Excision repair is required for genotoxin-induced mutagenesis in mammalian cells

Prolonged Particulate Hexavalent Chromium Exposure Induces DNA Double-Strand Breaks and Inhibits Homologous Recombination Repair in Primary Rodent Lung Cells

Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is a known lung carcinogen and a driving mechanism in human lung cells for Cr(VI)-induced lung cancer is chromosome instability, caused by prolonged Cr(VI) exposure inducing DNA double-strand breaks, while simultaneously inhibiting the repair of these breaks. In North Atlantic right whales, Cr(VI) induces breaks but does not inhibit repair. It is unclear if this repair inhibition is specific to human lung cells or occurs in other species, as it has only been considered in humans and North Atlantic right whales. We evaluated these outcomes in rodent cells, as rodents are an experimental model for metal-induced lung carcinogenesis. We used a guinea pig lung fibroblast cell line, JH4 Clone 1, and rat lung fibroblasts. Cells were exposed to two different particulate Cr(VI) compounds, ranging from 0 to 0.5 ug/cm2, for 24 or 120 h and assessed for cytotoxicity, DNA double-strand breaks, and DNA double-strand break repair. Both particulate Cr(VI) compounds induced a concentration-dependent increase in cytotoxicity and DNA double-strand breaks after acute and prolonged exposures. Notably, while the repair of Cr(VI)-induced DNA double-strand breaks increased after acute exposure, the repair of these breaks was inhibited after prolonged exposure. These results are consistent with outcomes in human lung cells indicating rodent cells respond like human cells, while whale cells have a markedly different response.

Mechanisms of chromate carcinogenesis by chromatin alterations

In a dynamic environment, organisms must constantly mount an adaptive response to new environmental conditions in order to survive. Novel patterns of gene expression, driven by attendant changes in chromatin architecture, aid in adaptation and survival. Critical mechanisms in the control of gene transcription govern new spatiotemporal chromatin-chromatin interactions that make regulatory DNA elements accessible to the transcription factors that control the response. Consequently, agents that disrupt chromatin structure are likely to have a direct impact on the transcriptional programs of cells and organisms and to drive alterations in fundamental physiological processes. In this regard, hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is of special interest because it interacts directly with cellular proteins, DNA, and other macromolecules, and is likely to upset cell functions that may cause generalized damage to the organism. Here, we will highlight chromium-mediated mechanisms that disrupt chromatin architecture and discuss how these mechanisms are integral to its carcinogenic properties. Emerging evidence indicates that Cr(VI) targets euchromatin, particularly in genomic locations flanking the binding sites of the essential transcription factors CTCF and AP1, and, in so doing, they disrupt nucleosomal architecture. Ultimately, the ensuing changes, if occurring in critical regulatory domains, may establish a new chromatin state, either toxic or adaptive, that will be governed by the corresponding gene transcription changes in key biological processes associated with that state.

Miscoding and DNA Polymerase Stalling by Methoxyamine-Adducted Abasic Sites

Apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) sites appear in DNA spontaneously and as intermediates of base excision DNA repair. AP sites are noninstructive lesions: they strongly block DNA polymerases, and if bypassed, the nature of the incorporated dNMP is mostly guided by the interactions within the polymerase-DNA active site. Many DNA polymerases follow the "A-rule", preferentially incorporating dAMP opposite to natural AP sites. Methoxyamine (MX), a small molecule, efficiently reacts with the aldehyde moiety of natural AP sites, thereby preventing their cleavage by APEX1, the major human AP endonuclease. MX is currently regarded as a possible sensitizer of cancer cells toward DNA-damaging drugs. To evaluate the mutagenic potential of MX, we have studied the utilization of various dNTPs by five DNA polymerases of different families encountering MX-AP adducts in the template in comparison with the natural aldehydic AP site. The Klenow fragment of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I strictly followed the A-rule with both natural AP and MX-adducted AP sites. Phage RB69 DNA polymerase, a close relative of human DNA polymerases δ and ε, efficiently incorporated both dAMP and dGMP. DNA polymerase β mostly incorporated dAMP and dCMP, preferring dCMP opposite to the natural AP site and dAMP opposite to the MX-AP site, while DNA polymerase λ was selective for dGMP, apparently via the primer misalignment mechanism. Finally, translesion DNA polymerase κ also followed the A-rule for MX-AP and additionally incorporated dCMP opposite to a natural AP site. Overall, the MX-AP site, despite structural differences, was similar to the natural AP site in terms of the dNMP misincorporation preference but was bypassed less efficiently by all polymerases except for Pol κ.

Hexavalent chromium disrupts chromatin architecture

Accessibility of DNA elements and the orchestration of spatiotemporal chromatin-chromatin interactions are critical mechanisms in the regulation of gene transcription. Thus, in an ever-changing milieu, cells mount an adaptive response to environmental stimuli by modulating gene expression that is orchestrated by coordinated changes in chromatin architecture. Correspondingly, agents that alter chromatin structure directly impact transcriptional programs in cells. Heavy metals, including hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)), are of special interest because of their ability to interact directly with cellular protein, DNA and other macromolecules, resulting in general damage or altered function. In this review we highlight the chromium-mediated mechanisms that promote disruption of chromatin architecture and how these processes are integral to its carcinogenic properties. Emerging evidence shows that Cr(VI) targets nucleosomal architecture in euchromatin, particularly in genomic locations flanking binding sites of the essential transcription factors CTCF and AP1. Ultimately, these changes contribute to an altered chromatin state in critical gene regulatory regions, which disrupts gene transcription in functionally relevant biological processes.

Lung Cancer Occurrence-Correlation with Serum Chromium Levels and Genotypes

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Exposure to environmental and occupational carcinogens is an important cause of lung cancer. One of these substances is chromium, which is found ubiquitously across the planet. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified chromium(VI) as a human carcinogen. The aim of this study was to assess whether serum chromium levels, as well as DNA variants in selected genes involved in carcinogenesis, xenobiotic-metabolism, and oxidative stress could be helpful in the detection of lung cancer. We conducted a study using 218 lung cancer patients and 218 matched healthy controls. We measured serum chromium levels and genotyped ten genetic variants in ERCC2, XRCC1, MT1B, GSTP1, ABCB1, NQ01, CRTC3, GPX1, SOD2 and CAT. The odds ratios of being diagnosed with lung cancer were calculated using conditional logistic regression with respect to serum chromium level and genotypes. The odds ratio for the occurrence of lung cancer increased with increasing serum chromium levels. The difference between the quartiles with the lowest vs. highest chromium level was more than fourfold in the entire group (OR 4.52, CI 2.17-9.42, p < 0.01). This correlation was significantly increased by more than twice when specific genotypes were taken into consideration (ERCC-rs12181 TT, OR 12.34, CI 1.17-130.01, p = 0.04; CRTC3-rs12915189 non GG, OR 9.73, CI 1.58-60.10, p = 0.01; GSTP1-rs1695 non AA, OR 9.47, CI 2.06-43.49, p = < 0.01; CAT-rs1001179 non CC, OR 9.18, CI 1.64-51.24, p = 0.01). Total serum chromium levels > 0.1 μg/L were correlated with 73% (52/71) of lung cancers diagnosed with stage I disease. Our findings support the role of chromium and the influence of key proteins on lung cancer burden in the general population.

Impact of Carcinogenic Chromium on the Cellular Response to Proteotoxic Stress

Worldwide, several million workers are employed in the various chromium (Cr) industries. These workers may suffer from a variety of adverse health effects produced by dusts, mists and fumes containing Cr in the hexavalent oxidation state, Cr(VI). Of major importance, occupational exposure to Cr(VI) compounds has been firmly associated with the development of lung cancer. Counterintuitively, Cr(VI) is mostly unreactive towards most biomolecules, including nucleic acids. However, its intracellular reduction produces several species that react extensively with biomolecules. The diversity and chemical versatility of these species add great complexity to the study of the molecular mechanisms underlying Cr(VI) toxicity and carcinogenicity. As a consequence, these mechanisms are still poorly understood, in spite of intensive research efforts. Here, we discuss the impact of Cr(VI) on the stress response—an intricate cellular system against proteotoxic stress which is increasingly viewed as playing a critical role in carcinogenesis. This discussion is preceded by information regarding applications, chemical properties and adverse health effects of Cr(VI). A summary of our current understanding of cancer initiation, promotion and progression is also provided, followed by a brief description of the stress response and its links to cancer and by an overview of potential molecular mechanisms of Cr(VI) carcinogenicity.

Synergistic cytotoxicity and DNA strand breaks in cells and plasmid DNA exposed to uranyl acetate and ultraviolet radiation

Depleted uranium (DU) has a chemical toxicity that is independent of its radioactivity. The purpose of this study was to explore the photoactivation of uranyl ion by ultraviolet (UV) radiation as a chemical mechanism of uranium genotoxicity. The ability of UVB (302 nm) and UVA (368 nm) radiation to photoactivate uranyl ion to produce single strand breaks was measured in pBR322 plasmid DNA, and the presence of adducts and apurinic/apyrimidinic sites that could be converted to single strand breaks by heat and piperidine was analyzed. Results showed that DNA lesions in plasmid DNA exposed to UVB- or UVA-activated DU were only slightly heat reactive, but were piperidine sensitive. The cytotoxicity of UVB-activated uranyl ion was measured in repair-proficient and repair-deficient Chinese hamster ovary cells and human keratinocyte HaCaT cells. The cytotoxicity of co-exposures of uranyl ion and UVB radiation was dependent on the order of exposure and was greater than co-exposures of arsenite and UVB radiation. Uranyl ion and UVB radiation were synergistically cytotoxic in cells, and cells exposed to photoactivated DU required different DNA repair pathways than cells exposed to non-photoactivated DU. This study contributes to our understanding of the DNA lesions formed by DU, as well as their repair. Results suggest that excitation of uranyl ion by UV radiation can provide a pathway for uranyl ion to be chemically genotoxic in populations with dermal exposures to uranium and UV radiation, which would make skin an overlooked target organ for uranium exposures.

Assessment of Cr(VI)-induced cytotoxicity and genotoxicity using high content analysis

Oral exposure to high concentrations of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] induces intestinal redox changes, villus cytotoxicity, crypt hyperplasia, and intestinal tumors in mice. To assess the effects of Cr(VI) in a cell model relevant to the intestine, undifferentiated (proliferating) and differentiated (confluent) Caco-2 cells were treated with Cr(VI), hydrogen peroxide or rotenone for 2-24 hours. DNA damage was then assessed by nuclear staining intensity of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) and phosphorylated histone variant H2AX (γ-H2AX) measured by high content analysis methods. In undifferentiated Caco-2, all three chemicals increased 8-OHdG and γ-H2AX staining at cytotoxic concentrations, whereas only 8-OHdG was elevated at non-cytotoxic concentrations at 24 hr. Differentiated Caco-2 were more resistant to cytotoxicity and DNA damage than undifferentiated cells, and there were no changes in apoptotic markers p53 or annexin-V. However, Cr(VI) induced a dose-dependent translocation of the unfolded protein response transcription factor ATF6 into the nucleus. Micronucleus (MN) formation was assessed in CHO-K1 and A549 cell lines. Cr(VI) increased MN frequency in CHO-K1 only at highly cytotoxic concentrations. Relative to the positive control Mitomycin-C, Cr(VI) only slightly increased MN frequency in A549 at mildly cytotoxic concentrations. The results demonstrate that Cr(VI) genotoxicity correlates with cytotoxic concentrations, and that H2AX phosphorylation occurs at higher concentrations than oxidative DNA damage in proliferating Caco-2 cells. The findings suggest that in vitro genotoxicity of Cr(VI) is primarily oxidative in nature at low concentrations. Implications for in vivo intestinal toxicity of Cr(VI) will be discussed.

Metabolism of Cr(VI) by ascorbate but not glutathione is a low oxidant-generating process

Genotoxic activity of hexavalent chromium (chromate) results from its reductive activation inside the cell. Cr(VI) metabolism in vivo is primarily driven by ascorbate (Asc) but in cultured cells by glutathione (GSH). Given the common use of cultured cells for mechanistic studies, it is important to establish whether Cr(VI) activated by Asc and GSH displays the same genotoxic properties. Using 2',7' dichlorofluorescin (DCFH) as a redox sensitive probe, we found that Asc-dependent reduction of Cr(VI) in vitro under physiological conditions generated 25-80 times lower yields of oxidants compared to GSH. When both reducers were present, Asc dominated Cr(VI) metabolism and inhibited DCFH oxidation. Consistent with the findings in defined chemical reactions, restoration of physiological levels of Asc in human lung H460 cells led to the loss of their hypersensitivity to clonogenic killing by Cr(VI) in the presence of methoxyamine, which inhibits base excision repair of oxidative DNA damage. Despite suppressed oxidative damage, Asc-containing cells formed a large number of DNA double-strand breaks after exposure to a dose of Cr(VI) corresponding to the drinking water standard of 100 ppb. Our results indicate that Asc-driven metabolism of Cr(VI) shifts its genotoxicity toward nonoxidative mechanisms.

Chromium and genomic stability

Many metals serve as micronutrients which protect against genomic instability. Chromium is most abundant in its trivalent and hexavalent forms. Trivalent chromium has historically been considered an essential element, though recent data indicate that while it can have pharmacological effects and value, it is not essential. There is no data indicating that trivalent chromium promotes genomic stability and, instead may promote genomic instability. Hexavalent chromium is widely accepted as highly toxic and carcinogenic with no nutritional value. Recent data indicate that it causes genomic instability and also has no role in promoting genomic stability.

Chromium in drinking water: sources, metabolism, and cancer risks

Drinking water supplies in many geographic areas contain chromium in the +3 and +6 oxidation states. Public health concerns are centered on the presence of hexavalent Cr that is classified as a known human carcinogen via inhalation. Cr(VI) has high environmental mobility and can originate from anthropogenic and natural sources. Acidic environments with high organic content promote the reduction of Cr(VI) to nontoxic Cr(III). The opposite process of Cr(VI) formation from Cr(III) also occurs, particularly in the presence of common minerals containing Mn(IV) oxides. Limited epidemiological evidence for Cr(VI) ingestion is suggestive of elevated risks for stomach cancers. Exposure of animals to Cr(VI) in drinking water induced tumors in the alimentary tract, with linear and supralinear responses in the mouse small intestine. Chromate, the predominant form of Cr(VI) at neutral pH, is taken up by all cells through sulfate channels and is activated nonenzymatically by ubiquitously present ascorbate and small thiols. The most abundant form of DNA damage induced by Cr(VI) is Cr-DNA adducts, which cause mutations and chromosomal breaks. Emerging evidence points to two-way interactions between DNA damage and epigenetic changes that collectively determine the spectrum of genomic rearrangements and profiles of gene expression in tumors. Extensive formation of DNA adducts, clear positivity in genotoxicity assays with high predictive values for carcinogenicity, the shape of tumor-dose responses in mice, and a biological signature of mutagenic carcinogens (multispecies, multisite, and trans-sex tumorigenic potency) strongly support the importance of the DNA-reactive mutagenic mechanisms in carcinogenic effects of Cr(VI). Bioavailability results and kinetic considerations suggest that 10-20% of ingested low-dose Cr(VI) escapes human gastric inactivation. The directly mutagenic mode of action and the incompleteness of gastric detoxification argue against a threshold in low-dose extrapolation of cancer risk for ingested Cr(VI).

Metal-on-metal bearings: the evidence so far

Lately, concerns have arisen following the use of large metal-on-metal bearings in hip replacements owing to reports of catastrophic soft-tissue reactions resulting in implant failure and associated complications. This review examines the literature and contemporary presentations on current clinical dilemmas in metal-on-metal hip replacement.

Application of the U.S. EPA mode of action Framework for purposes of guiding future research: a case study involving the oral carcinogenicity of hexavalent chromium

Mode of action (MOA) analysis provides a systematic description of key events leading to adverse health effects in animal bioassays for the purpose of informing human health risk assessment. Uncertainties and data gaps identified in the MOA analysis may also be used to guide future research to improve understanding of the MOAs underlying a specific toxic response and foster development of toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic models. An MOA analysis, consistent with approaches outlined in the MOA Framework as described in the Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment, was conducted to evaluate small intestinal tumors observed in mice chronically exposed to relatively high concentrations of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) in drinking water. Based on review of the literature, key events in the MOA are hypothesized to include saturation of the reductive capacity of the upper gastrointestinal tract, absorption of Cr(VI) into the intestinal epithelium, oxidative stress and inflammation, cell proliferation, direct and/or indirect DNA modification, and mutagenesis. Although available data generally support the plausibility of these key events, several unresolved questions and data gaps were identified, highlighting the need for obtaining critical toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic data in the target tissue and in the low-dose range. Experimental assays that can address these data gaps are discussed along with strategies for comparisons between responsive and nonresponsive tissues and species. This analysis provides a practical application of MOA Framework guidance and is instructive for the design of studies to improve upon the information available for quantitative risk assessment.

Chromium genotoxicity: A double-edged sword

Certain forms of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] are known respiratory carcinogens that induce a broad spectrum of DNA damage. Cr(VI)-carcinogenesis may be initiated or promoted through several mechanistic processes including, the intracellular metabolic reduction of Cr(VI) producing chromium species capable of interacting with DNA to yield genotoxic and mutagenic effects, Cr(VI)-induced inflammatory/immunological responses, and alteration of survival signaling pathways. Cr(VI) enters the cell through non-specific anion channels, and is metabolically reduced by agents including ascorbate, glutathione, and cysteine to Cr(V), Cr(IV), and Cr(III). Cr(III) has a weak membrane permeability capacity and is unable to cross the cell membrane, thereby trapping it within the cell where it can bind to DNA and produce genetic damage leading to genomic instability. Structural genetic lesions produced by the intracellular reduction of Cr(VI) include DNA adducts, DNA-strand breaks, DNA-protein crosslinks, oxidized bases, abasic sites, and DNA inter- and intrastrand crosslinks. The damage induced by Cr(VI) can lead to dysfunctional DNA replication and transcription, aberrant cell cycle checkpoints, dysregulated DNA repair mechanisms, microsatelite instability, inflammatory responses, and the disruption of key regulatory gene networks responsible for the balance of cell survival and cell death, which may all play an important role in Cr(VI) carcinogenesis. Several lines of evidence have indicated that neoplastic progression is a result of consecutive genetic/epigenetic changes that provide cellular survival advantages, and ultimately lead to the conversion of normal human cells to malignant cancer cells. This review is based on studies that provide a glimpse into Cr(VI) carcinogenicity via mechanisms including Cr(VI)-induced death-resistance, the involvement of DNA repair mechanisms in survival after chromium exposure, and the activation of survival signaling cascades in response to Cr(VI) genotoxicity.

DNA polymerase zeta is essential for hexavalent chromium-induced mutagenesis

Translesion synthesis (TLS) is a unique DNA damage tolerance mechanism involved in the replicative bypass of genetic lesions in favor of uninterrupted DNA replication. TLS is critical for the generation of mutations by many different chemical and physical agents, however, there is no information available regarding the role of TLS in carcinogenic metal-induced mutagenesis. Hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI))-containing compounds are highly complex genotoxins possessing both mutagenic and clastogenic activities. The focus of this work was to determine the impact that TLS has on Cr(VI)-induced mutagenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Wild-type yeast and strains deficient in TLS polymerases (i.e. Polzeta (rev3), Poleta (rad30)) were exposed to Cr(VI) and monitored for cell survival and forward mutagenesis at the CAN1 locus. In general, TLS deficiency had little impact on Cr(VI)-induced clonogenic lethality or cell growth. rad30 yeast exhibited higher levels of basal and induced mutagenesis compared to Wt and rev3 yeast. In contrast, rev3 yeast displayed attenuated Cr(VI)-induced mutagenesis. Moreover, deletion of REV3 in rad30 yeast (rad30 rev3) resulted in a significant decrease in basal and Cr(VI) mutagenesis relative to Wt and rad30 single mutants indicating that mutagenesis primarily depended upon Polzeta. Interestingly, rev3 yeast were similar to Wt yeast in susceptibility to Cr(VI)-induced frameshift mutations. Mutational analysis of the CAN1 gene revealed that Cr(VI)-induced base substitution mutations accounted for 83.9% and 100.0% of the total mutations in Wt and rev3 yeast, respectively. Insertions and deletions comprised 16.1% of the total mutations in Cr(VI) treated Wt yeast but were not observed rev3 yeast. This work provides novel information regarding the molecular mechanisms of Cr(VI)-induced mutagenesis and is the first report demonstrating a role for TLS in the fixation of mutations induced by a carcinogenic metal.

A role for Mus81 in the repair of chromium-induced DNA damage

Hexavalent chromium (Cr[VI]) is a toxic environmental contaminant that is capable of producing a broad spectrum of DNA damage. The ability of Cr[VI] to induce mutagenesis and neoplastic transformation has been attributed to its genotoxic action, however our understanding of molecular mechanisms involved in the repair of Cr[VI]-induced DNA damage remains incomplete. Here, we report that Mus81, an enzyme that participates with Eme1 in the resolution of replication fork damage caused by certain lesions, is involved in the repair of Cr[VI]-induced DNA damage. Mus81-deficient cells were found to be more susceptible to Cr[VI]-induced proliferation arrest and more sensitive to the long-term cytotoxic effects of Cr[VI] than isogenic wild-type cells. Following Cr[VI] exposure, Mus81-deficient cells displayed a lag in the disappearance of Rad51 foci, exhibited elevated replication-associated gamma-H2AX and showed an increased incidence of chromosomal instability compared to wild-type cells. Our findings support a role for Mus81 in the resolution of replication-associated DNA damage associated with this genotoxic agent, by converting Cr[VI]-DNA lesions into a form more amenable for homologous recombination.

Zinc chromate induces chromosome instability and DNA double strand breaks in human lung cells

Hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) is a respiratory toxicant and carcinogen, with solubility playing an important role in its carcinogenic potential. Zinc chromate, a water insoluble or 'particulate' Cr(VI) compound, has been shown to be carcinogenic in epidemiology studies and to induce tumors in experimental animals, but its genotoxicity is poorly understood. Our study shows that zinc chromate induced concentration-dependent increases in cytotoxicity, chromosome damage and DNA double strand breaks in human lung cells. In response to zinc chromate-induced breaks, MRE11 expression was increased and ATM and ATR were phosphorylated, indicating that the DNA double strand break repair system was initiated in the cells. In addition, our data show that zinc chromate-induced double strand breaks were only observed in the G2/M phase population, with no significant amount of double strand breaks observed in G1 and S phase cells. These data will aid in understanding the mechanisms of zinc chromate toxicity and carcinogenesis.