Parietofrontal integrity determines neural modulation associated with grasping imagery after stroke

Brain white matter pathways of resilience to chronic back pain: a multisite validation

Chronic back pain (CBP) is a global health concern with significant societal and economic burden. While various predictors of back pain chronicity have been proposed, including demographic and psychosocial factors, neuroimaging studies have pointed to brain characteristics as predictors of CBP. However, large-scale, multisite validation of these predictors is currently lacking. In two independent longitudinal studies, we examined white matter diffusion imaging data and pain characteristics in patients with subacute back pain (SBP) over six- and 12-month periods. Diffusion data from individuals with CBP and healthy controls (HC) were analyzed for comparison. Whole-brain tract-based spatial statistics analyses revealed that a cluster in the right superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) tract had larger fractional anisotropy (FA) values in patients who recovered (SBPr) compared to those with persistent pain (SBPp), and predicted changes in pain severity. The SLF FA values accurately classified patients at baseline and follow-up in a third publicly available dataset (Area under the Receiver Operating Curve ~ 0.70). Notably, patients who recovered had FA values larger than those of HC suggesting a potential role of SLF integrity in resilience to CBP. Structural connectivity-based models also classified SBPp and SBPr patients from the three data sets (validation accuracy 67%). Our results validate the right SLF as a robust predictor of CBP development, with potential for clinical translation. Cognitive and behavioral processes dependent on the right SLF, such as proprioception and visuospatial attention, should be analyzed in subacute stages as they could prove important for back pain chronicity.

A Systematic Review of the Effects of EEG Neurofeedback on Patients with Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a neuropsychiatric disorder affecting approximately 1 in 300 people worldwide. It is characterized by a range of symptoms, including positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations, and formal thought disorganization), negative symptoms (anhedonia, alogia, avolition, asociality, and blunted affect), and cognitive impairments (impaired memory, attention, executive function, and processing speed). Current treatments, such as psychopharmacology and psychotherapy, often do not fully address these symptoms, leading to impaired everyday functionality. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in neuromodulation due to computer and engineering science making extraordinary computational advances. Those put together have reinitiated the spark in the field of neurofeedback (NF) as a means for self-regulation and neuromodulation with the potential to alleviate the daily burden of schizophrenia. We review, in a systematic way, the primary reports of electroencephalogram (EEG)-based NF as a therapeutical tool for schizophrenia. The main body of research consists mostly of case studies and case reports. The results of a few randomized controlled studies, combined with case studies/series, underscore the potential use of NF as an add-on treatment option for improving the lives of suffering individuals, being sustained by the changes in brain function and symptomatology improvement. We aim to provide important evidence of neuromodulation using NF in patients with schizophrenia, summarizing the effects and conclusions found in several clinical trials.

EEG decoding with spatiotemporal convolutional neural network for visualization and closed-loop control of sensorimotor activities: A simultaneous EEG-fMRI study

Closed-loop neurofeedback training utilizes neural signals such as scalp electroencephalograms (EEG) to manipulate specific neural activities and the associated behavioral performance. A spatiotemporal filter for high-density whole-head scalp EEG using a convolutional neural network can overcome the ambiguity of the signaling source because each EEG signal includes information on the remote regions. We simultaneously acquired EEG and functional magnetic resonance images in humans during the brain-computer interface (BCI) based neurofeedback training and compared the reconstructed and modeled hemodynamic responses of the sensorimotor network. Filters constructed with a convolutional neural network captured activities in the targeted network with spatial precision and specificity superior to those of the EEG signals preprocessed with standard pipelines used in BCI-based neurofeedback paradigms. The middle layers of the trained model were examined to characterize the neuronal oscillatory features that contributed to the reconstruction. Analysis of the layers for spatial convolution revealed the contribution of distributed cortical circuitries to reconstruction, including the frontoparietal and sensorimotor areas, and those of temporal convolution layers that successfully reconstructed the hemodynamic response function. Employing a spatiotemporal filter and leveraging the electrophysiological signatures of the sensorimotor excitability identified in our middle layer analysis would contribute to the development of a further effective neurofeedback intervention.

Neural Interface-Based Motor Neuroprosthesis in Poststroke Upper Limb Neurorehabilitation: An Individual Patient Data Meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To determine the efficacy of neural interface-based neurorehabilitation, including brain-computer interface, through conventional and individual patient data (IPD) meta-analysis and to assess clinical parameters associated with positive response to neural interface-based neurorehabilitation.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases up to February 2022 were reviewed.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies using neural interface-controlled physical effectors (functional electrical stimulation and/or powered exoskeletons) and reported Fugl-Meyer Assessment-upper-extremity (FMA-UE) scores were identified. This meta-analysis was prospectively registered on PROSPERO (#CRD42022312428). PRISMA guidelines were followed.

DATA EXTRACTION

Changes in FMA-UE scores were pooled to estimate the mean effect size. Subgroup analyses were performed on clinical parameters and neural interface parameters with both study-level variables and IPD.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Forty-six studies containing 617 patients were included. Twenty-nine studies involving 214 patients reported IPD. FMA-UE scores increased by a mean of 5.23 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.85-6.61). Systems that used motor attempt resulted in greater FMA-UE gain than motor imagery, as did training lasting >4 vs ≤4 weeks. On IPD analysis, the mean time-to-improvement above minimal clinically important difference (MCID) was 12 weeks (95% CI: 7 to not reached). At 6 months, 58% improved above MCID (95% CI: 41%-70%). Patients with severe impairment (P=.042) and age >50 years (P=.0022) correlated with the failure to improve above the MCID on univariate log-rank tests. However, these factors were only borderline significant on multivariate Cox analysis (hazard ratio [HR] 0.15, P=.08 and HR 0.47, P=.06, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Neural interface-based motor rehabilitation resulted in significant, although modest, reductions in poststroke impairment and should be considered for wider applications in stroke neurorehabilitation.

Measuring neuronal avalanches to inform brain-computer interfaces

Large-scale interactions among multiple brain regions manifest as bursts of activations called neuronal avalanches, which reconfigure according to the task at hand and, hence, might constitute natural candidates to design brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). To test this hypothesis, we used source-reconstructed magneto/electroencephalography during resting state and a motor imagery task performed within a BCI protocol. To track the probability that an avalanche would spread across any two regions, we built an avalanche transition matrix (ATM) and demonstrated that the edges whose transition probabilities significantly differed between conditions hinged selectively on premotor regions in all subjects. Furthermore, we showed that the topology of the ATMs allows task-decoding above the current gold standard. Hence, our results suggest that neuronal avalanches might capture interpretable differences between tasks that can be used to inform brain-computer interfaces.

Association between lesion location and sensorimotor rhythms in stroke - a systematic review with narrative synthesis

BACKGROUND

Stroke causes alterations in the sensorimotor rhythms (SMRs) of the brain. However, little is known about the influence of lesion location on the SMRs. Understanding this relationship is relevant for the use of SMRs in assistive and rehabilitative therapies, such as Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs)..

METHODS

We reviewed current evidence on the association between stroke lesion location and SMRs through systematically searching PubMed and Embase and generated a narrative synthesis of findings.

RESULTS

We included 12 articles reporting on 161 patients. In resting-state studies, cortical and pontine damage were related to an overall decrease in alpha (∼8-12 Hz) and increase in delta (∼1-4 Hz) power. In movement paradigm studies, attenuated alpha and beta (∼15-25 Hz) event-related desynchronization (ERD) was shown in stroke patients during (attempted) paretic hand movement, compared to controls. Stronger reductions in alpha and beta ERD in the ipsilesional, compared to contralesional hemisphere, were observed for cortical lesions. Subcortical stroke was found to affect bilateral ERD and ERS, but results were highly variable.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest a link between stroke lesion location and SMR alterations, but heterogeneity across studies and limited lesion location descriptions precluded a meta-analysis.

SIGNIFICANCE

Future research would benefit from more uniformly defined outcome measures, homogeneous methodologies, and improved lesion location reporting.

Clinical applications of neurofeedback based on sensorimotor rhythm: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Among the brain-machine interfaces, neurofeedback is a non-invasive technique that uses sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) as a clinical intervention protocol. This study aimed to investigate the clinical applications of SMR neurofeedback to understand its clinical effectiveness in different pathologies or symptoms.

Methods

A systematic review study with meta-analysis of the clinical applications of EEG-based SMR neurofeedback performed using pre-selected publication databases. A qualitative analysis of these studies was performed using the Consensus tool on the Reporting and Experimental Design of Neurofeedback studies (CRED-nf). The Meta-analysis of clinical efficacy was carried out using Review Manager software, version 5.4.1 (RevMan 5; Cochrane Collaboration, Oxford, UK).

Results

The qualitative analysis includes 44 studies, of which only 27 studies had some kind of control condition, five studies were double-blinded, and only three reported a blind follow-up throughout the intervention. The meta-analysis included a total sample of 203 individuals between stroke and fibromyalgia. Studies on multiple sclerosis, insomnia, quadriplegia, paraplegia, and mild cognitive impairment were excluded due to the absence of a control group or results based only on post-intervention scales. Statistical analysis indicated that stroke patients did not benefit from neurofeedback interventions when compared to other therapies (Std. mean. dif. 0.31, 95% CI 0.03-0.60, p = 0.03), and there was no significant heterogeneity among stroke studies, classified as moderate I2 = 46% p-value = 0.06. Patients diagnosed with fibromyalgia showed, by means of quantitative analysis, a better benefit for the group that used neurofeedback (Std. mean. dif. -0.73, 95% CI -1.22 to -0.24, p = 0.001). Thus, on performing the pooled analysis between conditions, no significant differences were observed between the neurofeedback intervention and standard therapy (0.05, CI 95%, -0.20 to -0.30, p = 0.69), with the presence of substantial heterogeneity I2 = 92.2%, p-value < 0.001.

Conclusion

We conclude that although neurofeedback based on electrophysiological patterns of SMR contemplates the interest of numerous researchers and the existence of research that presents promising results, it is currently not possible to point out the clinical benefits of the technique as a form of clinical intervention. Therefore, it is necessary to develop more robust studies with a greater sample of a more rigorous methodology to understand the benefits that the technique can provide to the population.

Thirty-minute motor imagery exercise aided by EEG sensorimotor rhythm neurofeedback enhances morphing of sensorimotor cortices: a double-blind sham-controlled study

Neurofeedback training using electroencephalogram (EEG)-based brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) combined with mental rehearsals of motor behavior has demonstrated successful self-regulation of motor cortical excitability. However, it remains unclear whether the acquisition of skills to voluntarily control neural excitability is accompanied by structural plasticity boosted by neurofeedback. Here, we sought short-term changes in cortical structures induced by 30 min of BCI-based neurofeedback training, which aimed at the regulation of sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) in scalp EEG. When participants performed kinesthetic motor imagery of right finger movement with online feedback of either event-related desynchronisation (ERD) of SMR magnitude from the contralateral sensorimotor cortex (SM1) or those from other participants (i.e. placebo), the learning rate of SMR-ERD control was significantly different. Although overlapped structural changes in gray matter volumes were found in both groups, significant differences revealed by group-by-group comparison were spatially different; whereas the veritable neurofeedback group exhibited sensorimotor area-specific changes, the placebo exhibited spatially distributed changes. The white matter change indicated a significant decrease in the corpus callosum in the verum group. Furthermore, the learning rate of SMR regulation was correlated with the volume changes in the ipsilateral SM1, suggesting the involvement of interhemispheric motor control circuitries in BCI control tasks.

Oscillatory neurofeedback networks and poststroke rehabilitative potential in severely impaired stroke patients

Motor restoration after severe stroke is often limited. However, some of the severely impaired stroke patients may still have a rehabilitative potential. Biomarkers that identify these patients are sparse. Eighteen severely impaired chronic stroke patients with a lack of volitional finger extension participated in an EEG study. During sixty-six trials of kinesthetic motor imagery, a brain-machine interface turned event-related beta-band desynchronization of the ipsilesional sensorimotor cortex into opening of the paralyzed hand by a robotic orthosis. A subgroup of eight patients participated in a subsequent four-week rehabilitation training. Changes of the movement extent were captured with sensors which objectively quantified even discrete improvements of wrist movement. Albeit with the same motor impairment level, patients could be differentiated into two groups, i.e., with and without task-related increase of bilateral cortico-cortical phase synchronization between frontal/premotor and parietal areas. This fronto-parietal integration (FPI) was associated with a significantly higher volitional beta modulation range in the ipsilesional sensorimotor cortex. Following the four-week training, patients with FPI showed significantly higher improvement in wrist movement than those without FPI. Moreover, only the former group improved significantly in the upper extremity Fugl-Meyer-Assessment score. Neurofeedback-related long-range oscillatory coherence may differentiate severely impaired stroke patients with regard to their rehabilitative potential, a finding that needs to be confirmed in larger patient cohorts.

Sensorimotor Rhythm-Based Brain-Computer Interfaces for Motor Tasks Used in Hand Upper Extremity Rehabilitation after Stroke: A Systematic Review

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are becoming more popular in the neurological rehabilitation field, and sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) is a type of brain oscillation rhythm that can be captured and analyzed in BCIs. Previous reviews have testified to the efficacy of the BCIs, but seldom have they discussed the motor task adopted in BCIs experiments in detail, as well as whether the feedback is suitable for them. We focused on the motor tasks adopted in SMR-based BCIs, as well as the corresponding feedback, and searched articles in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane library, Web of Science, and Scopus and found 442 articles. After a series of screenings, 15 randomized controlled studies were eligible for analysis. We found motor imagery (MI) or motor attempt (MA) are common experimental paradigms in EEG-based BCIs trials. Imagining/attempting to grasp and extend the fingers is the most common, and there were multi-joint movements, including wrist, elbow, and shoulder. There were various types of feedback in MI or MA tasks for hand grasping and extension. Proprioception was used more frequently in a variety of forms. Orthosis, robot, exoskeleton, and functional electrical stimulation can assist the paretic limb movement, and visual feedback can be used as primary feedback or combined forms. However, during the recovery process, there are many bottleneck problems for hand recovery, such as flaccid paralysis or opening the fingers. In practice, we should mainly focus on patients' difficulties, and design one or more motor tasks for patients, with the assistance of the robot, FES, or other combined feedback, to help them to complete a grasp, finger extension, thumb opposition, or other motion. Future research should focus on neurophysiological changes and functional improvements and further elaboration on the changes in neurophysiology during the recovery of motor function.

Characterization of structural and functional network organization after focal prefrontal lesions in humans in proof of principle study

Lesion research classically maps behavioral effects of focal damage to the directly injured brain region. However, such damage can also have distant effects that can be assessed with modern imaging methods. Furthermore, the combination and comparison of imaging methods in a lesion model may shed light on the biological basis of structural and functional networks in the healthy brain. We characterized network organization assessed with multiple MRI imaging modalities in 13 patients with chronic focal damage affecting either superior or inferior frontal gyrus (SFG, IFG) and 18 demographically matched healthy Controls. We first defined structural and functional network parameters in Controls and then investigated grey matter (GM) and white matter (WM) differences between patients and Controls. Finally, we examined the differences in functional coupling to large-scale resting state networks (RSNs). The results suggest lesions are associated with widespread within-network GM loss at distal sites, yet leave WM and RSNs relatively preserved. Lesions to either prefrontal region also had a similar relative level of impact on structural and functional networks. The findings provide initial evidence for causal contributions of specific prefrontal regions to brain networks in humans that will ultimately help to refine models of the human brain.

Exploring the ability of stroke survivors in using the contralesional hemisphere to control a brain-computer interface

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) have recently been shown to be clinically effective as a novel method of stroke rehabilitation. In many BCI-based studies, the activation of the ipsilesional hemisphere was considered a key factor required for motor recovery after stroke. However, emerging evidence suggests that the contralesional hemisphere also plays a role in motor function rehabilitation. The objective of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of the BCI in detecting motor imagery of the affected hand from contralesional hemisphere. We analyzed a large EEG dataset from 136 stroke patients who performed motor imagery of their stroke-impaired hand. BCI features were extracted from channels covering either the ipsilesional, contralesional or bilateral hemisphere, and the offline BCI accuracy was computed using 10 [Formula: see text] 10-fold cross-validations. Our results showed that most stroke patients can operate the BCI using either their contralesional or ipsilesional hemisphere. Those with the ipsilesional BCI accuracy of less than 60% had significantly higher motor impairments than those with the ipsilesional BCI accuracy above 80%. Interestingly, those with the ipsilesional BCI accuracy of less than 60% achieved a significantly higher contralesional BCI accuracy, whereas those with the ipsilesional BCI accuracy more than 80% had significantly poorer contralesional BCI accuracy. This study suggests that contralesional BCI may be a useful approach for those with a high motor impairment who cannot accurately generate signals from ipsilesional hemisphere to effectively operate BCI.

Oscillatory beta/alpha band modulations: A potential biomarker of functional language and motor recovery in chronic stroke?

Stroke remains one of the leading causes of various disabilities, including debilitating motor and language impairments. Though various treatments exist, post-stroke impairments frequently become chronic, dramatically reducing daily life quality, and requiring specific rehabilitation. A critical goal of chronic stroke rehabilitation is to induce, usually through behavioral training, experience-dependent plasticity processes in order to promote functional recovery. However, the efficiency of such interventions is typically modest, and very little is known regarding the neural dynamics underpinning recovery processes and possible biomarkers of their efficiency. Some studies have emphasized specific alterations of excitatory–inhibitory balance within distributed neural networks as an important recovery correlate. Neural processes sensitive to these alterations, such as task-dependent oscillatory activity in beta as well as alpha bands, may be candidate biomarkers of chronic stroke functional recovery. In this review, we discuss the results of studies on motor and language recovery with a focus on oscillatory processes centered around the beta band and their modulations during functional recovery in chronic stroke. The discussion is based on a framework where task-dependent modulations of beta and alpha oscillatory activity, generated by the deep cortical excitatory–inhibitory microcircuits, serve as a neural mechanism of domain-general top-down control processes. We discuss the findings, their limitations, and possible directions for future research.

Rewiring Cortico-Muscular Control in the Healthy and Poststroke Human Brain with Proprioceptive β-Band Neurofeedback

In severely affected stroke survivors, cortico-muscular control is disturbed and volitional upper limb movements often absent. Mental rehearsal of the impaired movement in conjunction with sensory feedback provision are suggested as promising rehabilitation exercises. Knowledge about the underlying neural processes, however, remains vague. In male and female chronic stroke patients with hand paralysis, a brain-computer interface controlled a robotic orthosis and turned sensorimotor β-band desynchronization during motor imagery (MI) of finger extension into contingent hand opening. Healthy control subjects performed the same task and received the same proprioceptive feedback with a robotic orthosis or visual feedback only. Only when proprioceptive feedback was provided, cortico-muscular coherence (CMC) increased with a predominant information flow from the sensorimotor cortex to the finger extensors. This effect (1) was specific to the β frequency band, (2) transferred to a motor task (MT), (3) was proportional to subsequent corticospinal excitability (CSE) and correlated with behavioral changes in the (4) healthy and (5) poststroke condition; notably, MI-related enhancement of β-band CMC in the ipsilesional premotor cortex correlated with motor improvements after the intervention. In the healthy and injured human nervous system, synchronized activation of motor-related cortical and spinal neural pools facilitates, in accordance with the communication-through-coherence hypothesis, cortico-spinal communication and may, thereby, be therapeutically relevant for functional restoration after stroke, when voluntary movements are no longer possible.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This study provides insights into the neural processes that transfer effects of brain-computer interface neurofeedback to subsequent motor behavior. Specifically, volitional control of cortical oscillations and proprioceptive feedback enhances both cortical activity and behaviorally relevant connectivity to the periphery in a topographically circumscribed and frequency-specific way. This enhanced cortico-muscular control can be induced in the healthy and poststroke brain. Thereby, activating the motor cortex with mental rehearsal of the impaired movement and closing the loop by robot-assisted feedback synchronizes ipsilesional premotor cortex and spinal neural pools in the β frequency band. This facilitates, in accordance with the communication-through-coherence hypothesis, cortico-spinal communication and may, thereby, be therapeutically relevant for functional restoration after stroke, when voluntary movements are no longer possible.

Brain white matter correlates of learning ankle tracking using a wearable device: importance of the superior longitudinal fasciculus II

Background

Wearable devices have been found effective in training ankle control in patients with neurological diseases. However, the neural mechanisms associated with using wearable devices for ankle training remain largely unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the ankle tracking performance and brain white matter changes associated with ankle tracking learning using a wearable-device system and the behavior–brain structure relationships in middle-aged and older adults.

Methods

Twenty-six middle-aged and older adults (48–75 years) participated in this study. Participants underwent 5-day ankle tracking learning with their non-dominant foot using a custom-built ankle tracking system equipped with a wearable sensor and a sensor-computer interface for real-time visual feedback and data acquisition. Repeated and random sequences of target tracking trajectories were both used for learning and testing. Ankle tracking performance, calculated as the root-mean-squared-error (RMSE) between the target and actual ankle trajectories, and brain diffusion spectrum MR images were acquired at baseline and retention tests. The general fractional anisotropy (GFA) values of eight brain white matter tracts of interest were calculated to indicate their integrity. Two-way (Sex × Time) mixed repeated measures ANOVA procedures were used to investigate Sex and Time effects on RMSE and GFA. Correlations between changes in RMSE and those in GFA were analyzed, controlling for age and sex.

Results

After learning, both male and female participants reduced the RMSE of tracking repeated and random sequences (both p < 0.001). Among the eight fiber tracts, the right superior longitudinal fasciculus II (R SLF II) was the only one which showed both increased GFA (p = 0.039) after learning and predictive power of reductions in RMSE for random sequence tracking with its changes in GFA [β = 0.514, R² change = 0.259, p = 0.008].

Conclusions

Our findings implied that interactive tracking movement learning using wearable sensors may place high demands on the attention, sensory feedback integration, and sensorimotor transformation functions of the brain. Therefore, the SLF II, which is known to perform these brain functions, showed corresponding neural plasticity after such learning, and its plasticity also predicted the behavioral gains. The SLF II appears to be a very important anatomical neural correlate involved in such learning paradigms.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12984-022-01042-2.

Brain Function and Upper Limb Deficit in Stroke With Motor Execution and Imagery: A Cross-Sectional Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study

Background

Motor imagery training might be helpful in stroke rehabilitation. This study explored if a specific modulation of movement-related regions is related to motor imagery (MI) ability.

Methods

Twenty-three patients with subcortical stroke and 21 age-matched controls were recruited. They were subjectively screened using the Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire (KVIQ). They then underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while performing three repetitions of different motor tasks (motor execution and MI). Two separate runs were acquired [motor execution tasks (ME and rest) and motor imagery (MI and rest)] in a block design. For the different tasks, analyses of cerebral activation and the correlation of motor/imagery task-related activity and KVIQ scores were performed.

Results

During unaffected hand (UH) active grasp movement, we observed decreased activations in the contralateral precentral gyrus (PreCG), contralateral postcentral gyrus (PoCG) [p &lt; 0.05, family wise error (FWE) corrected] and a positive correlation with the ability of FMA-UE (PreCG: r = 0.46, p = 0.028; PoCG: r = 0.44, p = 0.040). During active grasp of the affected hand (AH), decreased activation in the contralateral PoCG was observed (p &lt; 0.05, FWE corrected). MI of the UH induced significant activations of the contralateral superior frontal gyrus, opercular region of the inferior frontal gyrus, and ipsilateral ACC and deactivation in the ipsilateral supplementary motor area (p &lt; 0.05, AlphaSim correction). Ipsilateral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) activity negatively correlated with MI ability (r = =–0.49, p = 0.022). Moreover, we found significant activation of the contralesional middle frontal gyrus (MFG) during MI of the AH.

Conclusion

Our results proved the dominant effects of MI dysfunction that exist in stroke during the processing of motor execution. In the motor execution task, the enhancement of the contralateral PreCG and PoCG contributed to reversing the motor dysfunction, while in the MI task, inhibition of the contralateral ACC can increase the impaired KVIQ ability. The bimodal balance recovery model can explain our results well. Recognizing neural mechanisms is critical to helping us formulate precise strategies when intervening with electrical or magnetic stimulation.

Wearable myoelectric interface enables high-dose, home-based training in severely impaired chronic stroke survivors

Background

High‐intensity occupational therapy can improve arm function after stroke, but many people lack access to such therapy. Home‐based therapies could address this need, but they don’t typically address abnormal muscle co‐activation, an important aspect of arm impairment. An earlier study using lab‐based, myoelectric computer interface game training enabled chronic stroke survivors to reduce abnormal co‐activation and improve arm function. Here, we assess feasibility of doing this training at home using a novel, wearable, myoelectric interface for neurorehabilitation training (MINT) paradigm.

Objective

Assess tolerability and feasibility of home‐based, high‐dose MINT therapy in severely impaired chronic stroke survivors.

Methods

Twenty‐three participants were instructed to train with the MINT and game for 90 min/day, 36 days over 6 weeks. We assessed feasibility using amount of time trained and game performance. We assessed tolerability (enjoyment and effort) using a customized version of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory at the conclusion of training.

Results

Participants displayed high adherence to near‐daily therapy at home (mean of 82 min/day of training; 96% trained at least 60 min/day) and enjoyed the therapy. Training performance improved and co‐activation decreased with training. Although a substantial number of participants stopped training, most dropouts were due to reasons unrelated to the training paradigm itself.

Interpretation

Home‐based therapy with MINT is feasible and tolerable in severely impaired stroke survivors. This affordable, enjoyable, and mobile health paradigm has potential to improve recovery from stroke in a variety of settings.

Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT03401762.

A BCI-Based Vibrotactile Neurofeedback Training Improves Motor Cortical Excitability During Motor Imagery

In this study, we address the issue of whether vibrotactile feedback can enhance the motor cortex excitability translated into the plastic changes in local cortical areas during motor imagery (MI) BCI-based training. For this purpose, we focused on two of the most notable neurophysiological effects of MI - the event-related desynchronization (ERD) level and the increase in cortical excitability assessed with navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS). For TMS navigation, we used individual high-resolution 3D brain MRIs. Ten BCI-naive and healthy adults participated in this study. The MI (rest or left/right hand imagery using Graz-BCI paradigm) tasks were performed separately in the presence and absence of feedback. To investigate how much the presence/absence of vibrotactile feedback in MI BCI-based training could contribute to the sensorimotor cortical activations, we compared the MEPs amplitude during MI after training with and without feedback. In addition, the ERD levels during MI BCI-based training were investigated. Our findings provide evidence that applying vibrotactile feedback during MI training leads to (i) an enhancement of the desynchronization level of mu-rhythm EEG patterns over the contralateral motor cortex area corresponding to the MI of the non-dominant hand; (ii) an increase in motor cortical excitability in hand muscle representation corresponding to a muscle engaged by the MI.

Early parietofrontal network upregulation relates to future persistent deficits after severe stroke-a prospective cohort study

Recent brain imaging has evidenced that parietofrontal networks show alterations after stroke which also relate to motor recovery processes. There is converging evidence for an upregulation of parietofrontal coupling between parietal brain regions and frontal motor cortices. The majority of studies though have included only moderately to mildly affected patients, particularly in the subacute or chronic stage. Whether these network alterations will also be present in severely affected patients and early after stroke and whether such information can improve correlative models to infer motor recovery remains unclear. In this prospective cohort study, 19 severely affected first-ever stroke patients (mean age 74 years, 12 females) were analysed which underwent resting-state functional MRI and clinical testing during the initial week after the event. Clinical evaluation of neurological and motor impairment as well as global disability was repeated after three and six months. Nineteen healthy participants of similar age and gender were also recruited. MRI data were used to calculate functional connectivity values between the ipsilesional primary motor cortex, the ventral premotor cortex, the supplementary motor area and the anterior and caudal intraparietal sulcus of the ipsilesional hemisphere. Linear regression models were estimated to compare parietofrontal functional connectivity between stroke patients and healthy controls and to relate them to motor recovery. The main finding was a significant increase in ipsilesional parietofrontal coupling between anterior intraparietal sulcus and the primary motor cortex in severely affected stroke patients (P < 0.003). This upregulation significantly contributed to correlative models explaining variability in subsequent neurological and global disability as quantified by National Institute of Health Stroke Scale and modified Rankin Scale, respectively. Patients with increased parietofrontal coupling in the acute stage showed higher levels of persistent deficits in the late subacute stage of recovery (P < 0.05). This study provides novel insights that parietofrontal networks of the ipsilesional hemisphere undergo neuroplastic alteration already very early after severe motor stroke. The association between early parietofrontal upregulation and future levels of persistent functional deficits and dependence from help in daily living might be useful in models to enhance clinical neurorehabilitative decision making.

The superior longitudinal fascicle: reconsidering the fronto-parietal neural network based on anatomy and function

Due primarily to the extensive disposition of fibers and secondarily to the methodological preferences of researchers, the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) subdivisions have multiple names, complicating SLF research. Here, we collected and reassessed existing knowledge regarding the SLF, which we used to propose a four-term classification of the SLF based mainly on function: dorsal SLF, ventral SLF, posterior SLF, and arcuate fasciculus (AF); these correspond to the traditional SLF II, SLF III or anterior AF, temporoparietal segment of the SLF or posterior AF, and AF or AF long segment, respectively. Each segment has a distinct functional role. The dorsal SLF is involved in visuospatial attention and motor control, while the ventral SLF is associated with language-related networks, auditory comprehension, and articulatory processing in the left hemisphere. The posterior SLF is involved in language-related processing, including auditory comprehension, reading, and lexical access, while the AF is associated with language-related activities, such as phonological processing; the right AF plays a role in social cognition and visuospatial attention. This simple proposed classification permits a better understanding of the SLF and may comprise a convenient classification for use in research and clinical practice relating to brain function.

Differential Effects of Up- and Down-Regulation of SMR Coherence on EEG Activity and Memory Performance: A Neurofeedback Training Study

Modulating connectivity measures in EEG-based neurofeedback studies is assumed to be a promising therapeutic and training tool. However, little is known so far about its effects and trainability. In the present study, we investigated the effects of up- and down-regulating SMR (12-15 Hz) coherence by means of neurofeedback training on EEG activity and memory functions. Twenty adults performed 10 neurofeedback training sessions in which half of them tried to increase EEG coherence between Cz and CPz in the SMR frequency range, while the other half tried to down-regulate coherence. Up-regulation of SMR coherence led to between- and within-session changes in EEG coherence. SMR power increased across neurofeedback training sessions but not within training sessions. Cross-over training effects on baseline EEG measures were also observed in this group. Up-regulation of SMR coherence was also associated with improvements in memory functions when comparing pre- and post-test results. Participants were not able to down-regulate SMR coherence. This group did not show any changes in baseline EEG measures or memory functions comparing pre- and post-test. Our results provide insights in the trainability and effects of connectivity-based neurofeedback training and indications for its practical application.

Graded fMRI Neurofeedback Training of Motor Imagery in Middle Cerebral Artery Stroke Patients: A Preregistered Proof-of-Concept Study

Ischemic stroke of the middle cerebral artery (MCA), a major brain vessel that supplies the primary motor and premotor cortex, is one of the most common causes for severe upper limb impairment. Currently available motor rehabilitation training largely lacks satisfying efficacy with over 70% of stroke survivors showing residual upper limb dysfunction. Motor imagery-based functional magnetic resonance imaging neurofeedback (fMRI-NF) has been suggested as a potential therapeutic technique to improve motor impairment in stroke survivors. In this preregistered proof-of-concept study (https://osf.io/y69jc/), we translated graded fMRI-NF training, a new paradigm that we have previously studied in healthy participants, to first-time MCA stroke survivors with residual mild to severe impairment of upper limb motor function. Neurofeedback was provided from the supplementary motor area (SMA) targeting two different neurofeedback target levels (low and high). We hypothesized that MCA stroke survivors will show (1) sustained SMA-region of interest (ROI) activation and (2) a difference in SMA-ROI activation between low and high neurofeedback conditions during graded fMRI-NF training. At the group level, we found only anecdotal evidence for these preregistered hypotheses. At the individual level, we found anecdotal to moderate evidence for the absence of the hypothesized graded effect for most subjects. These null findings are relevant for future attempts to employ fMRI-NF training in stroke survivors. The study introduces a Bayesian sequential sampling plan, which incorporates prior knowledge, yielding higher sensitivity. The sampling plan was preregistered together with a priori hypotheses and all planned analysis before data collection to address potential publication/researcher biases. Unforeseen difficulties in the translation of our paradigm to a clinical setting required some deviations from the preregistered protocol. We explicitly detail these changes, discuss the accompanied additional challenges that can arise in clinical neurofeedback studies, and formulate recommendations for how these can be addressed. Taken together, this work provides new insights about the feasibility of motor imagery-based graded fMRI-NF training in MCA stroke survivors and serves as a first example for comprehensive study preregistration of an (fMRI) neurofeedback experiment.

A Survey on the Use of Haptic Feedback for Brain-Computer Interfaces and Neurofeedback

Neurofeedback (NF) and brain-computer interface (BCI) applications rely on the registration and real-time feedback of individual patterns of brain activity with the aim of achieving self-regulation of specific neural substrates or control of external devices. These approaches have historically employed visual stimuli. However, in some cases vision is unsuitable or inadequately engaging. Other sensory modalities, such as auditory or haptic feedback have been explored, and multisensory stimulation is expected to improve the quality of the interaction loop. Moreover, for motor imagery tasks, closing the sensorimotor loop through haptic feedback may be relevant for motor rehabilitation applications, as it can promote plasticity mechanisms. This survey reviews the various haptic technologies and describes their application to BCIs and NF. We identify major trends in the use of haptic interfaces for BCI and NF systems and discuss crucial aspects that could motivate further studies.

Brain-computer interfaces in neurologic rehabilitation practice

The brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) for neurologic rehabilitation are based on the assumption that by retraining the brain to specific activities, an ultimate improvement of function can be expected. In this chapter, we review the present status, key determinants, and future directions of the clinical use of BCI in neurorehabilitation. The recent advancements in noninvasive BCIs as a therapeutic tool to promote functional motor recovery by inducing neuroplasticity are described, focusing on stroke as it represents the major cause of long-term motor disability. The relevance of recent findings on BCI use in spinal cord injury beyond the control of neuroprosthetic devices to restore motor function is briefly discussed. In a dedicated section, we examine the potential role of BCI technology in the domain of cognitive function recovery by instantiating BCIs in the long history of neurofeedback and some emerging BCI paradigms to address cognitive rehabilitation are highlighted. Despite the knowledge acquired over the last decade and the growing number of studies providing evidence for clinical efficacy of BCI in motor rehabilitation, an exhaustive deployment of this technology in clinical practice is still on its way. The pipeline to translate BCI to clinical practice in neurorehabilitation is the subject of this chapter.

G-Causality Brain Connectivity Differences of Finger Movements between Motor Execution and Motor Imagery

Motor imagery is one of the classical paradigms which have been used in brain-computer interface and motor function recovery. Finger movement-based motor execution is a complex biomechanical architecture and a crucial task for establishing most complicated and natural activities in daily life. Some patients may suffer from alternating hemiplegia after brain stroke and lose their ability of motor execution. Fortunately, the ability of motor imagery might be preserved independently and worked as a backdoor for motor function recovery. The efficacy of motor imagery for achieving significant recovery for the motor cortex after brain stroke is still an open question. In this study, we designed a new paradigm to investigate the neural mechanism of thirty finger movements in two scenarios: motor execution and motor imagery. Eleven healthy participants performed or imagined thirty hand gestures twice based on left and right finger movements. The electroencephalogram (EEG) signal for each subject during sixty trials left and right finger motor execution and imagery were recorded during our proposed experimental paradigm. The Granger causality (G-causality) analysis method was employed to analyze the brain connectivity and its strength between contralateral premotor, motor, and sensorimotor areas. Highest numbers for G-causality trials of 37 ± 7.3, 35.5 ± 8.8, 36.3 ± 10.3, and 39.2 ± 9.0 and lowest Granger causality coefficients of 9.1 ± 3.2, 10.9 ± 3.7, 13.2 ± 0.6, and 13.4 ± 0.6 were achieved from the premotor to motor area during execution/imagination tasks of right and left finger movements, respectively. These results provided a new insight into motor execution and motor imagery based on hand gestures, which might be useful to build a new biomarker of finger motor recovery for partially or even completely plegic patients. Furthermore, a significant difference of the G-causality trial number was observed during left finger execution/imagery and right finger imagery, but it was not observed during the right finger execution phase. Significant difference of the G-causality coefficient was observed during left finger execution and imagery, but it was not observed during right finger execution and imagery phases. These results suggested that different MI-based brain motor function recovery strategies should be taken for right-hand and left-hand patients after brain stroke.

Tasked-Based Functional Brain Connectivity in Multisensory Control of Wrist Movement After Stroke

In this study we documented brain connectivity associated with multisensory integration during wrist control in healthy young adults, aged matched controls and stroke survivors. A novel functional MRI task paradigm involving wrist movement was developed to gain insight into the effects of multimodal sensory feedback on brain functional networks in stroke participants. This paradigm consisted of an intermittent position search task using the wrist during fMRI signal acquisition with visual and auditory feedback of proximity to a target position. We enrolled 12 young adults, 10 participants with chronic post-stroke hemiparesis, and nine age-matched controls. Activation maps were obtained, and functional connectivity networks were calculated using an independent component analysis (ICA) approach. Task-based networks were identified using activation maps, and nodes were obtained from the ICA components. These nodes were subsequently used for connectivity analyses. Stroke participants demonstrated significantly greater contralesional activation than controls during the visual feedback condition and less ipsilesional activity than controls during the auditory feedback condition. The sensorimotor component obtained from the ICA differed between rest and task for control and stroke participants: task-related lateralization to the contralateral cortex was observed in controls, but not in stroke participants. Connectivity analyses between the lesioned sensorimotor cortex and the contralesional cerebellum demonstrated decreased functional connectivity in stroke participants (p < 0.005), which was positively correlated the Box and Blocks arm function test (r² = 0.59). These results suggest that task-based functional connectivity provides detail on changes in brain networks in stroke survivors. The data also highlight the importance of cerebellar connections for recovery of arm function after stroke.

Space-time recurrences for functional connectivity evaluation and feature extraction in motor imagery brain-computer interfaces

This work presents a classification performance comparison between different frameworks for functional connectivity evaluation and complex network feature extraction aiming to distinguish motor imagery classes in electroencephalography (EEG)-based brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). The analysis was performed in two online datasets: (1) a classical benchmark-the BCI competition IV dataset 2a-allowing a comparison with a representative set of strategies previously employed in this BCI paradigm and (2) a statistically representative dataset for signal processing technique comparisons over 52 subjects. Besides exploring three classical similarity measures-Pearson correlation, Spearman correlation, and mean phase coherence-this work also proposes a recurrence-based alternative for estimating EEG brain functional connectivity, which takes into account the recurrence density between pairwise electrodes over a time window. These strategies were followed by graph feature evaluation considering clustering coefficient, degree, betweenness centrality, and eigenvector centrality. The features were selected by Fisher's discriminating ratio and classification was performed by a least squares classifier in agreement with classical and online BCI processing strategies. The results revealed that the recurrence-based approach for functional connectivity evaluation was significantly better than the other frameworks, which is probably associated with the use of higher order statistics underlying the electrode joint probability estimation and a higher capability of capturing nonlinear inter-relations. There were no significant differences in performance among the evaluated graph features, but the eigenvector centrality was the best feature regarding processing time. Finally, the best ranked graph-based attributes were found in classical EEG motor cortex positions for the subjects with best performances, relating functional organization and motor activity. Graphical Abstract Evaluating functional connectivity based on Space-Time Recurrence Counting for motor imagery classification in brain-computer interfaces. Recurrences are evaluated between electrodes over a time window, and, after a density threshold, the electrodes adjacency matrix is stablish, leading to a graph. Graph-based topological measures are used for motor imagery classification.

Brain networks and their relevance for stroke rehabilitation

Stroke has long been regarded as focal disease with circumscribed damage leading to neurological deficits. However, advances in methods for assessing the human brain and in statistics have enabled new tools for the examination of the consequences of stroke on brain structure and function. Thereby, it has become evident that stroke has impact on the entire brain and its network properties and can therefore be considered as a network disease. The present review first gives an overview of current methodological opportunities and pitfalls for assessing stroke-induced changes and reorganization in the human brain. We then summarize principles of plasticity after stroke that have emerged from the assessment of networks. Thereby, it is shown that neurological deficits do not only arise from focal tissue damage but also from local and remote changes in white-matter tracts and in neural interactions among wide-spread networks. Similarly, plasticity and clinical improvements are associated with specific compensatory structural and functional patterns of neural network interactions. Innovative treatment approaches have started to target such network patterns to enhance recovery. Network assessments to predict treatment response and to individualize rehabilitation is a promising way to enhance specific treatment effects and overall outcome after stroke.

Myoelectric Computer Interface Training for Reducing Co-Activation and Enhancing Arm Movement in Chronic Stroke Survivors: A Randomized Trial

BACKGROUND

Abnormal muscle co-activation contributes to impairment after stroke. We developed a myoelectric computer interface (MyoCI) training paradigm to reduce abnormal co-activation. MyoCI provides intuitive feedback about muscle activation patterns, enabling decoupling of these muscles.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate tolerability and effects of MyoCI training of 3 muscle pairs on arm motor recovery after stroke, including effects of training dose and isometric versus movement-based training.

METHODS

We randomized chronic stroke survivors with moderate-to-severe arm impairment to 3 groups. Two groups tested different doses of isometric MyoCI (60 vs 90 minutes), and one group tested MyoCI without arm restraint (90 minutes), over 6 weeks. Primary outcome was arm impairment (Fugl-Meyer Assessment). Secondary outcomes included function, spasticity, and elbow range-of-motion at weeks 6 and 10.

RESULTS

Over all 32 subjects, MyoCI training of 3 muscle pairs significantly reduced impairment (Fugl-Meyer Assessment) by 3.3 ± 0.6 and 3.1 ± 0.7 ( P < 10^-4) at weeks 6 and 10, respectively. Each group improved significantly from baseline; no significant differences were seen between groups. Participants' lab-based and home-based function also improved at weeks 6 and 10 ( P ≤ .01). Spasticity also decreased over all subjects, and elbow range-of-motion improved. Both moderately and severely impaired patients showed significant improvement. No participants had training-related adverse events. MyoCI reduced abnormal co-activation, which appeared to transfer to reaching in the movement group.

CONCLUSIONS

MyoCI is a well-tolerated, novel rehabilitation tool that enables stroke survivors to reduce abnormal co-activation. It may reduce impairment and spasticity and improve arm function, even in severely impaired patients.

Reducing power line noise in EEG and MEG data via spectrum interpolation

Electroencephalographic (EEG) and magnetoencephalographic (MEG) signals can often be exposed to strong power line interference at 50 or 60 Hz. A widely used method to remove line noise is the notch filter, but it comes with the risk of potentially severe signal distortions. Among other approaches, the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) filter and CleanLine have been developed as alternatives, but they may fail to remove power line noise of highly fluctuating amplitude. Here we introduce spectrum interpolation as a new method to remove line noise in the EEG and MEG signal. This approach had been developed for electromyographic (EMG) signals, and combines the advantages of a notch filter, while synthetic test signals indicate that it introduces less distortion in the time domain. The effectiveness of this method is compared to CleanLine, the notch (Butterworth) and DFT filter. In order to quantify the performance of these three methods, we used synthetic test signals and simulated power line noise with fluctuating amplitude and abrupt on- and offsets that were added to an MEG dataset free of line noise. In addition, all methods were applied to EEG data with massive power line noise due to acquisition in unshielded settings. We show that spectrum interpolation outperforms the DFT filter and CleanLine, when power line noise is nonstationary. At the same time, spectrum interpolation performs equally well as the notch filter in removing line noise artifacts, but shows less distortions in the time domain in many common situations.

Tactile Stimulation Improves Sensorimotor Rhythm-based BCI Performance in Stroke Patients

OBJECTIVE

BCI decoding accuracy plays a crucial role in practical applications. With accurate feedback, BCI-based therapy determines beneficial neural plasticity in stroke patients. In this study, we aimed at improving sensorimotor rhythm (SMR)-based BCI performance by integrating motor tasks with tactile stimulation.

METHODS

Eleven stroke patients were recruited for three experimental conditions, i.e., motor attempt (MA) condition, tactile stimulation (TS) condition, and tactile stimulation-assisted motor attempt (TS-MA) condition. Tactile stimulation was delivered to the paretic hand wrist during both task and idle states using a DC vibrator.

RESULTS

We observed that the TS-MA condition achieved greater motor-related cortical activation (MRCA) in alpha-beta band when compared with both TS and MA conditions. Consequently, online BCI decoding accuracies between task and idle states were significantly improved from 74.5% in the MA condition to 85.1% in the TS-MA condition (p < 0.001), whereas the accuracy in the TS condition was 54.6% (approaching to the chance level of 50%).

CONCLUSION

This finding demonstrates that sensory afferent from peripheral nerves benefits the neural process of sensorimotor cortex in stroke patients. With appropriate sensory stimulation, MRCA is enhanced and corresponding brain patterns are more discriminative.

SIGNIFICANCE

This novel SMR-BCI paradigm shows great promise to facilitate the practical application of BCI-based stroke rehabilitation.

Unilateral, 3D Arm Movement Kinematics Are Encoded in Ipsilateral Human Cortex

There is increasing evidence that the hemisphere ipsilateral to a moving limb plays a role in planning and executing movements. However, the exact relationship between cortical activity and ipsilateral limb movements is uncertain. We sought to determine whether 3D arm movement kinematics (speed, velocity, and position) could be decoded from cortical signals recorded from the hemisphere ipsilateral to the moving limb. By having invasively monitored patients perform unilateral reaches with each arm, we also compared the encoding of contralateral and ipsilateral limb kinematics from a single cortical hemisphere. In four motor-intact human patients (three male, one female) implanted with electrocorticography electrodes for localization of their epileptic foci, we decoded 3D movement kinematics of both arms with accuracies above chance. Surprisingly, the spatial and spectral encoding of contralateral and ipsilateral limb kinematics was similar, enabling cross-prediction of kinematics between arms. These results clarify our understanding that the ipsilateral hemisphere robustly contributes to motor execution and supports that the information of complex movements is more bihemispherically represented in humans than has been previously understood.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Although limb movements are traditionally understood to be driven by the cortical hemisphere contralateral to a moving limb, movement-related neural activity has also been found in the ipsilateral hemisphere. This study provides the first demonstration that 3D arm movement kinematics can be decoded from human electrocorticographic signals ipsilateral to the moving limb. Surprisingly, the spatial and spectral encoding of contralateral and ipsilateral limb kinematics was similar. The finding that specific kinematics are encoded in the ipsilateral hemisphere demonstrates that the ipsilateral hemisphere contributes to the execution of unilateral limb movements, improving our understanding of motor control. Additionally, the bihemisheric representation of voluntary movements has implications for the development of neuroprosthetic systems for reaching and for neurorehabilitation strategies following cortical injuries.

Differentiated Effects of Robot Hand Training With and Without Neural Guidance on Neuroplasticity Patterns in Chronic Stroke

Robot-assisted training combined with neural guided strategy has been increasingly applied to stroke rehabilitation. However, the induced neuroplasticity is seldom characterized. It is still uncertain whether this kind of guidance could enhance the long-term training effect for stroke motor recovery. This study was conducted to explore the clinical improvement and the neurological changes after 20-session guided or non-guided robot hand training using two measures: changes in brain discriminant ability between motor-imagery and resting states revealed from electroencephalography (EEG) signals and changes in brain network variability revealed from resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data in 24 chronic stroke subjects. The subjects were randomly assigned to receive either combined action observation (AO) with EEG-guided robot-hand training (Robot_{EEG_AO}, n = 13) or robot-hand training without AO and EEG guidance (Robot_{non−EEG_Text}, n = 11). The robot hand in Robot_{EEG_AO} group was activated only when significant mu suppression (8–12 Hz) was detected from subjects' EEG signals in ipsilesional hemisphere, while the robot hand in Robot_{non−EEG_Text} group was randomly activated regardless of their EEG signals. Paretic upper-limb motor functions were evaluated at three time-points: before, immediately after and 6 months after the interventions. Only Robot_{EEG_AO} group showed a long-term significant improvement in their upper-limb motor functions while no significant and long-lasting training effect on the paretic motor functions was shown in Robot_{non−EEG_Text} group. Significant neuroplasticity changes were only observed in Robot_{EEG_AO} group as well. The brain discriminant ability based on the ipsilesional EEG signals significantly improved after intervention. For brain network variability, the whole brain was first divided into six functional subnetworks, and significant increase in the temporal variability was found in four out of the six subnetworks, including sensory-motor areas, attention network, auditory network, and default mode network after intervention. Our results revealed the differences in the long-term training effect and the neuroplasticity changes following the two interventional strategies: with and without neural guidance. The findings might imply that sustainable motor function improvement could be achieved through proper neural guidance, which might provide insights into strategies for effective stroke rehabilitation. Furthermore, neuroplasticity could be promoted more profoundly by the intervention with proper neurofeedback, and might be shaped in relation to better motor skill acquisition.

Neurorehabilitation therapy of patients with severe stroke based on functional electrical stimulation commanded by a brain computer interface

Introduction

Brain computer interface is an emerging technology to treat the sequelae of stroke. The purpose of this study was to explore the motor imagery related desynchronization of sensorimotor rhythms of stroke patients and to assess the efficacy of an upper limb neurorehabilitation therapy based on functional electrical stimulation controlled by a brain computer interface.

Methods

Eight severe chronic stroke patients were recruited. The study consisted of two stages: screening and therapy. During screening, the ability of patients to desynchronize the contralateral oscillatory sensorimotor rhythms by motor imagery of the most affected hand was assessed. In the second stage, a therapeutic intervention was performed. It involved 20 sessions where an electrical stimulator was activated when the patient's cerebral activity related to motor imagery was detected. The upper limb was assessed, before and after the intervention, by the Fugl-Meyer score (primary outcome). Spasticity, motor activity, range of movement and quality of life were also evaluated (secondary outcomes).

Results

Desynchronization was identified in all screened patients. Significant post-treatment improvement (p < 0.05) was detected in the primary outcome measure and in the majority of secondary outcome scores.

Conclusions

The results suggest that the proposed therapy could be beneficial in the neurorehabilitation of stroke individuals.

Predicting Gains With Visuospatial Training After Stroke Using an EEG Measure of Frontoparietal Circuit Function

The heterogeneity of stroke prompts the need for predictors of individual treatment response to rehabilitation therapies. We previously studied healthy subjects with EEG and identified a frontoparietal circuit in which activity predicted training-related gains in visuomotor tracking. Here we asked whether activity in this same frontoparietal circuit also predicts training-related gains in visuomotor tracking in patients with chronic hemiparetic stroke. Subjects (n = 12) underwent dense-array EEG recording at rest, then received 8 sessions of visuomotor tracking training delivered via home-based telehealth methods. Subjects showed significant training-related gains in the primary behavioral endpoint, Success Rate score on a standardized test of visuomotor tracking, increasing an average of 24.2 ± 21.9% (p = 0.003). Activity in the circuit of interest, measured as coherence (20–30 Hz) between leads overlying ipsilesional frontal (motor cortex) and parietal lobe, significantly predicted training-related gains in visuomotor tracking change, measured as change in Success Rate score (r = 0.61, p = 0.037), supporting the main study hypothesis. Results were specific to the hypothesized ipsilesional motor-parietal circuit, as coherence within other circuits did not predict training-related gains. Analyses were repeated after removing the four subjects with injury to motor or parietal areas; this increased the strength of the association between activity in the circuit of interest and training-related gains. The current study found that (1) Eight sessions of training can significantly improve performance on a visuomotor task in patients with chronic stroke, (2) this improvement can be realized using home-based telehealth methods, (3) an EEG-based measure of frontoparietal circuit function predicts training-related behavioral gains arising from that circuit, as hypothesized and with specificity, and (4) incorporating measures of both neural function and neural injury improves prediction of stroke rehabilitation therapy effects.

Biomarkers of Stroke Recovery: Consensus-Based Core Recommendations from the Stroke Recovery and Rehabilitation Roundtable

The most difficult clinical questions in stroke rehabilitation are "What is this patient's potential for recovery?" and "What is the best rehabilitation strategy for this person, given her/his clinical profile?" Without answers to these questions, clinicians struggle to make decisions regarding the content and focus of therapy, and researchers design studies that inadvertently mix participants who have a high likelihood of responding with those who do not. Developing and implementing biomarkers that distinguish patient subgroups will help address these issues and unravel the factors important to the recovery process. The goal of the present paper is to provide a consensus statement regarding the current state of the evidence for stroke recovery biomarkers. Biomarkers of motor, somatosensory, cognitive and language domains across the recovery timeline post-stroke are considered; with focus on brain structure and function, and exclusion of blood markers and genetics. We provide evidence for biomarkers that are considered ready to be included in clinical trials, as well as others that are promising but not ready and so represent a developmental priority. We conclude with an example that illustrates the utility of biomarkers in recovery and rehabilitation research, demonstrating how the inclusion of a biomarker may enhance future clinical trials. In this way, we propose a way forward for when and where we can include biomarkers to advance the efficacy of the practice of, and research into, rehabilitation and recovery after stroke.

MEG-BMI to Control Phantom Limb Pain

A brachial plexus root avulsion (BPRA) causes intractable pain in the insensible affected hands. Such pain is partly due to phantom limb pain, which is neuropathic pain occurring after the amputation of a limb and partial or complete deafferentation. Previous studies suggested that the pain was attributable to maladaptive plasticity of the sensorimotor cortex. However, there is little evidence to demonstrate the causal links between the pain and the cortical representation, and how much cortical factors affect the pain. Here, we applied lesioning of the dorsal root entry zone (DREZotomy) and training with a brain–machine interface (BMI) based on real-time magnetoencephalography signals to reconstruct affected hand movements with a robotic hand. The DREZotomy successfully reduced the shooting pain after BPRA, but a part of the pain remained. The BMI training successfully induced some plastic changes in the sensorimotor representation of the phantom hand movements and helped control the remaining pain. When the patient tried to control the robotic hand by moving their phantom hand through association with the representation of the intact hand, this especially decreased the pain while decreasing the classification accuracy of the phantom hand movements. These results strongly suggested that pain after the BPRA was partly attributable to cortical representation of phantom hand movements and that the BMI training controlled the pain by inducing appropriate cortical reorganization. For the treatment of chronic pain, we need to know how to modulate the cortical representation by novel methods.

Biomarkers of stroke recovery: Consensus-based core recommendations from the Stroke Recovery and Rehabilitation Roundtable

The most difficult clinical questions in stroke rehabilitation are "What is this patient's potential for recovery?" and "What is the best rehabilitation strategy for this person, given her/his clinical profile?" Without answers to these questions, clinicians struggle to make decisions regarding the content and focus of therapy, and researchers design studies that inadvertently mix participants who have a high likelihood of responding with those who do not. Developing and implementing biomarkers that distinguish patient subgroups will help address these issues and unravel the factors important to the recovery process. The goal of the present paper is to provide a consensus statement regarding the current state of the evidence for stroke recovery biomarkers. Biomarkers of motor, somatosensory, cognitive and language domains across the recovery timeline post-stroke are considered; with focus on brain structure and function, and exclusion of blood markers and genetics. We provide evidence for biomarkers that are considered ready to be included in clinical trials, as well as others that are promising but not ready and so represent a developmental priority. We conclude with an example that illustrates the utility of biomarkers in recovery and rehabilitation research, demonstrating how the inclusion of a biomarker may enhance future clinical trials. In this way, we propose a way forward for when and where we can include biomarkers to advance the efficacy of the practice of, and research into, rehabilitation and recovery after stroke.

EEG sensorimotor rhythms' variation and functional connectivity measures during motor imagery: linear relations and classification approaches

Hands motor imagery (MI) has been reported to alter synchronization patterns amongst neurons, yielding variations in the mu and beta bands' power spectral density (PSD) of the electroencephalography (EEG) signal. These alterations have been used in the field of brain-computer interfaces (BCI), in an attempt to assign distinct MI tasks to commands of such a system. Recent studies have highlighted that information may be missing if knowledge about brain functional connectivity is not considered. In this work, we modeled the brain as a graph in which each EEG electrode represents a node. Our goal was to understand if there exists any linear correlation between variations in the synchronization patterns-that is, variations in the PSD of mu and beta bands-induced by MI and alterations in the corresponding functional networks. Moreover, we (1) explored the feasibility of using functional connectivity parameters as features for a classifier in the context of an MI-BCI; (2) investigated three different types of feature selection (FS) techniques; and (3) compared our approach to a more traditional method using the signal PSD as classifier inputs. Ten healthy subjects participated in this study. We observed significant correlations (p < 0.05) with values ranging from 0.4 to 0.9 between PSD variations and functional network alterations for some electrodes, prominently in the beta band. The PSD method performed better for data classification, with mean accuracies of (90 ± 8)% and (87 ± 7)% for the mu and beta band, respectively, versus (83 ± 8)% and (83 ± 7)% for the same bands for the graph method. Moreover, the number of features for the graph method was considerably larger. However, results for both methods were relatively close, and even overlapped when the uncertainties of the accuracy rates were considered. Further investigation regarding a careful exploration of other graph metrics may provide better alternatives.

The potential of real-time fMRI neurofeedback for stroke rehabilitation: A systematic review

Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (rt-fMRI) neurofeedback aids the modulation of neural functions by training self-regulation of brain activity through operant conditioning. This technique has been applied to treat several neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders, but its effectiveness for stroke rehabilitation has not been examined yet. Here, we systematically review the effectiveness of rt-fMRI neurofeedback training in modulating motor and cognitive processes that are often impaired after stroke. Based on predefined search criteria, we selected and examined 33 rt-fMRI neurofeedback studies, including 651 healthy individuals and 15 stroke patients in total. The results of our systematic review suggest that rt-fMRI neurofeedback training can lead to a learned modulation of brain signals, with associated changes at both the neural and the behavioural level. However, more research is needed to establish how its use can be optimized in the context of stroke rehabilitation.

Structurofunctional resting-state networks correlate with motor function in chronic stroke

Purpose

Motor function and recovery after stroke likely rely directly on the residual anatomical connections in the brain and its resting-state functional connectivity. Both structural and functional properties of cortical networks after stroke are revealed using multimodal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Specifically, functional connectivity MRI (fcMRI) can extract functional networks of the brain at rest, while structural connectivity can be estimated from white matter fiber orientations measured with high angular-resolution diffusion imaging (HARDI). A model that marries these two techniques may be the key to understanding functional recovery after stroke. In this study, a novel set of voxel-level measures of structurofunctional correlations (SFC) was developed and tested in a group of chronic stroke subjects.

Methods

A fully automated method is presented for modeling the structure-function relationship of brain connectivity in individuals with stroke. Brains from ten chronic stroke subjects and nine age-matched controls were imaged with a structural T1-weighted scan, resting-state fMRI, and HARDI. Each subject's T1-weighted image was nonlinearly registered to a T1-weighted 152-brain MNI template using a local histogram-matching technique that alleviates distortions caused by brain lesions. Fractional anisotropy maps and mean BOLD images of each subject were separately registered to the individual's T1-weighted image using affine transformations. White matter fiber orientations within each voxel were estimated with the q-ball model, which approximates the orientation distribution function (ODF) from the diffusion-weighted measurements. Deterministic q-ball tractography was performed in order to obtain a set of fiber trajectories. The new structurofunctional correlation method assigns each voxel a new BOLD time course based on a summation of its structural connections with a common fiber length interval. Then, the voxel's original time-course was correlated with this fiber-distance BOLD signal to derive a novel structurofunctional correlation coefficient. These steps were repeated for eight fiber distance intervals, and the maximum of these correlations was used to define an intrinsic structurofunctional correlation (iSFC) index. A network-based SFC map (nSFC) was also developed in order to enhance resting-state functional networks derived from conventional functional connectivity analyses. iSFC and nSFC maps were individually compared between stroke subjects and controls using a voxel-based two-tailed Student's t-test (alpha = 0.01). A linear regression was also performed between the SFC metrics and the Box and Blocks Score, a clinical measure of arm motor function.

Results

Significant decreases (p < 0.01) in iSFC were found in stroke subjects within functional hubs of the brain, including the precuneus, prefrontal cortex, posterior parietal cortex, and cingulate gyrus. Many of these differences were significantly correlated with the Box and Blocks Score. The nSFC maps of prefrontal networks in control subjects revealed localized increases within the cerebellum, and these enhancements were diminished in stroke subjects. This finding was further supported by a reduction in functional connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum. Default-mode network nSFC maps were higher in the contralesional hemisphere of lower-functioning stroke subjects.

Conclusion

The results demonstrate that changes after a stroke in both intrinsic and network-based structurofunctional correlations at rest are correlated with motor function, underscoring the importance of residual structural connectivity in cortical networks.

Post-stroke Rehabilitation Training with a Motor-Imagery-Based Brain-Computer Interface (BCI)-Controlled Hand Exoskeleton: A Randomized Controlled Multicenter Trial

Repeated use of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) providing contingent sensory feedback of brain activity was recently proposed as a rehabilitation approach to restore motor function after stroke or spinal cord lesions. However, there are only a few clinical studies that investigate feasibility and effectiveness of such an approach. Here we report on a placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trial that investigated whether stroke survivors with severe upper limb (UL) paralysis benefit from 10 BCI training sessions each lasting up to 40 min. A total of 74 patients participated: median time since stroke is 8 months, 25 and 75% quartiles [3.0; 13.0]; median severity of UL paralysis is 4.5 points [0.0; 30.0] as measured by the Action Research Arm Test, ARAT, and 19.5 points [11.0; 40.0] as measured by the Fugl-Meyer Motor Assessment, FMMA. Patients in the BCI group (n = 55) performed motor imagery of opening their affected hand. Motor imagery-related brain electroencephalographic activity was translated into contingent hand exoskeleton-driven opening movements of the affected hand. In a control group (n = 19), hand exoskeleton-driven opening movements of the affected hand were independent of brain electroencephalographic activity. Evaluation of the UL clinical assessments indicated that both groups improved, but only the BCI group showed an improvement in the ARAT's grasp score from 0 [0.0; 14.0] to 3.0 [0.0; 15.0] points (p < 0.01) and pinch scores from 0.0 [0.0; 7.0] to 1.0 [0.0; 12.0] points (p < 0.01). Upon training completion, 21.8% and 36.4% of the patients in the BCI group improved their ARAT and FMMA scores respectively. The corresponding numbers for the control group were 5.1% (ARAT) and 15.8% (FMMA). These results suggests that adding BCI control to exoskeleton-assisted physical therapy can improve post-stroke rehabilitation outcomes. Both maximum and mean values of the percentage of successfully decoded imagery-related EEG activity, were higher than chance level. A correlation between the classification accuracy and the improvement in the upper extremity function was found. An improvement of motor function was found for patients with different duration, severity and location of the stroke.

Contralesional Brain-Computer Interface Control of a Powered Exoskeleton for Motor Recovery in Chronic Stroke Survivors

Supplemental Digital Content is available in the text.

Background and Purpose—

There are few effective therapies to achieve functional recovery from motor-related disabilities affecting the upper limb after stroke. This feasibility study tested whether a powered exoskeleton driven by a brain–computer interface (BCI), using neural activity from the unaffected cortical hemisphere, could affect motor recovery in chronic hemiparetic stroke survivors. This novel system was designed and configured for a home-based setting to test the feasibility of BCI-driven neurorehabilitation in outpatient environments.

Methods—

Ten chronic hemiparetic stroke survivors with moderate-to-severe upper-limb motor impairment (mean Action Research Arm Test=13.4) used a powered exoskeleton that opened and closed the affected hand using spectral power from electroencephalographic signals from the unaffected hemisphere associated with imagined hand movements of the paretic limb. Patients used the system at home for 12 weeks. Motor function was evaluated before, during, and after the treatment.

Results—

Across patients, our BCI-driven approach resulted in a statistically significant average increase of 6.2 points in the Action Research Arm Test. This behavioral improvement significantly correlated with improvements in BCI control. Secondary outcomes of grasp strength, Motricity Index, and the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure also significantly improved.

Conclusions—

The findings demonstrate the therapeutic potential of a BCI-driven neurorehabilitation approach using the unaffected hemisphere in this uncontrolled sample of chronic stroke survivors. They also demonstrate that BCI-driven neurorehabilitation can be effectively delivered in the home environment, thus increasing the probability of future clinical translation.

Clinical Trial Registration—

URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT02552368.

Constraints and Adaptation of Closed-Loop Neuroprosthetics for Functional Restoration

Closed-loop neuroprosthetics aim to compensate for lost function, e.g., by controlling external devices such as prostheses or wheelchairs. Such assistive approaches seek to maximize speed and classification accuracy for high-dimensional control. More recent approaches use similar technology, but aim to restore lost motor function in the long term. To achieve this goal, restorative neuroprosthetics attempt to facilitate motor re-learning and to strengthen damaged and/or alternative neural connections on the basis of neurofeedback training within rehabilitative environments. Such a restorative approach requires reinforcement learning of self-modulated brain activity which is considered to be beneficial for functional rehabilitation, e.g., improvement of β-power modulation over sensorimotor areas for post-stroke movement restoration. Patients with motor impairments, however, may also have a compromised ability for motor task-related regulation of the targeted brain activity. This would affect the estimation of feature weights and hence the classification accuracy of the feedback device. This, in turn, can frustrate the patients and compromise their motor learning. Furthermore, the feedback training may even become erroneous when unconstrained classifier adaptation-which is often used in assistive approaches-is also applied in this rehabilitation context. In conclusion, the conceptual switch from assistance toward restoration necessitates a methodological paradigm shift from classification accuracy toward instructional efficiency. Furthermore, a constrained feature space, a priori regularized feature weights, and difficulty adaptation present key elements of restorative brain interfaces. These factors need, therefore, to be addressed within a therapeutic framework to facilitate reinforcement learning of brain self-regulation for restorative purposes.

White Matter Correlates of Auditory Comprehension Outcomes in Chronic Post-Stroke Aphasia

Neuroimaging studies have shown that speech comprehension involves a number of widely distributed regions within the frontal and temporal lobes. We aimed to examine the differential contributions of white matter connectivity to auditory word and sentence comprehension in chronic post-stroke aphasia. Structural and diffusion MRI data were acquired on 40 patients with chronic post-stroke aphasia. A battery of auditory word and sentence comprehension tests were administered to all the patients. Tract-based spatial statistics were used to identify areas in which white matter integrity related to specific comprehension deficits. Relevant tracts were reconstructed using probabilistic tractography in healthy older participants, and the mean values of fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD) of the entire tracts were examined in relation to comprehension scores. Anterior temporal white matter integrity loss and involvement of the uncinate fasciculus related to word-level comprehension deficits (R_FA = 0.408, P = 0.012; R_MD = −0.429, P = 0.008; R_AD = −0.424, P = 0.009; R_RD = −0.439, P = 0.007). Posterior temporal white matter integrity loss and involvement of the inferior longitudinal fasciculus related to sentence-level comprehension deficits (R_FA = 0.382, P = 0.02; R_MD = −0.461, P = 0.004; R_AD = −0.457, P = 0.004; R_RD = −0.453, P = 0.005). Loss of white matter integrity in the inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus related to both word- and sentence-level comprehension (word-level scores: R_FA = 0.41, P = 0.012; R_MD = −0.447, P = 0.006; R_AD = −0.489, P = 0.002; R_RD = −0.432, P = 0.008; sentence-level scores: R_FA = 0.409, P = 0.012; R_MD = −0.413, P = 0.011; R_AD = −0.408, P = 0.012; R_RD = −0.413, P = 0.011). Lesion overlap, but not white matter integrity, in the arcuate fasciculus related to sentence-level comprehension deficits. These findings suggest that word-level comprehension outcomes in chronic post-stroke aphasia rely primarily on anterior temporal lobe pathways, whereas sentence-level comprehension relies on more widespread pathways including the posterior temporal lobe.

Does Motor Simulation Theory Explain the Cognitive Mechanisms Underlying Motor Imagery? A Critical Review

Motor simulation theory (MST; Jeannerod, 2001) purports to explain how various action-related cognitive states relate to actual motor execution. Specifically, it proposes that motor imagery (MI; imagining an action without executing the movements involved) shares certain mental representations and mechanisms with action execution, and hence, activates similar neural pathways to those elicited during the latter process. Furthermore, MST postulates that MI works by rehearsing neural motor systems off-line via a hypothetical simulation process. In this paper, we review evidence cited in support of MST and evaluate its efficacy in understanding the cognitive mechanisms underlying MI. In doing so, we delineate the precise postulates of simulation theory and clarify relevant terminology. Based on our cognitive-level analysis, we argue firstly that the psychological mechanisms underlying MI are poorly understood and require additional conceptual and empirical analysis. In addition, we identify a number of potentially fruitful lines of inquiry for future investigators of MST and MI.

Hybrid EEG/EOG-based brain/neural hand exoskeleton restores fully independent daily living activities after quadriplegia

Direct brain control of advanced robotic systems promises substantial improvements in health care, for example, to restore intuitive control of hand movements required for activities of daily living in quadriplegics, like holding a cup and drinking, eating with cutlery, or manipulating different objects. However, such integrated, brain- or neural-controlled robotic systems have yet to enter broader clinical use or daily life environments. We demonstrate full restoration of independent daily living activities, such as eating and drinking, in an everyday life scenario across six paraplegic individuals (five males, 30 ± 14 years) who used a noninvasive, hybrid brain/neural hand exoskeleton (B/NHE) to open and close their paralyzed hand. The results broadly suggest that brain/neural-assistive technology can restore autonomy and independence in quadriplegic individuals' everyday life.