Predictors of relapse to harmful alcohol after orthotopic liver transplantation

Transplant Center Attitudes Toward Early Liver Transplant for Alcohol-associated Liver Disease

Background

Many centers have removed 6-mo pretransplant alcohol abstinence requirements to provide early liver transplant (ELT) for individuals with severe alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD), but the practice remains controversial. Using data collected from a nationally distributed survey, this study examines the practices and attitudes of transplant centers in the United States regarding ELT.

Methods

A 20-item survey designed to assess center practices and provider attitudes was distributed to 225 medical and surgical directors from 143 liver transplant centers via email.

Results

Surveys were completed by 28.9% (n = 65) of directors and 39% (n = 56) of transplant centers. All responding centers reported evaluating patients for ELT. Circumstances for considering ELT included <6 mo of survival without a transplant (96.4%) and inability to participate in alcohol addiction therapy pretransplant (75%). Most (66%) directors indicated their center had established criteria for listing candidates with severe ALD for ELT. Regarding important factors for ELT candidate listing, 57.1% indicated patient survival, 37.5% indicated graft survival, and 55.4% indicated having a low risk of relapse. Only 12.7% of directors affirmed the statement, "Six months of pretransplant abstinence decreases the risk of relapse."

Conclusions

More centers are providing ELT for severe ALD. Inability to participate in alcohol addiction therapy and <6 mo of survival are commonly reported circumstances for considering ELT. Continued investigation of posttransplant outcomes in patients receiving ELT is essential to establishing a national consensus for distributing this valuable resource.

Incidence and predictors of alcohol relapse following living donor liver transplantation for alcohol related liver disease

BACKGROUND

Alcohol relapse after liver transplantation has a negative impact on outcomes. There is limited data on its burden, the predictors, and impact following live donor liver transplantation (LDLT).

METHODS

A single-center observational study was carried out between July 2011 and March 2021 for patients undergoing LDLT for alcohol associated liver disease (ALD). The incidence, predictors of alcohol relapse, and post-transplant outcomes were assessed.

RESULTS

Altogether 720 LDLT were performed during the study period, 203 (28.19%) for ALD. The overall relapse rate was 9.85% (n = 20) with a median follow-up of 52 months (range, 12-140 months). Sustained harmful alcohol use was seen in 4 (1.97%). On multivariate analysis, pre-LT relapse (P = .001), duration of abstinence period (P = .007), daily intake of alcohol (P = .001), absence of life partner (P = .021), concurrent tobacco abuse before transplant (P = .001), the donation from second-degree relative (P = .003) and poor compliance with medications (P = .001) were identified as predictors for relapse. Alcohol relapse was associated with the risk of graft rejection (HR 4.54, 95% CI: 1.751-11.80, P = .002).

CONCLUSION

Our results show that the overall incidence of relapse and rate of harmful drinking following LDLT is low. Donation from spouse and first degree relative was protective. History of daily intake, prior relapse, shorter pretransplant abstinence duration and lack of family support significantly predicted relapse.

Alcohol-related liver disease and liver transplantation

Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) has become the major cause of liver transplantation (LT) in Korea, and is currently the most common cause of LT in Europe and the United States. Although, ALD is one of the most common indications for LT, it is traditionally not considered as an option for patients with ALD due to organ shortages and concerns about relapse. To select patients with terminal liver disease due to ALD for transplants, most LT centers in the United States and European countries require a 6-month sober period before transplantation. However, Korea has a different social and cultural background than Western countries, and most organ transplants are made from living donors, who account for approximately twice as many procedures as deceased donors. Most LT centers in Korea do not require a specific period of sobriety before transplantation in patients with ALD. As per the literature, 8%–20% of patients resume alcohol consumption 1 year after LT, and this proportion increases to 30%–40% at 5 years post-LT, among which 10%–15% of patients resume heavy drinking. According to previous studies, the risk factors for alcohol relapse after LT are as follows: young age, poor familial and social support, family history of alcohol use disorder, previous history of alcohol-related treatment, shorter abstinence before LT, smoking, psychiatric disorders, irregular follow-up, and unemployment. Recognition of the risk factors, early detection of alcohol consumption after LT, and regular follow-up by a multidisciplinary team are important for improving the short- and long-term outcomes of LT patients with ALD.

Factors Having an Impact on Relapse and Survival in Transplant Recipients With Alcohol-Induced Liver Disease

Objective

To assess the impact of standardized pretransplant alcohol abstinence and treatment guidelines on liver transplant outcomes.

Methods

This study assessed the posttransplant relapse and survival associated with a pretransplant guideline mandating alcohol abstinence, addiction treatment, and Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) attendance. This retrospective cohort study included liver recipients with alcohol-induced liver disease transplanted between January 1, 2000, and December 31, 2012, at a Midwest transplant center. Cox regression models tested for associations between pretransplant treatment, demographic and clinical characteristics, and outcome measures.

Results

Of 236 liver recipients (188 [79.7%] male; 210 [89%] white; mean follow-up, 88.6±55.0 months), 212 (90.2%) completed pretransplant treatment and 135 (57.2%) attended AA weekly. At 5 years, 16.3% and 8.2% had relapsed to any alcohol use and to high-dose drinking, respectively. Smoking during the 6 months before transplant was associated with any relapse (P=.0002) and high-dose relapse (P<.0001), and smoking at transplant was associated with death (P=.001). High-dose relapse was associated with death (hazard ratio, 3.5; P<.0001).

Conclusion

A transplant center with a guideline requiring abstinence, treatment, and AA participation experienced lower posttransplant relapse rates from those previously reported in comparable large US transplant programs. Smoking cessation may further improve posttransplant outcomes.

Hospital discharge location and socioeconomic deprivation as risk factors for alcohol dependence relapses: A cohort study

BACKGROUND

There is evidence that social support can improve the ability of an individual with alcohol use disorder to manage relapses. However, the role of families and friends in this context is debated as family history and co-drinking are also risk factors for initiating alcohol drinking or maintaining addictive behaviours.

AIM

To quantitatively evaluate whether the hospital discharge location (in company or alone) after an alcohol dependence hospitalisation can influence the risk of relapses and whether this impact is modified by socioeconomic deprivation.

METHODS

A cohort of 1141 patients hospitalised for the first time for alcohol dependence in Scotland between 2010 and 2019 was derived from a routine healthcare database. Relapses were defined as recurrent alcohol-related hospitalisation. Survival analysis was undertaken to compare the risk of relapse for different discharge locations and socioeconomic deprivation groups.

RESULTS

On average, living in company of others was associated with a significant lower risk of relapses compared to living alone (HR: 0.84 95%CI: 0.71-0.99). This association differed across socioeconomic groups, being greater for those living in areas with the highest level of socioeconomic deprivation (HR: 0.76 95%CI: 0.57-1.01) and lower elsewhere. While this effect was not statistically significant (p = 0.056), its extent varied based on how we defined our cohort: it was not detectable when we expanded the cohort to all individuals with alcohol use disorders.

CONCLUSION

Home settings and the environment where individuals reside should be considered as significant psychosocial factors when clinicians design therapies and hospital discharge planning for patients with alcohol dependence.

Liver transplantation for alcohol-related liver disease in the UK: revised UK Liver Advisory Group recommendations for referral

Liver disease, of which liver cirrhosis is the most advanced stage, constitutes the fourth most common cause of life-years lost in men and women younger than 75 years in England, where mortality rates from liver disease have increased by 25% in the past decade. Alcohol consumption is the most common modifiable risk factor for disease progression in these individuals, but within the UK, there is substantial variation in the distribution, prevalence, and outcome of alcohol-related liver disease, and no equity of access to tertiary transplantation services. These revised recommendations were agreed by an expert panel convened by the UK Liver Advisory Group, with the purpose of providing consensus on referral for transplant assessment in patients with alcohol-related disease, and clarifying the terminology and definitions of alcohol use in liver injury. By standardising clinical management in these patients, it is hoped that there will be an improvement in the quality of care and better access to liver transplant assessment for patients with alcohol-related liver disease in the UK.

Incidence of and Risk Factors for Alcohol Relapse After Liver Transplantation for Alcoholic Liver Disease: Comparison Between Deceased Donor and Living Donor Liver Transplantation

BACKGROUND

There are controversies over whether patients with alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) should follow the "6-month abstinence rule" before undergoing liver transplantation (LT), especially in case of living donor LT (LDLT). We analyzed the risk of alcohol relapse among ALD patients who received LT according to donor types and abstinence period before LT.

METHODS

A total of 129 patients (mean 50.7 ± 9.2 years, male 78.3%) who underwent LT between January 2000 and July 2017 for ALD at Samsung Medical Center, Seoul, Korea, were analyzed. Alcohol relapse was defined as any use of alcohol after LT.

RESULTS

The alcohol relapse rate was lower in LDLT recipients compared with that in DDLT recipients (13.9% vs. 31.7% at 3 years, P = 0.013). DDLT recipient, short abstinence period (< 6 months), and current smoking status were factors associated with alcohol relapse. The alcohol relapse rate was highest (54.5% at 3 years) for current smokers without 6-month sobriety who received DDLT, and it was lowest for never/ex-smoker with 6-month sobriety who received LDLT (4.3% at 3 years). For LDLT recipients, the alcohol relapse rate was not different according to abstinence period (17.7% vs. 11.6% at 3 years for short abstinent period < 3 months vs. ≥ 3 months, P = 0.92), but it was higher for current smokers compared with that for non/ex-smokers (22.4% vs. 5.8% at 3 years, P = 0.05).

CONCLUSION

When considering LDLT for ALD, sobriety period may not be an absolute contraindication as abstinence period showed a weak association with alcohol relapse. Smokers need careful attention for alcohol relapse.

Medical adherence and liver transplantation: a brief review

Liver transplantation remains the only feasible long-term treatment option for patients with end-stage liver disease. Despite significant medical and surgical advances over the decades, liver transplantation remains a complex undertaking with the need for indefinite immunosuppression and avoidance of patient behaviours that may jeopardize the allograft. Adherence (formerly called "compliance") to medical recommendations in terms of anti-rejection medications and-in the case of alcoholic liver disease, abstinence-is considered a key cornerstone to long-term allograft and patient survival. Not surprisingly, a history of habitual non-adherence is considered a contraindication to liver transplantation, especially re-transplantation. It is often assumed that non-adherence policies are "self-evidential" based on "common sense" and "expert opinion." In fact, non-adherence and its negative effects have been well studied in medicine, including in solid organ transplantation. In this review, we present the evidence that non-adherence to medical advice is clearly associated with worse medical outcomes, supporting the concept that efforts to support patient adherence post-transplant need to be optimized at all times.

Recidivism in Liver Transplant Recipients for Alcohol-related Liver Disease

Liver transplantation (LT) is the only cure for patients with end-stage liver disease, which offers good long-term survival. The long-term issues after LT affecting survival are cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, de novo malignancies, recurrence of original disease and immunological causes. Alcoholic-related liver disease (ALD) is one of the most common indications for LT worldwide including India. LT for ALD is associated with several unique challenges as compared with other etiologies. Long-term survival after LT in patients with ALD is affected by recidivism. Various studies have shown different predictors of relapse; the main predictors of relapse are pretransplant abstinence, psychiatric comorbidities, and lack of social support. Although several risk scores have been proposed, these scores are not validated. Studies with active involvement of psychiatrist have shown lower relapse rates. The relapse prevention strategy for reducing likelihood and severity of relapse after initial cessation of alcohol uses a combination of pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioral approach (identifying and addressing high-risk situations for relapse).

Incidence and Risk Factors of Alcohol Relapse after Liver Transplantation: Analysis of Pre-Transplant Abstinence and Psychosocial Features

Alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD) is a common indication for liver transplantation (LT). Alcohol relapse after LT is associated with graft loss and worse prognosis. Over the past 20 years, the number and prevalence of living donor liver transplantations (LDLTs) have increased in Taiwan. The aims of this retrospective study are to analyze the incidence and risk factors of alcohol relapse after LT at a single center in Taiwan. A total of 98 patients with ALD who underwent LT from January 2012 to December 2018 were retrospectively evaluated by chart review. Pre-transplant characteristics as well as psychosocial and alcoholic history were used to test the possible associations among the risk factors studied and post-LT alcohol relapse. The incidence of post-LT alcohol relapse was 16.3%. The median duration of alcohol relapse after liver transplantation was 28.1 months (range: 1–89.4 months). The cumulative incidence was 12% and 19% at 1 year and 3 years after LT, respectively. The most powerful risk factors were a pre-LT abstinence period less than 6 months and younger age of starting alcohol. For predicting alcohol relapse, the accuracy rate of abstinence less than 6 months was up to 83.7%. In summary, pre-abstinence period plays a role in predicting post-LT alcohol relapse. Post-LT interventions should be considered specifically for the patients with short abstinence period. Long-term follow-up, patient-centered counseling, and enhancement of healthy lifestyle are suggested to prevent alcohol relapse.

Liver Transplantation for Alcohol-Related Liver Disease (ARLD): An Update on Controversies and Considerations

According to the recent data from the United Network for Organ Sharing database, alcohol-related liver disease (ARLD) accounts to be the most common indication of liver transplantation (LT) waiting lists in the United States among men without hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Severe alcoholic hepatitis (AH) is serious and the life-threatening form of ARLD and should be treated timely. However, the LT for severe AH remained to be controversial among the transplant community because of marked interests about the constrained organ supply and the hazard that the AH liver recipient will return to risky drinking. Early LT for ARLD refers for a patient with severe AH undergoing LT who are non-responder to medical treatments. These patients are generally on the existing waiting list but usually followed by 6-month duration of alcohol abstinence. However, the rule of 6-month alcohol abstinence need before the LT is ambiguous. The 6-month alcohol abstinence was consistently defended in light of the compelling fact that it would enable patients to recoup from the intense impacts of alcohol to the liver. In routine, however, the purported "6-month abstinence rule" turned into a surrogate for the forecast of future drinking by ARLD patients for the LT. Careful consideration should be given to the alcohol use disorder of craving and the hazard for recidivism after the LT. As for the current situation, there, urgently, is a specific need of standardized criteria for the evaluation of patients with severe AH for earlier LT. Moreover, further studies are required precisely to develop an accurate prediction model for posttransplant alcohol recidivism. Additionally, development of a standardized protocol for post-LT follow-up and management is further needed. We carefully outlined the published experience with the LT for ARLD in this review.

Predicting harmful alcohol relapse after liver transplant: The HALT score

BACKGROUND

Alcohol-associated liver disease (AALD) is a rapidly growing indication for liver transplantation (LT). We aimed to examine various clinical, demographic, and behavioral factors to predict post-LT alcohol relapse and graft survival.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis was performed on 241 LT recipients with AALD as either a primary or secondary indication for LT (2006-2015).

RESULTS

Patients with <6 months of alcohol abstinence had significantly increased cumulative incidence for alcohol relapse compared to those with >6 months of abstinence (P = .0041, Log-Rank). We identified four variables to predict harmful alcohol relapse post-LT: age at LT, non-alcohol-related criminal history, pre-LT abstinence period (Ref >6 months of alcohol abstinence), and drinks per day (Ref <10 drinks/day). Area under the curve (AUC) for the final model was 0.79 (95% CI: 0.68-0.91). Our multivariable model was evaluated with internal cross-validation; random sampling of the study subjects 100 times yielded a median C statistic of 75 (±SD 0.097) and accuracy of 91 (±SD 0.026). The four-variable model served to form the harmful alcohol use post-LT (HALT) score. Graft survival remained significantly lower in patients with <6 months of pre-LT alcohol abstinence and those with blue-collar jobs.

CONCLUSION

The HALT score identifies LT candidates with AALD at significant risk for alcohol relapse, potentially guiding transplant centers for pre- and post-LT interventions for improved patient outcomes.

Alcohol use disorder and liver transplant: new perspectives and critical issues

Alcoholic liver disease is a consolidated indication for liver transplantation, but many unsolved issues can be highlighted. Patients with alcohol use disorder develop peculiar comorbidities that can become contraindications for transplantation. Moreover, a number of social and psychological patterns should be evaluated to select candidates with a low risk of alcohol relapse and adequate post-transplant adherence. In this context, the 6-month rule is too rigid to be widely applied. A short period of abstinence (1 to 3 months) is useful to estimate recovery of liver function and, possibly to avoid transplant. Cardiovascular disorders and extra-hepatic malignancies represent the main clinical issues after transplant. Patients transplanted due to alcoholic disease are a major risk for other liver diseases. Severe corticosteroid-resistant alcoholic acute hepatitis is a debated indication for transplant. However, available data indicate that well-selected patients have excellent post-transplant outcomes. Behavioral therapy, continued psychological support and a multidisciplinary team are essential to achieve and maintain complete alcohol abstinence during the transplant process. Alcoholic liver disease is an excellent indication for a liver transplant but patients with alcohol use disorder deserve a personalized approach and dedicated resources.

It Is Not All About Pretransplant Factors: Posttransplant Complications Alter the Risk of Alcohol Relapse

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Systematic Review: Treatment for Addictive Disorder in Transplant Patients

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The number of patients with substance use disorders in need for organ transplantation is expected to increase. Patients with addictive disorders are considered a higher risk of negative outcomes after organ transplantation due to the impact of substance use upon medical status and adherence with treatment. The goal of this systematic review was to assess the current literature on treatment for addiction transplant candidates and recipients.

METHODS

We conducted a literature search within four databases PubMed, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and PsycINFO for publications dated 1/1/1988 to 12/31/2018.

RESULTS

Out of 3108 articles identified through database screening, 39 were included in the qualitative synthesis. Sixteen studies described addiction treatment in groups over five patients. All the articles included liver transplant patients, with only two studies including patients who needed a kidney or a heart transplant. Nine articles described treatment of alcohol use disorder exclusively, five focused on treatment of opioid use disorders. Although 9 of 16 studies were prospective, the variability of the treatment intervention, outcome measures, and control group when applicable prohibited a meaningful meta-analysis of the results. Eight articles that described the case reports are analyzed separately.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Promising treatment options for alcohol use disorder have been reported but more studies are needed to confirm their effectiveness and their feasibility. Methadone appears effective for opioid disorder in transplant patients.

SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review on the treatment of addictive disorders in transplant patients. (Am J Addict 2020;29:445-462).

Posttransplant Complications Predict Alcohol Relapse in Liver Transplant Recipients

Alcohol relapse after liver transplantation (LT) in patients with alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) is a major challenge. Although its association with pretransplant psychosocial factors was extensively studied, the impacts of posttransplant courses on alcohol relapse have not been well investigated. The aim of this study is to analyze peritransplant factors associated with posttransplant alcohol relapse in patients with ALD. This study evaluated 190 adult LT patients with ALD from 2013 to 2019. Risk factors for alcohol relapse were analyzed, focusing on posttransplant chronic complications, which were classified as Clavien-Dindo classification 3a or higher that lasted over 30 days. The posttransplant alcohol relapse rate was 13.7% (26/190) with a median onset time of 18.6 months after transplant. Multivariate Cox regression analysis revealed that posttransplant chronic complications were an independent risk factor for posttransplant alcohol relapse (hazard ratio [HR], 5.40; P = 0.001), along with psychiatric comorbidity (HR, 3.93; P = 0.001), history of alcohol relapse before LT (HR, 3.00; P = 0.008), and an abstinence period <1.5 years (HR, 12.05; P = 0.001). A risk prediction model was created using 3 pretransplant risk factors (psychiatric comorbidity, alcohol relapse before LT, and abstinence period <1.5 years). This model clearly stratified the risk of alcohol relapse into high-, moderate-, and low-risk groups (P < 0.001). Of the 26 patients who relapsed, 11 (42.3%) continued drinking, of whom 3 died of severe alcoholic hepatitis, and 13 (50.0%) achieved sobriety (outcomes for 2 patients were unknown). In conclusion, posttransplant chronic complications increased the risk of alcohol relapse. Recognition of posttransplant chronic complications in conjunction with the risk stratification model by pretransplant psychosocial factors would help with the prediction of posttransplant alcohol relapse.

Factors Affecting Psychological Burden on the Informal Caregiver of Patients With Cirrhosis: Looking Beyond the Patient

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Cirrhosis leads to considerable morbidity and mortality, compromises quality of life, and often necessitates assistance in activities of daily living. An informal caregiver bears the psychological burden of coping with the needs of the patient and the knowledge of morbid prognosis of a loved one. This aspect is rarely recognized and almost never addressed in a clinical practice.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study assessed the factors influencing psychological burden of cirrhosis on the caregivers in a predominantly lower-middle socioeconomic class Indian population. Patients underwent psychometric tests [Psychometric Hepatic Encephalopathy Score (PHES)], and questionnaires for quantifying caregiver burden [Perceived Caregiver Burden (PCB) and Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI)] and assessing depression [Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)] and anxiety [Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI)] were administered.

RESULTS

One hundred patients with cirrhosis [70% male, 27% with past hepatic encephalopathy (HE), and 53% with minimal HE] and their caregivers (66% women, 81% spouse, 26.51 years of mean relationship) were evaluated. Caregiver burden scores were higher in patients with previous overt HE than in those without previous overt HE [PCB (74.63 vs. 66.15, P = 0.001), ZBI (27.93 vs. 21.11, P = 0.023), BDI (11.63 vs. 8.96, P = 0.082), and BAI (11.37 vs. 8.12, P = 0.027)]. Similarly, caregivers of patients with minimal HE had higher caregiver burden that those of patients who did not have minimal HE [PCB (70.74 vs. 65.85, P = 0.027), ZBI (26 vs. 19.51, P = 0.015)]. Burden scores correlated well with each other and with liver disease severity scores and negatively correlated with socioeconomic status. Repeated hospital admissions, alcohol as etiology, and lower socioeconomic status were the independent predictors of caregiver burden.

CONCLUSION

Higher perceived burden is common in caregivers of patients with cirrhosis. Repeated hospital admissions, alcoholism, and lower socioeconomic status influence caregiver burden.

Predicting and preventing alcohol relapse in alcohol-related liver disease

BACKGROUND

despite a 450% increase in UK alcohol-related liver disease mortality over the past 30 years, little evidence-based guidance exists regarding preventing recidivism post-liver transplant for alcohol-related liver disease.

METHOD

a systematic literature review was conducted to identify demographic variables predictive of alcohol relapse and effective psychosocial interventions for alcohol-related liver disease patients post-liver transplant.

RESULTS

variables most significantly predictive of alcohol relapse post-transplant were-less than 12 months pre-liver transplant abstinence; patients with children; poor pre-liver transplant psychosomatic evaluation; non-compliance with post-liver transplant treatment plan; and patients with active insurance policies. Structured management was the most effective psychosocial intervention in preventing alcohol relapse.

CONCLUSION

findings should be interpreted cautiously, due to limited and poor-quality evidence. Rigorously designed further research of the psychosocial interventions targeting predictive demographic variables is recommended.

Alcohol relapse and its predictors after liver transplantation for alcoholic liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is the leading cause of liver transplantation (LT). The magnitude and risk factors of post-LT alcohol relapse are not well described. We conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate alcohol relapse rate and its predictors after LT.

METHODS

Searches of MEDLINE and SCOPUS identified eligible published studies of alcohol relapse after LT published up to 31 March 2018. Alcohol relapse was defined as any alcohol consumption post-LT, and heavy alcohol relapse was defined as a relapse of alcohol consumption that was associated with a significant harm. Data for the proportion of alcohol relapse was pooled using a meta-analysis for pooling proportion. An odds ratio (OR) of the predictor of alcohol relapse was extracted and pooled using meta-analysis for the pooling risk factor. Data were analyzed using a random effect model if heterogeneity was presented; otherwise, a fixed effect model was applied. The study was registered at PROSPERO (CRD42017052659).

RESULTS

Ninety-two studies with over 8000 cases were recruited for pooling proportion of alcohol relapse. The alcohol relapse rate and heavy alcohol relapse rate after LT during the mean follow-up time of 48.4 ± 24.7 months were 22% (95% confidence interval (CI): 19-25%) and 14% (95%CI: 12-16%). Psychiatric comorbidities (odds ratio (OR) 3.46, 95%CI: 1.87-6.39), pre-transplant abstinence of less than 6 months (OR 2.76, 95%CI: 2.10-3.61), unmarried status (OR 1.84, 95%CI: 1.39-2.43), and smoking (OR 1.72, 95%CI: 1.21-2.46) were associated with alcohol relapse after LT. However, we noticed publication bias of unpublished negative studies and high heterogeneity of results.

CONCLUSIONS

Post-transplant alcohol relapse occurred in about one-fifth of patients who underwent alcohol-related LT. Psychiatric comorbidities represented the strongest predictor of alcohol relapse. Psychiatric comorbidities monitoring and pre-LT alcohol abstinence for at least 6 months may decrease alcohol relapse after LT.

Alcohol use disorder relapse factors: A systematic review

A relapsing-remitting course is very common in patients with an Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD). Understanding the determinants associated with alcohol resumption remains a formidable task. This paper examines relapse determinants based on a systematic review of recent alcohol literature (2000-2019). Relevant databases were consulted for articles that contained information about specific relapse determinants and reported statistical significance of each relapse determinant in predicting relapse. Relapse was broadly defined based on the characterization in the included articles. From the initial identified 4613 papers, a total of 321 articles were included. Results encompass multiple relapse determinants, which were ordered according to biopsychosocial and spiritual categories, and presented, using a descriptive methodology. Psychiatric co-morbidity, AUD severity, craving, use of other substances, health and social factors were consistently significantly associated with AUD relapse. Conversely, supportive social network factors, self efficacy, and factors related to purpose and meaning in life, were protective against AUD relapse. Despite heterogeneity in different methods, measures, and sample characteristics, these findings may contribute to a better therapeutic understanding in which specific factors are associated with relapse and those that prevent relapse. Such factors may have a role in a personalized medicine framework to improve patient outcomes.

Alcohol Use Relapse Following Liver Transplantation for Alcoholic Liver Disease

BACKGROUND Alcohol use disorders affect 10% of the European population. Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) is the most common indication for liver transplantation in Slovakia. The aim of this study was to determine the proportion of patients with ALD who received a liver transplant who had alcohol relapsed, and the risk factors for alcohol relapse, as well as to compare clinical outcomes according to relapse. MATERIAL AND METHODS A retrospective study of consecutive patients with ALD, who underwent liver transplantation in a single transplant center between May 2008 and December 2017. We included adult patients who received a liver transplant due to ALD and excluded those who died <1 month after liver transplantation. We recorded demographic and clinical characteristics, graft injury, and overall mortality and compared them between relapsers and abstainers. RESULTS During the study period, we reviewed 196 cases of liver transplantation in 191 patients. We excluded 87 patients for non-ALD etiology and 15 patients by predefined criteria. The final analysis was carried out in 89 patients, mean aged 55 years; 24.7% were female. We diagnosed relapse in 23 patients (26%) with harmful drinking in 52% and occasional drinking in 48% of relapsers. The independent risk factors associated with relapse were: smoking (OR=5.92, P=0.006), loss of social status (OR=7.61, P=0.002), and time after liver transplantation (OR=1.0008, P=0.015). Graft injury was more frequent in relapsers with 2 independent risk factors: occasional drinking (OR=12.7, P=0.0005), and harmful drinking (OR=36.6, P<0.0001); overall survival was unaffected. CONCLUSIONS We found relapse to alcohol drinking in 26% of patients who received a liver transplant for ALD. Risk factors associated with alcohol drinking relapse were time, cigarette smoking, and loss of social status. Graft injury was more frequent in relapsers, but mortality was similar between relapsers and non-relapsers.

Being accompanied to liver discharge clinic: An easy measure to identify potential liver transplant candidates among those previously considered ineligible

BACKGROUND

Patients with cirrhosis deemed ineligible for liver transplantation are usually followed in general hepatology or gastroenterology clinics, with the hope of re-evaluation once they meet the appropriate criteria. Specific strategies to achieve liver transplant eligibility for these patients have not been studied.

AIM

To assess clinical and sociodemographic factors associated with future liver transplant eligibility among patients initially considered ineligible.

METHODS

This is a retrospective study of patients with cirrhosis considered non-transplant eligible, but without absolute contraindications, who were scheduled in our transitional care liver clinic (TCLC) after discharge from an inpatient liver service. Transplant candidacy was assessed 1 year after the first scheduled TCLC visit. Data on clinical and sociodemographic factors were collected.

RESULTS

Sixty-nine patients were identified and the vast majority were Caucasian men with alcoholic cirrhosis. 46 patients (67%) presented to the first TCLC visit. Seven of 46 patients that showed to the first TCLC visit became transplant candidates, while 0 of 23 patients that no-showed did (15.2% vs 0%, P = 0.08). Six of 7 patients who showed and became transplant eligible were accompanied by family or friends at the first TCLC appointment, compared to 13 of 39 patients who showed and did not become transplant eligible (85.7% vs 33.3%, P = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Patients who attended the first post-discharge TCLC appointment had a trend for higher liver transplant eligibility at 1 year. Being accompanied by family or friends during the first TCLC visit correlated with higher liver transplant eligibility at 1 year (attendance by family or friends was not requested). Patient and family engagement in the immediate post-hospitalization period may predict future liver transplant eligibility for patients previously declined.

Long-term survival and predictors of relapse and survival after liver transplantation for alcoholic liver disease

OBJECTIVE

Studies of predictive factors of alcohol recidivism and survival post-LT are not up-to-date. With evolving LT activity and with longer-term outcomes becoming increasingly available, re-evaluating post-LT outcomes is imperative. We analyzed recent data on survival, alcohol recurrence and predictive factors.

METHODS

We compared long-term survival among 159 consecutive ALD patients transplanted 2003-2016 with 159 propensity-score matched controls transplanted for non-ALD. Alcohol 'slips' (occasional lapse) and relapse to moderate or harmful drinking were assessed from medical records and structured forms filled in by home-district physicians, and analyzed by competing-risk and multivariate Cox regression analyses.

RESULTS

Patient and graft survival at 10 years were 75 and 69% in the ALD group and 65 and 63% in the control group (p=.06 and .36). In ALD patients, the 10-year cumulative rate of alcohol slip was 52% and of relapse, 37%. Duration of pre-LT abstinence (HR 0.97, 95% CI 0.94-0.99) and a history of prior alcohol relapses (HR 3.05, 95% CI 1.41-6.60) were significant predictors of relapse, but failed to predict death/graft loss. Patients with <6 months abstinence relapsed sooner than those with 7-24 months abstinence, but 10-year relapse rates were similar (40-50%). Ten-year relapse rate with 2-5-year pre-LT abstinence was 21%, and with >5-year abstinence, 0%. In patients with <6 months pre-LT abstinence, years of heavy drinking, prior addiction treatments, and lack of children predicted inferior survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Although 37% of our ALD patients relapsed to drinking by 10 years post-LT, 14-year survival was not significantly different from survival in non-ALD patients. Short duration of pre-LT abstinence and prior relapses predicted post-LT relapse.

Survey of Liver Transplantation Practices for Severe Acute Alcoholic Hepatitis

Liver transplantation (LT) has a demonstrated survival benefit in select patients with severe acute alcoholic hepatitis (SAH) who do not respond to steroids, but prior studies suggest low adoption among US LT centers. Our study explored current perceptions and practice patterns of LT for SAH in the United States. We administered a Web-based survey to medical directors of US LT centers between May and October of 2017 to characterize practice patterns and perceptions of LT for SAH. We obtained responses from 45 (41.3%) of 109 surveyed centers, representing all 11 (100%) United Network for Organ Sharing regions. Half (n = 23; 51.1%) reported performing at least 1 LT for SAH, although most (n = 19; 82.6%) of those had performed ≤5 LTs for that indication. Centers expressed near consensus for selection criteria, requiring strong social support (100%), no prior presentations with SAH (91.3%), absence of a severe coexisting psychiatric disorder (91.3%), and official psychosocial evaluation (87.0%). Reported posttransplant survival of SAH patients was excellent, with 17 (73.9%) centers reporting 1-year posttransplant survival exceeding 90%. Among centers that had not performed LT for SAH, the most commonly cited reason was perceived high risk of alcohol relapse. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that LT is increasingly adopted as a therapeutic intervention for patients with SAH and that careful selection allows for excellent 1-year posttransplant survival. Despite this, nearly half of US centers do not perform LT for this indication due to perceived high risk of alcohol relapse. Our data support the use of LT for well-selected patients with SAH.

N-acetyl cysteine in the treatment of alcohol use disorder in patients with liver disease: Rationale for further research

INTRODUCTION

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is the leading cause of alcohol-related death and one of the most common forms of liver disease. Abstinence from alcohol is crucial to reducing morbidity and mortality associated with the disease. However, there are few pharmacotherapies for alcohol use disorder suitable for those with significant liver disease.

AREAS COVERED

This paper presents a rationale for investigating the use of N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) to promote abstinence or reduce heavy alcohol consumption for patients with an alcohol use disorder, particularly in the presence of liver disease. NAC is an antioxidant with glutamatergic modulating and anti-inflammatory properties. Evidence is emerging that oxidative stress, neuro-inflammation and dysregulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission play a key role in alcohol use disorder. Similarly, oxidative stress is known to contribute to ALD. We outline the studies that have investigated NAC to reduce alcohol consumption including preclinical and clinical studies. We also review the evidence for NAC in other addictions as well as psychiatric and physical comorbidities associated with alcohol use disorders.

EXPERT OPINION

NAC is low cost, well-tolerated and could have promise for the treatment of alcohol use disorder in the presence of liver disease. Clinical trials directly examining efficacy in this population are required.

Outcomes and predictors of harmful relapse following liver transplantation for alcoholic liver disease in an Australian population

BACKGROUND

Limited studies of patient survival and alcoholic relapse following transplantation for alcoholic liver disease have been described in Australian populations.

AIM

To describe these outcomes in an Australian population, to determine the association between harmful alcoholic relapse and patient survival, and to examine pre-transplant variables associated with harmful relapse.

METHODS

Single centre, retrospective review of consecutive patients transplanted at the South Australian Liver Transplant Unit. Relapse was identified by an independent investigator using case note review and confidential patient questionnaire.

RESULTS

A total of 87 patients (median age 52 years, 84% male, median Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score 18) was included in the study with a median follow-up time of 50 months. The 1-, 3- and 5-year survival of patients was 93.1, 87.4 and 82.0% respectively. Two deaths were directly attributable to graft failure due to alcohol. Fourteen (16%) patients fulfilled criteria for harmful relapse and 18 (21%) patients experienced any form of relapse to alcohol. Harmful relapse was associated with increased mortality (hazard ratio (HR) 3.2, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.1-9.7, P = 0.041). Only two factors were independently associated with harmful relapse on multivariate analysis; prior alcohol rehabilitation (HR 8.4, 95% CI 2.5-28.4, P = 0.001) and single versus married status (HR 0.09, 95% CI 0.02-1.2, P = 0.019).

CONCLUSION

Good patient survival outcomes were seen for this South Australian population. Harmful alcohol relapse occurs in a minority of patients and rarely results in direct graft loss. Modifiable pre-transplant factors that predict harmful relapse were not identified.

Predictors of Alcohol Relapse Following Liver Transplantation for Alcohol-Induced Liver Failure. Consideration of "A-D" Selection Criteria

Demonstrated abstinence from alcohol for over six months and successful completion of a formal alcohol addictions program are two commonly employed criteria for determining whether an alcoholic patient with liver failure should proceed to liver transplantation.

In this systematic review of the medical literature, we review the justification for these criteria and consider other variables that have also been reported to be of predictive value.

While abstinence from alcohol for over six months is supported by the medical literature, data are more limited regarding the value of formal alcohol addictions program as selection criteria for proceeding towards liver transplantation. Positive family histories of alcoholism, co-inhabitants drinking alcohol in the presence of the patient and concurrent drug dependencies are more robust predictor variables of post-transplant recidivism.

Based on the findings of this review, we propose a simple A–D transplantation selection criteria wherein “A” refers to demonstrated abstention from alcohol for over six months, “B” biology (a negative family history for alcoholism), “C”, co-inhabitants not consuming alcohol in the presence of the patient; and “D”, no concurrent drug dependency.

Risk factors and outcomes associated with alcohol relapse after liver transplantation

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is the second most common indication for liver transplantation (LT) in the United States and Europe. Unlike other indications for LT, transplantation for ALD may be controversial due to the concern for alcohol relapse and non-compliance after LT. However, the overall survival in patients transplanted for ALD is comparable or higher than in patients transplanted for other etiologies of liver disease. While the rate of alcohol use after liver transplantation does not differ among various etiologies of liver disease, alcohol relapse after transplantation for ALD has been associated with complications such as graft rejection, graft loss, recurrent alcoholic cirrhosis and reduced long-term patient survival. Given these potential complications, our review aimed to discuss risk factors associated with alcohol relapse and the efficacy of various interventions attempted to reduce the risk of alcohol relapse. We also describe the impact of alcohol relapse on post-transplant outcomes including graft and patient survival. Overall, alcohol liver disease remains an appropriate indication for liver transplantation, and long-term mortality in this group of patients is primarily attributed to cardiovascular disease or de novo malignancies rather than alcohol related hepatic complications, among those who relapse.

Reluctance to Accept Alcohol Treatment by Alcoholic Liver Disease Transplant Patients: A Qualitative Study

BACKGROUND

Liver transplantation (LT) is the optimum treatment for patients with end-stage alcoholic liver disease (ALD). However, despite a recognized risk of relapse to harmful drinking, ALD transplant patients are reluctant to use speciality alcohol treatment to support their abstinence, even when offered within the LT context. This study aimed to understand and identify factors contributing to alcohol treatment reluctance by ALD patients undergoing transplantation.

METHODS

We conducted an in-depth qualitative study of ALD transplant patients. Minimally structured face-to-face interviews explored participants' alcohol-related experiences and their reasons for not using alcohol treatment during the course of their transplantation. Thematic analysis was used to analyze and interpret interview data to understand treatment reluctance based on participants' experiences.

RESULTS

Five major themes were identified among 3 subgroups of patients (pretransplant and posttransplant abstainers and posttransplant relapsers): (i) the "contract" of mandatory abstinence, (ii) the "gap in the program" involving the lack of candour between patient and staff about alcohol-related matters and the lack of addiction services, (iii) a preference by participants to self-manage their alcohol use disorder, (iv) social support as a facilitator of abstinence and the risk of relapse when social support is diminished, and (v) the fear of stigmatization. Each of these factors were dynamically interrelated and differed slightly for each subgroup.

CONCLUSIONS

The LT services may benefit from the inclusion of integrated specialist addiction services in their model of care. Such an approach may enhance the acceptability of alcohol treatment and reduce the risk of relapse among ALD transplant participants, especially for those whose social supports have diminished.

Predictors of heavy drinking after liver transplantation for alcoholic liver disease in Denmark (1990-2013): a nationwide study with competing risks analyses

OBJECTIVE

Heavy drinking following liver transplantation decreases survival. Little is known of predictors of heavy drinking, which should guide clinicians identifying patients at high risk of return to heavy drinking after transplantation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We calculated the cumulative incidence of heavy drinking among patients transplanted for alcoholic liver disease in Denmark 1990-2013. We then analyzed pre-transplant demographic and psychiatric characteristics as predictors of post-transplant heavy drinking. Information was obtained from medical records, from nationwide registries and by interview.

RESULTS

Among 156 liver-transplanted patients, the cumulative incidence of heavy drinking was 18%, 24% and 27% after 5, 10 and 15 years post-transplant. In univariate analyses of pre-transplant predictors of heavy drinking after transplantation, younger age (p < 0.001), being retired (p = 0.007), anxiety (p = 0.04), personality disorder (p = 0.05) and no lifetime diagnosis of alcohol dependence (p = 0.03) were associated with heavy drinking after transplantation. Smoking (p = 0.06) tended to be associated, whereas depression (p = 0.7) or being married was not (p = 0.7). In the multivariate analysis, only younger age (p = 0.03), being retired (p = 0.007) and no lifetime diagnosis of alcohol dependence (p = 0.003) remained significant predictors. Heavy drinking after transplantation decreased survival beyond 5 years post-transplant (p = 0.004).

CONCLUSIONS

There is a high incidence of heavy drinking after liver transplantation for alcoholic cirrhosis in Denmark. Younger age, being retired and no lifetime diagnosis of alcohol dependence were predictors of heavy drinking after transplantation.

Liver Transplantation for Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Pretransplant Selection and Posttransplant Management

Alcoholic fatty liver disease (ALD) and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are common causes of chronic liver disease throughout the world. Although they have similar histologic features, a diagnosis of NAFLD requires the absence of significant alcohol use. ALD is seen commonly in patients with a long-standing history of excessive alcohol use, whereas NAFLD is encountered commonly in patients who have developed complications of obesity, such as insulin resistance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia. Lifestyle contributes to the development and progression of both diseases. Although alcohol abstinence can cause regression of ALD, and weight loss can cause regression of NAFLD, many patients with these diseases develop cirrhosis. ALD and NAFLD account for nearly 30% of liver transplants performed in the United States. Patients receiving liver transplants for ALD or NAFLD have similar survival times as patients receiving transplants for other liver disorders. Although ALD and NAFLD recur frequently after liver transplantation, graft loss from disease recurrence after transplantation is uncommon. Cardiovascular disease and de novo malignancy are leading causes of long-term mortality in liver transplant recipients with ALD or NAFLD.

Lower relapse rates with good post-transplant outcome in alcoholic liver disease: Experience from a living donor liver transplant center

INTRODUCTION

Post-transplant relapse is a major factor influencing the long-term outcome in alcoholic liver disease (ALD) patients.

AIMS

The aim of this study was to evaluate the relapse rates following living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) in patients with ALD in the Indian context with strong family support.

METHODS

Of 458 patients who underwent LDLT for ALD, 408 were included in the study. Post-transplant relapse was determined by information provided by the patient and/or family by means of outpatient and e-mail questionnaire, supported by clinical/biochemical parameters/liver histopathology.

RESULTS

All except one were males, with a mean age of 46.9 ± 8.5 years. The overall rate of relapse was 9.5 % at 34.7 months (interquartile range (IQR) 15-57.6), lower than that reported in the literature from the West. The relapse rate was higher in patients with a shorter duration of pre-transplant abstinence (17.4 % and 15.4 % for recipients with pre-transplant abstinence of <3 and <6 months, respectively, p < 0.05). The overall survival was 88.5 % at 3 years. Of 39 patients with relapse, 16 (41 %) were occasional drinkers, 14 (35.8 %) were moderate drinkers, and 9 (23 %) were heavy drinkers. All the heavy drinkers presented with features of graft dysfunction.

CONCLUSIONS

Good results can be obtained following LDLT for ALD, with significantly lower relapse rates in our setup as compared to the West.

Feasibility and Acceptability of an Alcohol Addiction Therapy Integrated in a Transplant Center for Patients Awaiting Liver Transplantation

AIMS

To evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of an addiction program within the setting of liver transplantation, with classification of behavior change techniques used to reduce excessive drinking.

METHOD

Patients with alcohol-related liver disease (N = 100) participated in a manualized addiction group therapy over 12 sessions, pre-transplantation. Relapses were identified by measurement of urinary ethyl glucuronide (EtG).

RESULTS

Two groups were identified according to the frequency of participation: completers (n = 42) vs. drop-outs (n = 58). A total of 16.5% of the samples of completers in comparison to 30.5% of the samples of drop-outs tested positive for EtG (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that implementation of an addiction therapy program during the waiting time might help to limit the frequency of drinking. These patients appeared often to under-report their alcohol consumption; including a biomarker such as urinary EtG in such settings is recommended.

Enforced abstinence from tobacco during in-patient dual-diagnosis treatment improves substance abuse treatment outcomes in smokers

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Although the prevalence of tobacco use in those in substance abuse treatment is known to be quite high, most treatment programs do not address tobacco. The purpose of this study was to determine substance abuse recovery rates a year after treatment in a fully integrated, 90-day inpatient, dual diagnosis treatment program where patients are required to quit tobacco use in addition to drug and alcohol use for the duration of their 3 month stay. Tobacco is treated in the same way as other drugs and alcohol.

METHODS

One hundred fifty-four patients enrolled in a yearlong follow-up after treatment study consisting of monthly phone contact to assess recovery from substance abuse.

RESULTS

One hundred forty (n=140) patients completed the year follow-up. At the time of entry into the program 120 (86%) were using tobacco daily. At the end of the year this decreased to 102 (73%). Patients who were using tobacco were more likely to relapse to other drugs or alcohol (p = .01). Patients who actively attempted to abstain from tobacco after treatment were significantly more likely to remain continuously abstinent throughout the year (p = .03).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that tobacco use is correlated with relapse and addressing tobacco in treatment as seriously as and in the same fashion as other drugs, improves outcomes.

SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE

When provided with a tobacco free treatment environment for 90 days, patients with substance abuse and mental illness can and do make the decision to quit tobacco and stay quit, aiding their ability to remain sober.

Assessing and treating alcohol relapse risk in liver transplantation candidates

In Europe between 30 and 50% of all liver transplantations (LTX) are done within the context of chronic end-stage alcoholic liver disease (ALD). However, post-operatively 20-25% of these patients lapse or relapse into heavy alcohol use. Thus, assessment of alcohol relapse risk before enlisting and therapeutic follow-up during and after LTX is of utmost importance. However, as yet there are enormous differences between European countries and between transplant centers, with regard to the assessment methods and criteria and the implementation of therapeutic follow-up. Only the so-called '6-month abstinence' rule is widely used. However, there are not much scientific data validating its use in predicting relapse. Thus, there is a clear need of a more homogeneous approach, which was the focus of a symposium of the European Federation of Addiction Societies during the 14th conference of the European Society for Biomedical Research on Alcoholism, 2013 (ESBRA), entitled 'Liver transplantation: A European perspective'. In a follow-up on this symposium, the authors aim to sum up the evidence of psychiatric assessment criteria and psychiatric treatment interventions relevant in the context of patient selection and patient follow-up within ALD transplantation procedures. Based upon these findings, we propose elements of a procedure that can serve as a first step toward a model of good practice regarding addiction-specialist input within the pre- and post-transplantation period.

Significance of pretransplant abstinence on harmful alcohol relapse after liver transplantation for alcoholic cirrhosis in Japan

AIM

Alcoholic liver cirrhosis (ALC) is an established indication for liver transplantation (LT). Although the importance of preoperative abstinence is accepted, the optimal period of pretransplant abstinence is unclear. Our previous report in a Japanese cohort revealed a significant negative impact of recidivism on patient survival but failed to show significance of the length of pretransplant abstinence. The aim of this study was to evaluate the optimal period of pretransplant abstinence.

METHODS

Subjects underwent LT for ALC (n = 195: 187 living donor liver transplantations, five deceased donor liver transplantations and three domino LT) in Japan from November 1997 to December 2011. Risk factors and the impact on outcome of alcohol relapse were analyzed in 140 patients, after excluding 26 patients with in-hospital mortality and 29 patients without information about alcohol relapse.

RESULTS

The incidence of alcohol consumption after LT was 22.9% (32/140). The relapse time was within 18 months after LT in 24 patients, after 18 months in two patients and unknown in six patients. Alcohol-related damage occurred in 18 of the 24 patients with recidivism within 18 months. The patient survival rate of patients with harmful relapse was significantly lower than that of abstinent patients and patients with non-harmful relapse (P = 0.019). Preoperative abstinence shorter than 18 months was a significant indicator of the risk of harmful relapse (P = 0.009). High-risk alcohol relapse scores had no impact on the incidence.

CONCLUSION

Preoperative abstinence was an important predictor of post-transplant harmful relapse leading to inferior outcomes.

Review article: depression and the use of antidepressants in patients with chronic liver disease or liver transplantation

BACKGROUND

The scale of depression in patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) and those who have received orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) is poorly characterised. Clinicians are uncertain of how best to manage depression within these patients.

AIMS

To review the literature evaluating both the prevalence and impact of depression in patients with CLD and post-OLT, and to assess the safety and efficacy of antidepressant use within this context.

METHODS

A PubMed search using the phrases 'chronic liver disease', 'cirrhosis', 'liver transplantation', 'depression', 'antidepressant' and the names of specific causes of liver disease and individual antidepressants.

RESULTS

Over 30% of cirrhotic patients have depressive features, and they experience worse clinical outcomes than nondepressed cirrhotic patients. CLD patients with chronic hepatitis C are particularly prone to depression, partly related to the use of interferon therapy. OLT patients with depression have higher mortality rates than nondepressed patients; appropriate antidepressant use reverses this effect. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are effective and generally safe in both CLD and OLT patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Depression is much more prevalent in CLD or OLT patients than is generally recognised, and it adversely affects clinical outcomes. The reasons for this relationship are complex and multifactorial. Antidepressants are effective in both CLD and post-OLT, although lower doses or a reduced dosing frequency may be required to minimise side effects, e.g. exacerbation of hepatic encephalopathy. Further research is needed to establish optimal management of depression in these patients, including the potential role of nonpharmacological treatments.

Risk factors for alcohol relapse following orthotopic liver transplantation: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Each year, 5000-6000 individuals undergo orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) in the United States, and of these, nearly 18% have alcoholic liver disease. Relapse to alcohol occurs in more than 40% of patients with OLT for alcoholic liver disease.

OBJECTIVES

We sought to identify factors that predict relapse to alcohol or medication nonadherence following OLT in patients with alcoholic liver disease and to review what randomized clinical interventions have addressed these factors following OLT. Our hypothesis was that there would be factors before and after OLT that predict relapse to alcohol following OLT, and that these, if targeted, might improve sobriety and associated outcomes of adherence with medications and appointments.

METHODS

We performed a review (focusing on articles published since 2004) with PubMed and MEDLINE searches using the following search terms: liver transplantation, recidivism, alcohol relapse, and predictors of alcohol relapse. We supplemented the online searches with manual reviews of article reference lists and selected relevant articles for further review by author consensus.

RESULTS

In largely white populations, prospective studies document that shorter length of pretransplantation sobriety is a significant predictor of time to first drink and time to binge use. Presence of psychiatric comorbidity, high score on standardized High-risk Alcoholism Relapse Scale, and diagnosis of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition) alcohol dependence are predictive of posttransplantation alcohol relapse. Pretransplantation alcohol use history variables (e.g., family history of alcoholism) reliably discriminate between complete abstainers and those who drink, while medical and psychosocial characteristics at early post-liver transplantation period (e.g., more bodily pain) maximally discriminate patterns of alcohol use. Alcoholic individuals with early-onset, rapidly accelerating moderate use and early-onset, continuously increasing heavy use have more than double the prevalence of steatohepatitis or rejection on biopsy and graft failure and more frequent mortality resulting from recurrent alcoholic liver disease than late-onset (i.e., peak of heaviest drinking at 6y posttransplantation) alcohol users do. Fortunately, pretransplantation screening combined with a structured pretransplantation management program and a 12-step program attendance reduced recidivism. No randomized clinical trials have been performed that target pretransplantation risk factors in individuals with alcoholic liver disease before or after OLT to improve post-OLT outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Recent research findings suggest that screening can reveal individuals who are vulnerable to alcohol relapse and targeted intervention can prevent their relapse to alcohol. Based on existing addiction treatments (e.g., relapse prevention plan construction), randomized clinical trials tailored to post-OLT patients should be conducted to improve their survival and quality of life.

Negative outcomes after liver transplantation in patients with alcoholic liver disease beyond the fifth post-transplant year

Although up to 50% of patients with alcoholic liver disease (ALD) resume alcohol consumption after liver transplantation (LT), numerous studies indicate that long-term results are not compromised. This study focused on evaluating the impact of ALD on outcomes up to and beyond the fifth year after LT. Among the 432 primary LT recipients included in this study, 97 underwent transplantation for ALD. Alcohol relapse rate at 10 yr was 33.5%, with younger recipient age being the only independent predictor (p = 0.019). Survival of patients with ALD (77.0%) was similar to those without (79.0%) up to the fifth post-transplant year (p = 0.655) but worse during the five subsequent years among the five-yr survivors (70.6% vs. 92.9%; p = 0.002). ALD was an independent risk factor for poorer survival beyond the fifth post-transplant year (p = 0.049), but not earlier (p = 0.717). Conversely, alcohol relapse increased the risk of death only during the first five post-transplant years (p = 0.039). There were no significant differences regarding graft failure incidence between ALD and non-ALD recipients up to the fifth post-transplant year (7.3% vs. 11.6%; p = 0.255) and beyond (12.9% vs. 5.0%; p = 0.126). In conclusion, pre-transplant diagnosis of ALD yields negative effects on post-transplant outcomes beyond the fifth post-transplant year, not attributable to recidivism.

Liver transplant for intentional acetaminophen overdose and hepatic encephalopathy: a conflict between beneficence and justice

In cases of severe acetaminophen-induced acute liver failure and hepatic encephalopathy, liver transplant can be the only real hope for neurologic recovery and indeed survival. In such cases, the bioethical principles of beneficence and justice often come into conflict. This article examines a case in which a neurologist managing an acetaminophen-overdose patient in the neurologic intensive care unit is faced with a conflict between her patient's need for a liver transplant and the needs of other patients on the transplant list.

The Alcohol Relapse Risk Assessment: a scoring system to predict the risk of relapse to any alcohol use after liver transplant

CONTEXT

Alcohol relapse after liver transplant heightens concern about recurrent disease, nonadherence to the immunosuppression regimen, and death.

OBJECTIVES

To develop a scoring system to stratify risk of alcohol relapse after liver transplant.

DESIGN

Retrospective medical record review.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

All adult liver transplants performed from May 2002 to February 2011 at a single center in the United States.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

The incidence of return to any alcohol consumption after liver transplant.

RESULTS

Thirty-four percent (40/118) of patients with a history of alcohol abuse/dependency relapsed to use of any alcohol after liver transplant. Nine of 25 hypothesized risk factors were predictive of alcohol relapse after liver transplant: absence of hepatocellular carcinoma, tobacco dependence, continued alcohol use after liver disease diagnosis, low motivation for alcohol treatment, poor stress management skills, no rehabilitation relationship, limited social support, lack of nonmedical behavioral consequences, and continued engagement in social activities with alcohol present. Each independent predictor was assigned an Alcohol Relapse Risk Assessment (ARRA) risk value of 1 point, and patients were classified into 1 of 4 groups by ARRA score: ARRA I = 0, ARRA II = 1 to 3, ARRA III = 4 to 6, and ARRA IV = 7 to 9. Patients in the 2 higher ARRA classifications had significantly higher rates of alcohol relapse and were more likely to return to pretransplant levels of drinking.

CONCLUSION

Alcohol relapse rates are moderately high after liver transplant. The ARRA is a valid and practical tool for identifying pretransplant patients with alcohol abuse or dependency at elevated risk of any alcohol use after liver transplant.

Risk factors for alcohol relapse after liver transplantation for alcoholic cirrhosis in Japan

Alcoholic liver cirrhosis (ALC) is an established indication for liver transplantation (LT). Most LT procedures in Japan are living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) because of an extreme shortage of deceased donors. Social circumstances enabling LDLT could be favorable for preventing relapse. The aims of this retrospective study were to analyze the outcomes of LDLT for ALC and to evaluate risk factors for relapse in this cohort. One hundred ninety-five subjects underwent LT [LDLT (n = 187), deceased donor LT (n = 5), or domino LT (n = 3)] for ALC in Japan from November 1997 to December 2011. Risk factors for alcohol relapse and the impact of relapse on outcomes were analyzed for 140 patients after the exclusion of 26 patients who died in the hospital and 29 patients without information about alcohol relapse. The incidence of alcohol consumption after LT was 22.9%. The risk factors for patient survival were a donor age ≥ 50 years (P < 0.01) and a Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score ≥ 19 (P = 0.03). The 10-year patient survival rates were 21.9% and 73.8% for patients who had relapsed and patients who had not relapsed 18 months after LT, respectively (P = 0.01). The relapse rates were 50.0%, 34.5%, 13.3%, 19.7%, and 14.3% for patients who had received livers from parents, siblings, spouses, sons/daughters, and deceased or domino donors, respectively. A history of treatment for psychological diseases other than alcoholism before LT was a significant indicator for the risk of recidivism (P = 0.02), and noncompliance with clinic visits after LT and smoking after transplantation were promising indicators for the risk of recidivism (P = 0.06, and P = 0.05, respectively). Preoperative alcohol consumption was not a risk factor. In conclusion, rather than selecting patients on the basis of preoperative alcohol use, we should provide sociomedical support to improve adherence after LT for ALC in Japan.

[What ethanol metabolites as biological markers tell us about alcohol use]

Alcohol and tobacco related disorders are the two leading and most expensive causes of illness in central Europe. In addition to self reports and questionnaires, biomarkers are of relevance in diagnosis and therapy of alcohol use disorders. Traditional biomarkers such as gamma glutamyl transpeptidase or mean corpuscular volume are indirect biomarkers and are subject to influence of age, gender and non alcohol related diseases, among others.Direct ethanol metabolites such as ethyl glucuronide (EtG), ethyl sulphate (EtS) and phosphatidylethanol (PEth) are direct metabolites of ethanol, that are positive after intake of ethyl alcohol. They represent useful diagnostic tools for identifying alcohol use even more accurately than traditional biomarkers. Each of these drinking indicators remains positive in serum and urine for a characteristic time spectrum after the cessation of ethanol intake--EtG and EtS in urine up to 7 days, EtG in hair for months after ethanol has left the body. Applications include clinical routine use, emergency room settings, proof of abstinence in alcohol rehabilitation programs, driving under influence offenders, workplace testing, assessment of alcohol intake in the context of liver transplantation and fetal alcohol syndrome.

Substance abuse treatment and its association with relapse to alcohol use after liver transplantation

Many liver transplantation (LT) programs require substance abuse (SA) treatment for candidates with a history of alcohol abuse. However, there are no data indicating that SA treatment prevents post-LT alcohol relapse. We examined 118 adults who underwent LT from May 2002 to February 2011 to explore the relationship between SA treatment and post-LT relapse to any alcohol use. Sixty-one patients (52%) with a history of alcohol abuse or dependence received SA treatment before LT. Relapse to any alcohol use was identified in 40 LT recipients (34%). Patients who received SA treatment before LT did not differ significantly in the rate of post-LT alcohol relapse from patients who did not receive treatment before transplantation(30% versus 39%, P = 0.20). However, patients who received SA treatment both before and after transplantation had significantly lower rates of alcohol relapse (16%) than patients who received no SA treatment (41%) or SA treatment only before LT (45%, P = 0.03). Our findings suggest that LT programs should consider placing more emphasis on the continuation of some type of SA treatment after transplantation. Future research should prospectively examine the optimal timing for SA treatment that will attenuate the risk of alcohol relapse after transplantation.