studies do not support the concept that caffeine is an abortafacient for the wide range of human caffeine exposures. Almost all the congenital malformation epidemiology studies were negative. Animal pharmacokinetic studies indicate that the teratogenic plasma level of caffeine has to reach or exceed 60 µg/ml, which is not attainable from ingesting large amounts of caffeine in foods and beverages. No epidemiological study described the "caffeine teratogenic syndrome." Six of the 17 recent epidemiology studies dealing with the risk of caffeine and fetal weight reduction were negative. Seven of the positive studies had growth reductions that were clinically insignificant and none of the studies cited the animal literature. Analysis of caffeine's reproductive toxicity considers reproducibility and plausibility of clinical, epidemiological, and animal data. Moderate or even high amounts of beverages and foods containing caffeine do not increase the risks of congenital malformations, miscarriage or growth retardation. Pharmacokinetic studies markedly improve the ability to perform the risk analyses.

A review of the epidemiologic evidence concerning the reproductive health effects of caffeine consumption: a 2000-2009 update

This review of human studies of caffeine and reproductive health published between January 2000 and December 2009 serves to update the comprehensive review published by Leviton and Cowan (2002). The adverse reproductive outcomes addressed in this review include: (1) measures of subfecundity; (2) spontaneous abortion; (3) fetal death; (4) preterm birth; (5) congenital malformations; and (6) fetal growth restriction. Methodologic challenges and considerations relevant to investigations of each reproductive endpoint are summarized, followed by a brief critical review of each study. The evidence for an effect of caffeine on reproductive health and fetal development is limited by the inability to rule out plausible alternative explanations for the observed associations, namely confounding by pregnancy symptoms and smoking, and by exposure measurement error. Because of these limitations, the weight of evidence does not support a positive relationship between caffeine consumption and adverse reproductive or perinatal outcomes.

Maternal contributions to preterm delivery

Preterm delivery (PTD) is a complex trait with a significant familial component. However, no specific inheritance patterns have been established. The authors examined the contribution of PTDs in both the woman's family and her partner's family to her risk of PTD. The authors linked birth information from Danish national registers with pedigree information from the Danish Family Relations Database for 1,107,124 live singleton deliveries occurring from 1978 to 2004. Risk ratios were estimated comparing women with and without various PTD histories. Women with previous PTDs were at greatly increased risk of recurrent PTD (risk ratio = 5.6, 95% confidence interval: 5.5, 5.8); however, their PTD risk was unaffected by a partner's history of preterm children with other women. PTDs to a woman's mother, full sisters, or maternal half-sisters also increased her PTD risk (risk ratio = 1.6, 95% confidence interval: 1.5, 1.6), whereas PTDs in her paternal half-sisters, the female partners of her male relatives, or members of her partner's family did not affect her PTD risk. Inheritance patterns were similar for all gestational ages from very early through late PTD. The substantial portion of PTD risk explained by effects passed through the female line suggests a role for either imprinting or mitochondrial inheritance.

The genetics of preterm birth: using what we know to design better association studies

Women delivering preterm are at greatly increased risk of another preterm birth in subsequent pregnancies, reflecting effects of the environment, genetics, or both. Recent literature tells an increasingly coherent story about genetic susceptibility. Women who change partners after delivering preterm retain their elevated risk, whereas fathers who change partners do not. Women who themselves were preterm are at increased risk, an association not seen in fathers. Women with a half-sister who delivered preterm are at increased risk only if the shared parent was the mother. Concordance for preterm delivery is elevated in monozygotic compared with dizygotic twin mothers but not in monozygotic twin fathers. Several mechanisms could be operating: mitochondrial genes, maternal genes, or fetal genes expressing only the maternally derived copy. The authors compare 3 study designs for their ability to detect variants and to distinguish among mechanisms underlying heritability of this common outcome. The case-parent triad design offers robustness against self-selection and genetic population stratification, providing for estimation of genetic effects that are fetal, maternal, or that depend on the parent of origin. A case-base approach compares case-mothers with randomly sampled baby-mother pairs and permits estimation of the same relative risk parameters. Both designs offer important advantages over the commonly applied case-mother/control-mother design.

Invited commentary: maternal effects in preterm birth--effects of maternal genotype, mitochondrial DNA, imprinting, or environment?

Preterm birth is an important public health problem. A wide range of risk factors has been investigated, of which the strongest established is a woman's previous history of preterm birth. In this issue of the Journal, Boyd et al. (Am J Epidemiol. 2009;170(11):1358-1364) and Svensson et al. (Am J Epidemiol. 2009;170(11):1365-1372), using data on singleton livebirths from national birth registers linked with multigeneration databases, found evidence that maternal genetic factors impact on the risk for preterm birth, whereas paternal and probably fetal genetic factors do not. Possible caveats include missing information, the range of maternal risk factors included in the analyses, possible misclassification of these risk factors, and possible vertical transmission of microbial flora or behaviors from mother to daughter. Weinberg and Shi (Am J Epidemiol. 2009;170(11):1373-1381) build on the evidence regarding potential mechanisms underlying the heritability of preterm birth from these 2 and other studies, to evaluate the comparative ability of different study designs to distinguish among these potential mechanisms. These studies have different strengths, and a portfolio of studies of different designs and with more detailed phenotyping than previously done will be needed to probe further the etiology of preterm birth and thereby provide tools for its control.

Invited commentary: Intrauterine epidemiology

Traditionally, the investigation of preterm birth has relied on diagnostic definitions derived from maternal clinical presentation. However, clinical presentation may be only tangentially related to the underlying etiology of a disease. The utilization of data derived directly from the intrauterine or maternal systemic environment would be invaluable in consideration of the causes of preterm birth. In this issue, Kelly et al. (Am J Epidemiol. 2009;170(2)148-158) contribute to our understanding of the epidemiology of the intrauterine environment by classifying the vascular biology of the maternal-placental interface in cases of preterm delivery. Their histology-based approach observes that vascular conditions may be grouped into 5 constructs with specific relations to maternal and fetal vascular pathology. The frequencies of these constructs vary with regard to delivery indication and gestational age, suggesting that the intrauterine conditions associated with preterm birth are more complicated than originally appreciated. This work is laborious, and replication of the technique will be important. However, these authors have taken a large step toward introducing an "intrauterine" perspective into perinatal epidemiology and into our understanding of the underlying etiologies of preterm birth.