Monotocy and the evolution of plural breeding in mammals

Intraspecific variation in group structure arises due to environmentally-mediated directional dispersal in a cooperative breeder

Many cooperatively breeding species live in groups with complex structure-large group sizes, low and variable kin structure, and multiple breeding pairs. Since these mixed-kin groups typically form because of immigration of unrelated individuals of both sexes in addition to limited offspring dispersal, differences in patterns of dispersal can generate variation in group structure, even within the same species or population. Here, we examine how environmentally mediated dispersal patterns influence variation in group structure in the plural breeding superb starling (Lamprotornis superbus), an avian cooperative breeder that inhabits a spatiotemporally variable savanna environment and forms mixed-kin groups with variable group sizes and more than one breeding pair per group. Using 4068 genome-wide polymorphic loci and fine-scale, remotely sensed ecological data from 22 groups sampled across a nearly 200 km2 environmental gradient in central Kenya, we find evidence of not only frequent and long-distance dispersal in both sexes (low isolation-by-distance and weak genetic structure), but also directional dispersal from small groups in lower quality habitat with low normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) to large groups in higher quality habitat with high NDVI. Additionally, we find stronger genetic structure among groups in lower quality habitat, and higher genetic diversity and lower relatedness of groups in higher quality habitat. Previous work using long-term data from groups in the same population has shown that groups with lower relatedness are larger and have more breeding pairs. Long-distance, directional dispersal to maximise individual fitness can thus lead to smaller and simpler kin-based social groups in lower quality habitat, but larger and more complex mixed-kin groups in higher quality habitat. Such intraspecific, within-population variation in group structure, including variation in kin structure of social groups, could have profound implications for the relative importance of the evolutionary mechanisms (i.e. direct vs. indirect fitness benefits) underlying the formation of cooperative societies.

It's about time: Feeding competition costs of sociality are affected more by temporal characteristics than spatial distribution

For most herbivorous animals, group-living appears to incur a high cost by intensifying feeding competition. These costs raise the question of how gregariousness (i.e., the tendency to aggregate) could have evolved to such an extent in taxa such as anthropoid primates and ungulates. When attempting to test the potential benefits and costs, previous foraging models demonstrated that group-living might be beneficial by lowering variance in intake, but that it reduces overall foraging success. However, these models did not fully account for the fact that gregariousness has multiple experiences and can vary in relation to ecological variables and foraging competition. Here, we present an agent-based model for testing how ecological variables impact the costs and benefits of gregariousness. In our simulations, primate-like agents forage on a variable resource landscape while maintaining spatial cohesion with conspecifics to varying degrees. The agents' energy intake rate, daily distance traveled, and variance in energy intake were recorded. Using Morris Elementary Effects sensitivity analysis, we tested the sensitivity of 10 model parameters, of which 2 controlled gregarious behavior and 8 controlled food resources, including multiple aspects of temporal and spatial heterogeneity. We found that, while gregariousness generally increased feeding competition, the costs of gregariousness were much lower when resources were less variable over time (i.e., when calorie extraction was slow and resource renewal was frequent). We also found that maintaining proximity to other agents resulted in lower variance in energy intake when resources were more variable over time. Thus, it appears that the costs and benefits of gregariousness are strongly influenced by the temporal characteristics of food resources, giving insight into the pressures that shaped the evolution of sociality and group living, including in our own lineage.

Kinship composition in mammals

Understanding the evolution of group-living and cooperation requires information on who animals live and cooperate with. Animals can live with kin, non-kin or both, and kinship structure can influence the benefits and costs of group-living and the evolution of within-group cooperation. One aspect of kinship structure is kinship composition, i.e. a group-level attribute of the presence of kin and/or non-kin dyads in groups. Despite its putative importance, the kinship composition of mammalian groups has yet to be characterized. Here, we use the published literature to build an initial kinship composition dataset in mammals, laying the groundwork for future work in the field. In roughly half of the 18 species in our sample, individuals lived solely with same-sex kin, and, in the other half, individuals lived with related and unrelated individuals of the same sex. These initial results suggest that it is not rare for social mammals to live with unrelated individuals of the same sex, highlighting the importance of considering indirect and direct fitness benefits as co-drivers of the evolution of sociality. We hope that our initial dataset and insights will spur the study of kinship structure and sociality towards new exciting avenues.

Group augmentation underlies the evolution of complex sociality in the face of environmental instability

Although kin selection is assumed to underlie the evolution of sociality, many vertebrates-including nearly half of all cooperatively breeding birds-form groups that also include unrelated individuals. Theory predicts that despite reducing kin structure, immigration of unrelated individuals into groups can provide direct, group augmentation benefits, particularly when offspring recruitment is insufficient for group persistence. Using population dynamic modeling and analysis of long-term data, we provide clear empirical evidence of group augmentation benefits favoring the evolution and maintenance of complex societies with low kin structure and multiple reproductives. We show that in the superb starling (Lamprotornis superbus)-a plural cooperative breeder that forms large groups with multiple breeding pairs, and related and unrelated nonbreeders of both sexes-offspring recruitment alone cannot prevent group extinction, especially in smaller groups. Further, smaller groups, which stand to benefit more from immigration, exhibit lower reproductive skew for immigrants, suggesting that reproductive opportunities as joining incentives lead to plural breeding. Yet, despite a greater likelihood of becoming a breeder in smaller groups, immigrants are more likely to join larger groups where they experience increased survivorship and greater reproductive success as breeders. Moreover, immigrants form additional breeding pairs, increasing future offspring recruitment into the group and guarding against complete reproductive failure in the face of environmental instability and high nest predation. Thus, plural breeding likely evolves because the benefits of group augmentation by immigrants generate a positive feedback loop that maintains societies with low and mixed kinship, large group sizes, and multiple reproductives.

Innovation across 13 ungulate species: problem solvers are less integrated in the social group and less neophobic

Innovation is the ability to solve new problems or find novel solutions to familiar problems, and it is known to provide animals with crucial fitness benefits. Although this ability has been extensively studied in some taxa, the factors that predict innovation within and across species are still largely unclear. In this study, we used a novel foraging task to test 111 individuals belonging to 13 ungulate species-a still understudied taxon. To solve the task, individuals had to open transparent and opaque cups with food rewards, by removing their cover. We assessed whether individual factors (neophobia, social integration, sex, age, rank) and socio-ecological factors (dietary breadth, fission-fusion dynamics, domestication, group size) predicted participation and performance in the task. Using a phylogenetic approach, we showed that success was higher for less neophobic and socially less integrated individuals. Moreover, less neophobic individuals, individuals of domesticated species and having higher fission-fusion dynamics were more likely to participate in the task. These results are in line with recent literature suggesting a central role of sociality and personality traits to successfully deal with novel challenges, and confirm ungulates as a promising taxon to test evolutionary theories with a comparative approach.

Allonursing in Wild and Farm Animals: Biological and Physiological Foundations and Explanatory Hypotheses

The dams of gregarious animals must develop a close bond with their newborns to provide them with maternal care, including protection against predators, immunological transference, and nutrition. Even though lactation demands high energy expenditures, behaviors known as allonursing (the nursing of non-descendant infants) and allosuckling (suckling from any female other than the mother) have been reported in various species of wild or domestic, and terrestrial or aquatic animals. These behaviors seem to be elements of a multifactorial strategy, since reports suggest that they depend on the following: species, living conditions, social stability, and kinship relations, among other group factors. Despite their potential benefits, allonursing and allosuckling can place the health and welfare of both non-filial dams and alien offspring at risk, as it augments the probability of pathogen transmission. This review aims to analyze the biological and physiological foundations and bioenergetic costs of these behaviors, analyzing the individual and collective advantages and disadvantages for the dams' own offspring(s) and alien neonate(s). We also include information on the animal species in which these behaviors occur and their implications on animal welfare.

Social evolution in mammals

[Figure: see text].

Social organization in ungulates: Revisiting Jarman's hypotheses

Ungulates (antelopes, deer and relatives) have some of the most diverse social systems among mammals. To understand the evolution of ungulate social organization, Jarman (1974) proposed an ecological scenario of how distribution of resources, habitat and feeding style may have influenced social organization. Although Jarman's scenario makes intuitive sense and remains a textbook example of social evolution, it has not been scrutinized using modern phylogenetic comparative methods. Here we use 230 ungulate species from ten families to test Jarman's hypotheses using phylogenetic analyses. Consistent with Jarman's proposition, both habitat and feeding style predict group size, since grazing ungulates typically live in open habitats and form large herds. Group size, in turn, has a knock-on effect on mating systems and sexual size dimorphism, since ungulates that live in large herds exhibit polygamy and extensive sexual size dimorphism. Phylogenetic confirmatory path analyses suggest that evolutionary changes in habitat type, feeding style and body size directly (or indirectly) induce shifts in social organization. Taken together, these phylogenetic comparative analyses confirm Jarman's conjectures, although they also uncover novel relationships between ecology and social organization. Further studies are needed to explore the relevance of Jarman (1974) scenario for mammals beyond ungulates.

Evolution of litter size in bats and its influence on longevity and roosting ecology

Litter size varies in mammals, with about half of the species producing at least two offspring per gestation (polytocy). In bats, however, the modal litter size is one (monotocy), and polytocy is restricted to family Vespertilionidae. Here, we reconstruct the evolutionary history of polytocy in chiropterans and use phylogenetically informed regressions to investigate its relationship to roost type, longevity and group size. Our phylogenetic reconstructions suggested that production of multiple offspring was the ancestral condition in family Vespertilionidae. The distribution of monotocy/polytocy in Chiroptera was best explained by a minimum of two evolutionary transitions from monotocy to polytocy and by ≥ 18 transitions from polytocy to monotocy. The regression models showed that longevity and roost type explained the variation in litter size, whereas group size did not. Our analyses also revealed a greater diversity of polytocous bats in the Northern Hemisphere, in both temperate and tropical regions. We suggest that the high resource allocation to reproduction in polytocous bats limited their lifespan. The absence of a relationship between polytocy and group size indicates that the benefits of cooperative breeding surpass the costs of intrasexual competition in bats.

Neophobia in 10 ungulate species-a comparative approach

ABSTRACT

Neophobia (the fearful reaction to novel stimuli or situations) has a crucial effect on individual fitness and can vary within and across species. However, the factors predicting this variation are still unclear. In this study, we assessed whether individual characteristics (rank, social integration, sex) and species socio-ecological characteristics (dietary breadth, group size, domestication) predicted variation in neophobia. For this purpose, we conducted behavioral observations and experimental tests on 78 captive individuals belonging to 10 different ungulate species-an ideal taxon to study inter-specific variation in neophobia given their variety in socio-ecological characteristics. Individuals were tested in their social groups by providing them with familiar food, half of which had been positioned close to a novel object. We monitored the individual latency to approach and eat food and the proportion of time spent in its proximity. Using a phylogenetic approach and social network analyses, we showed that across ungulate species neophobia was higher in socially more integrated individuals, as compared to less integrated ones. In contrast, rank and sex did not predict inter-individual differences in neophobia. Moreover, species differed in their levels of neophobia, with Barbary sheep being on average less neophobic than all the other study species. As group size in Barbary sheep was larger than in all the other study species, these results support the hypothesis that larger group size predicts lower levels of neophobia, and confirm ungulates as a highly promising taxon to study animal behavior and cognition with a comparative perspective.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

In several species, individuals may respond fearfully to novel stimuli, therefore reducing the risks they may face. However, it is yet unclear if certain individuals or species respond more fearfully to novelty. Here, we provided food to 78 individual ungulates with different characteristics (e.g., sex, rank, social integration, group size, domestication, dietary breadth) in different controlled conditions (e.g., when food was close to novel or to familiar objects). Across species, we found that socially integrated individuals responded more fearfully in all species. Moreover, being in larger groups decreased the probability of fearfully responding to novelty.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00265-021-03041-0.

Monotocy and the evolution of plural breeding in mammals

In many mammals, breeding females are intolerant of each other and seldom associate closely but, in some, they aggregate in groups that vary in size, stability, and kinship structure. Aggregation frequently increases competition for food, and interspecific differences in female sociality among mammals are commonly attributed to contrasts in ecological parameters, including variation in activity timing, the distribution of resources, as well as the risk of predation. However, there is increasing indication that differences in female sociality are also associated with phylogenetic relationships and with contrasts in life-history parameters. We show here that evolutionary transitions from systems where breeding females usually occupy separate ranges ("singular breeding") to systems where breeding females usually aggregate ("plural breeding") have occurred more frequently in monotocous lineages where females produce single young than in polytocous ones where they produce litters. A likely explanation of this association is that competition between breeding females for resources is reduced where they produce single young and is more intense where they produce litters. Our findings reinforce evidence that variation in life-history parameters plays an important role in shaping the evolution of social behavior.