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Coals PGR, Williams VL, Benítez G, Chassagne F, Leonti M. Ethnopharmacology, ethnomedicine, and wildlife conservation. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 333:118399. [PMID: 38824978 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2024.118399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE There are longstanding traditions of animal-derived products being employed as medicines, and they continue to be important in many traditional cultural healthcare practices. However, the populations of numerous so-used animals are known to be threatened with extirpation by such practices. Ethnopharmacological studies documenting these animal-derived drugs are not only interesting from an anthropological standpoint, but they are also relevant from a wildlife conservation perspective - especially since ethnopharmacologists are intermediaries between indigenous and scientific communities, placing them at the forefront of being able to ethically access information to address these issues. METHODS Using the example of documenting culturally acceptable substitute materials for animal products (which ultimately also extends to flora), we explore the intersection of ethnopharmacology, biocultural resources, and wildlife conservation. RESULTS Pharmacological efficacy and symbolism are factors influencing the utilization of traditional medicines. Achieving the integration of conservation aims with ethnopharmacology requires a nuanced understanding of both factors, along with fair adjudication when conservation and cultural aims diverge. Ethnopharmacology is suitably placed for making conservation-orientated recommendations - including investigating more sustainable substitutes for animal products in the context of medical efficacy, and for engaging ethically with local communities to facilitate information generation aimed at protecting the environment and their traditions. CONCLUSION We suggest an integrative approach to ethnopharmacological studies investigating medicinal bioresource use. This approach is considerate of species' conservation profiles, the substitutability and pharmacological efficacy of biocultural resources, indigenous and cultural rights, and a collaborative ethos for stakeholder engagement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G R Coals
- School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2000, South Africa
| | - Vivienne L Williams
- School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 2000, South Africa
| | - Guillermo Benítez
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, Campus de Cartuja s/n, 18071, Granada, Spain
| | - François Chassagne
- UMR152 PharmaDev, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Marco Leonti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, 09042, Monserrato, CA, Italy.
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2
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Morton O, Nijman V, Edwards DP. Assessing and improving the veracity of international trade in captive-bred animals. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 354:120240. [PMID: 38340671 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Captive breeding is often seen as a solution to sustainably increasing the supply of individuals in the wildlife trade. To be an effective conservation measure this requires robust systems to verify the authenticity of captive-bred species. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) monitors the international trade in Listed species-which for many taxa is dominated by captive-bred individuals-using the Review of Captive Trade (RCT) process. A key question is how best to identify laundered or inauthentic captive-bred trade and how has this changed over time and space. We develop targeted assessments based on multiple RCT criteria to identify probable instances of laundering and misuse of source and purpose codes in international trade records, and apply this to 39,167 records of captive trade from 2000 to 2020 spanning 53,674,762 individuals. We find a very low proportion of trade volume (1.8%, 37,835 individuals) misreported as originating from non-existent, registered Appendix I-breeding facilities, and low instances of exporter-reported captive trade being recorded by importers as wild-sourced (<4%) or ranched (1%). We also find that <2% of species-year-exporter records have abrupt shifts from wild to captive sources, potentially indicating laundering. Conversely, we find high incidences of exporter- and importer-reported trade differing in whether the trade was commercial or not - a phenomenon we attribute to differing definitions, not illegal activity. Our results indicate a low incidence of concerning international trade being reported, but we suggest this likely stems from reporting requirements that limit our assessments. We highlight additional trade data that, if embedded into Party's annual reports, would vastly improve inferential potential, greatly increasing the number of records (Appendix II and III species) that could be verified with minimal effort for management authorities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Morton
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, School of Biosciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK; Department of Plant Sciences and Conservation Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EA, UK.
| | - Vincent Nijman
- Oxford Wildlife Trade Research Group, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK.
| | - David P Edwards
- Department of Plant Sciences and Conservation Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EA, UK
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3
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Petrossian GA, Elwin A, Sosnowski M, Nunphong T, Chiang HT, Riungu JK, D'Cruze N. A synthesis of wild animal-related trade laws in some of the world's most biodiverse countries. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 354:120141. [PMID: 38354606 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
We examined the laws and legal provisions governing the commercial trade of terrestrial wild fauna across the trade chain in some of the world's megadiverse countries and how these relate to key animal welfare and conservation concerns. Over the past century, an increase in the quantity and complexity of laws related to commercial wildlife trade has been observed in the 11 focal countries examined. Our review identified 95 laws with 560 provisions adopted since 1910 across these countries. Surprisingly, the level of biological diversity in a country does not correlate with the extent of legislation addressing wildlife trade. Moreover, legislation is unevenly distributed across different stages of the wildlife trade chain, with more provisions on extraction and transportation compared to captive management. Notably, animal welfare considerations are relatively underrepresented in legislation related to wildlife trade, despite their broad implications for public health and economies. Urgent legislative action is needed to meet global biodiversity targets and respond to the challenges posed by the growing scale and complexity of the wildlife trade. Recommendations are made to streamline legislation, consider the legal status of wild animals, and address gaps in enforcement mechanisms. We conclude that alignment of national and international regulations is crucial for the effective protection of both wild animal populations and individual animals' welfare in the context of commercial trade. Further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of existing laws, bridge legal gaps, and address diverse concerns related to wildlife trade, including public health and the rights of local communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gohar A Petrossian
- John Jay College of Criminal Justice, Department of Criminal Justice, 524 West 59th Street, New York, NY, 10019, USA.
| | - Angie Elwin
- World Animal Protection, 222, Gray's Inn Rd, London, UK.
| | - Monique Sosnowski
- Farmingdale State College, Department of Criminal Justice, 2350 Broadhollow Road, Farmingdale, NY, 11735, USA.
| | - Thanaphon Nunphong
- Department of Probation, 4 & 6 Fl Chaengwattana Government Complex Building A, Bangkok, 10210, Thailand.
| | - Ho-Tu Chiang
- John Jay College of Criminal Justice, Department of Criminal Justice, 524 West 59th Street, New York, NY, 10019, USA.
| | - Jim Karani Riungu
- John Jay College of Criminal Justice, Department of Criminal Justice, 524 West 59th Street, New York, NY, 10019, USA.
| | - Neil D'Cruze
- World Animal Protection, 222, Gray's Inn Rd, London, UK; Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Abingdon Road, Tubney, Abingdon, OX13 5QL, UK.
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4
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Hughes A, Auliya M, Altherr S, Scheffers B, Janssen J, Nijman V, Shepherd CR, D'Cruze N, Sy E, Edwards DP. Determining the sustainability of legal wildlife trade. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 341:117987. [PMID: 37178541 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Exploitation of wildlife represents one of the greatest threats to species survival according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Whilst detrimental impacts of illegal trade are well recognised, legal trade is often equated to being sustainable despite the lack of evidence or data in the majority of cases. We review the sustainability of wildlife trade, the adequacy of tools, safeguards, and frameworks to understand and regulate trade, and identify gaps in data that undermine our ability to truly understand the sustainability of trade. We provide 183 examples showing unsustainable trade in a broad range of taxonomic groups. In most cases, neither illegal nor legal trade are supported by rigorous evidence of sustainability, with the lack of data on export levels and population monitoring data precluding true assessments of species or population-level impacts. We propose a more precautionary approach to wildlife trade and monitoring that requires those who profit from trade to provide proof of sustainability. We then identify four core areas that must be strengthened to achieve this goal: (1) rigorous data collection and analyses of populations; (2) linking trade quotas to IUCN and international accords; (3) improved databases and compliance of trade; and (4) enhanced understanding of trade bans, market forces, and species substitutions. Enacting these core areas in regulatory frameworks, including CITES, is essential to the continued survival of many threatened species. There are no winners from unsustainable collection and trade: without sustainable management not only will species or populations become extinct, but communities dependent upon these species will lose livelihoods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Hughes
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Hong Kong, China.
| | - Mark Auliya
- Department of Herpetology, Leibniz Institute for the Analysis of Biodiversity Change, Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Brett Scheffers
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida/IFAS, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jordi Janssen
- Monitor Conservation Research Society, PO BOX 200, Big Lake Ranch, BC, V0L 1G0, Canada
| | - Vincent Nijman
- Oxford Wildlife Trade Research Group, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK.
| | - Chris R Shepherd
- Monitor Conservation Research Society, PO BOX 200, Big Lake Ranch, BC, V0L 1G0, Canada
| | - Neil D'Cruze
- The Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Tubney, UK; World Animal Protection, 222 Greys Inn Road, London, WC1X 8HB, UK
| | - Emerson Sy
- Philippine Center for Terrestrial & Aquatic Research, Manila, Philippines
| | - David P Edwards
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, School of Biosciences University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK.
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Easter T, Trautmann J, Gore M, Carter N. Media portrayal of the illegal trade in wildlife: The case of turtles in the US and implications for conservation. PEOPLE AND NATURE 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/pan3.10448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Tara Easter
- School for Environment and Sustainability University of Michigan Ann Arbor Michigan USA
| | - Julia Trautmann
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and School for Environment and Sustainability University of Michigan Ann Arbor Michigan USA
| | - Meredith Gore
- Department of Geographical Sciences University of Maryland College Park Maryland USA
| | - Neil Carter
- School for Environment and Sustainability University of Michigan Ann Arbor Michigan USA
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Watters F, Stringham O, Shepherd CR, Cassey P. The U.S. market for imported wildlife not listed in the CITES multilateral treaty. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2022; 36:e13978. [PMID: 35924462 PMCID: PMC10092231 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.13978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The international wildlife trade presents severe conservation and environmental security risks, yet no international regulatory framework exists to monitor the trade of species not listed in the appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). We explored the composition and dynamics of internationally regulated versus nonregulated trade, with a focus on importations of wild-caught terrestrial vertebrates entering the United States from 2009 to 2018. We used 10 years of species-level trade records of the numbers of live, wild-caught animals imported to the United States and data on International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) estimates of extinction risk to determine whether there were differences in the diversity, abundance, and risk to extinction among imports of CITES-listed versus unlisted species. We found 3.6 times the number of unlisted species in U.S. imports compared with CITES-listed species (1366 vs. 378 species). The CITES-listed species were more likely to face reported conservation threats relative to unlisted species (71.7% vs. 27.5%). However, 376 unlisted species faced conversation threats, 297 species had unknown population trends, and 139 species were without an evaluation by the IUCN. Unlisted species appearing for the first time in records were imported 5.5 times more often relative to CITES-listed species. Unlisted reptiles had the largest rate of entry, averaging 53 unique species appearing in imports for the first time per year. Overall trade quantities were approximately 11 times larger for imports of unlisted species relative to imports of CITES-listed species. Countries that were top exporters of CITES-listed species were mostly different from exporters of unlisted species. Because of the vulnerabilities of unlisted, traded species entering the United States and increasing global demand, we strongly recommend governments adapt their policies to monitor and report on the trade of all wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freyja Watters
- Invasion Science & Wildlife Ecology LabUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Oliver Stringham
- Invasion Science & Wildlife Ecology LabUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
- School of Mathematical SciencesUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
| | - Chris R. Shepherd
- Monitor Conservation Research SocietyBig Lake RanchBritish ColumbiaCanada
| | - Phillip Cassey
- Invasion Science & Wildlife Ecology LabUniversity of AdelaideAdelaideSouth AustraliaAustralia
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Virome Profiling of an Amur leopard cat Reveals Multiple Anelloviruses and a Bocaparvovirus. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9110640. [DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9110640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
As a small top predator, Amur leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis euptilurus) is widely distributed in northeast Asia and plays an important role in the control of small rodent populations and in the maintenance of ecological equilibrium. However, the viruses harbored by this creature have been rarely investigated. Here, we report the DNA and RNA eukaryotic virome profiling of an injured Amur leopard cat followed by PCR validation, which revealed diverse anelloviruses in multiple organs and a bocaparvovirus in the lymph, but no RNA viruses. These anelloviruses have diverse genomic structures and are classified into four phylogroups with viruses of various felines, while the bocaparvovirus is extremely similar to those recovered from diarrheal domestic cats, illustrating the transmission of the virus between domestic animals and wildlife. These data provide the first insight into the genetic diversity of Amur leopard cat viruses, highlighting the need for further investigation of wild animals.
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8
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Toudonou C, Elwin A, Penner J, Coulthard E, Norrey J, Megson D, Rödel MO, Sinsin B, Harrington LA, Auliya M, D’Cruze N. Seeking serpents: Ball python trade in Benin, West Africa. NATURE CONSERVATION 2022. [DOI: 10.3897/natureconservation.50.86352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Ball pythons are traded as bushmeat, leather and belief-based medicine in West Africa, and specimens are exported in large numbers for the exotic pet trade. Here, we focused on understanding the purpose and socio-economic context of this trade in Benin through interviews with 44 actors involved in the trade of this species. We provided a snapshot of trade dynamics during a period when hunters are not predominantly actively involved in supplying eggs, neonates and gravid females for ranching and export as exotic pets. Our findings revealed that hunters and traders were largely focused on supplying the bushmeat and medicine markets in West Africa during this time. We estimated that the 21 collectors engaged in hunting in our study collectively hunt between 576 and 5,083 ball pythons from the wild each year. Collection rates reported by some suggests that they could earn more than 15,000 USD from ball python sales in bushmeat markets annually. Ball pythons hunted in Benin were mainly sold to local customers as “bushmeat” (53%) or for belief-based uses (39%) (including “fetish”, “medicinal products” and “voodoo”). However, cross-border trade with neighboring countries of Togo, Nigeria, and Ghana (or even further) also occurred. Although profitable for some, the scale of this practice, together with the widely reported decline in ball python populations in Benin, raises concern about the sustainability and long-term economic viability of this type of large-scale commercial wildlife trade in West Africa, especially as it occurs alongside extensive ranching practices to support the exotic pet trade.
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9
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Moorhouse TP, Zhou ZM, Shao ML, Zhou Y, Elwin A, D’Cruze NC, Macdonald DW. Substitutes for wildlife-origin materials as described in China’s “TCM” research literature. Glob Ecol Conserv 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
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10
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Moorhouse TP, D’Cruze NC, Sun E, Elwin A, Macdonald DW. What are TCM doctors’ attitudes towards replacing animal-origin medicinal materials with plant-origin alternatives? Glob Ecol Conserv 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2022.e02045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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11
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The link between wildlife trade and the global donkey skin product network. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.12676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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12
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Lambert H, Elwin A, D’Cruze N. Frog in the well: A review of the scientific literature for evidence of amphibian sentience. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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13
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Beyond the Pharmacopoeia: To what extent is trade for “TCM” limited to official TCM taxa? Glob Ecol Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
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14
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Moorhouse TP, Zhou ZM, Ye YC, Zhou Y, D’Cruze NC, Macdonald DW. What is "TCM"? A conservation-relevant taxonomy of traditional Chinese medicine. Glob Ecol Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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15
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Fang G, Liu H, Wang Q. Wildlife Conservation Legislation at a Fork in the Road. Bioscience 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biab122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Guirong Fang
- Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang, China
| | - Hong Liu
- Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qing Wang
- Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang, China
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Edwards DP, D'Cruze N, Altherr S, Hughes A, Janssen J, Nijman V, Pasachnik SA, Scheffers BR, Shepherd CR, Sy E, Auliya M. The dangers of misrepresenting wildlife trade: response to Natusch et al. 2021. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2021; 35:1692-1694. [PMID: 34477258 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.13829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David P Edwards
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Neil D'Cruze
- The Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Tubney, UK
- World Animal Protection, London, UK
| | | | - Alice Hughes
- Centre for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China
| | - Jordi Janssen
- Monitor Conservation Research Society, Big Lake Ranch, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Vincent Nijman
- Oxford Wildlife Trade Research Group, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Brett R Scheffers
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida/IFAS, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Chris R Shepherd
- Monitor Conservation Research Society, Big Lake Ranch, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Emerson Sy
- Philippine Center for Terrestrial & Aquatic Research, Manila, Philippines
| | - Mark Auliya
- Zoological Research Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn, Germany
- Department of Conservation Biology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
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