Effects of Amygdala Lesions on Object-Based Versus Action-Based Learning in Macaques

Specific Patterns of Endogenous Functional Connectivity Are Associated With Harm Avoidance in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

BACKGROUND

Individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) show persistent avoidance behaviors, often in the absence of actual threat. Quality-of-life costs and heterogeneity support the need for novel brain-behavior intervention targets. Informed by mechanistic and anatomical studies of persistent avoidance in rodents and nonhuman primates, our goal was to test whether connections within a hypothesized persistent avoidance-related network predicted OCD-related harm avoidance (HA), a trait measure of persistent avoidance. We hypothesized that 1) HA, not an OCD diagnosis, would be associated with altered endogenous connectivity in at least one connection in the network; 2) HA-specific findings would be robust to comorbid symptoms; and 3) reliable findings would replicate in a holdout testing subsample.

METHODS

Using resting-state functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging, cross-validated elastic net for feature selection, and Poisson generalized linear models, we tested which connections significantly predicted HA in our training subsample (n = 73; 71.8% female; healthy control group n = 36, OCD group n = 37); robustness to comorbidities; and replicability in a testing subsample (n = 30; 56.7% female; healthy control group n = 15, OCD group n = 15).

RESULTS

Stronger inverse connectivity between the right dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and right basolateral amygdala and stronger positive connectivity between the right ventral anterior insula and left ventral striatum were associated with greater HA across groups. Network connections did not discriminate OCD diagnostic status or predict HA-correlated traits, suggesting sensitivity to trait HA. The dorsal anterior cingulate cortex-basolateral amygdala relationship was robust to controlling for comorbidities and medication in individuals with OCD and was also predictive of HA in our testing subsample.

CONCLUSIONS

Stronger inverse dorsal anterior cingulate cortex-basolateral amygdala connectivity was robustly and reliably associated with HA across groups and in OCD. Results support the relevance of a cross-species persistent avoidance-related network to OCD, with implications for precision-based approaches and treatment.

Computational Mechanisms Underlying Motivation to Earn Symbolic Reinforcers

Reinforcement learning is a theoretical framework that describes how agents learn to select options that maximize rewards and minimize punishments over time. We often make choices, however, to obtain symbolic reinforcers (e.g., money, points) that are later exchanged for primary reinforcers (e.g., food, drink). Although symbolic reinforcers are ubiquitous in our daily lives, widely used in laboratory tasks because they can be motivating, mechanisms by which they become motivating are less understood. In the present study, we examined how monkeys learn to make choices that maximize fluid rewards through reinforcement with tokens. The question addressed here is how the value of a state, which is a function of multiple task features (e.g., the current number of accumulated tokens, choice options, task epoch, trials since the last delivery of primary reinforcer, etc.), drives value and affects motivation. We constructed a Markov decision process model that computes the value of task states given task features to then correlate with the motivational state of the animal. Fixation times, choice reaction times, and abort frequency were all significantly related to values of task states during the tokens task (n = 5 monkeys, three males and two females). Furthermore, the model makes predictions for how neural responses could change on a moment-by-moment basis relative to changes in the state value. Together, this task and model allow us to capture learning and behavior related to symbolic reinforcement.

Motor System-Dependent Effects of Amygdala and Ventral Striatum Lesions on Explore-Exploit Behaviors

Deciding whether to forego immediate rewards or explore new opportunities is a key component of flexible behavior and is critical for the survival of the species. Although previous studies have shown that different cortical and subcortical areas, including the amygdala and ventral striatum (VS), are implicated in representing the immediate (exploitative) and future (explorative) value of choices, the effect of the motor system used to make choices has not been examined. Here, we tested male rhesus macaques with amygdala or VS lesions on two versions of a three-arm bandit task where choices were registered with either a saccade or an arm movement. In both tasks we presented the monkeys with explore-exploit tradeoffs by periodically replacing familiar options with novel options that had unknown reward probabilities. We found that monkeys explored more with saccades but showed better learning with arm movements. VS lesions caused the monkeys to be more explorative with arm movements and less explorative with saccades, although this may have been due to an overall decrease in performance. VS lesions affected the monkeys' ability to learn novel stimulus-reward associations in both tasks, while after amygdala lesions this effect was stronger when choices were made with saccades. Further, on average, VS and amygdala lesions reduced the monkeys' ability to choose better options only when choices were made with a saccade. These results show that learning reward value associations to manage explore-exploit behaviors is motor system dependent and they further define the contributions of amygdala and VS to reinforcement learning.

Dissociable Contributions of Basolateral Amygdala and Ventrolateral Orbitofrontal Cortex to Flexible Learning Under Uncertainty

Reversal learning measures the ability to form flexible associations between choice outcomes with stimuli and actions that precede them. This type of learning is thought to rely on several cortical and subcortical areas, including the highly interconnected orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and basolateral amygdala (BLA), and is often impaired in various neuropsychiatric and substance use disorders. However, the unique contributions of these regions to stimulus- and action-based reversal learning have not been systematically compared using a chemogenetic approach particularly before and after the first reversal that introduces new uncertainty. Here, we examined the roles of ventrolateral OFC (vlOFC) and BLA during reversal learning. Male and female rats were prepared with inhibitory designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs targeting projection neurons in these regions and tested on a series of deterministic and probabilistic reversals during which they learned about stimulus identity or side (left or right) associated with different reward probabilities. Using a counterbalanced within-subject design, we inhibited these regions prior to reversal sessions. We assessed initial and pre-/post-reversal changes in performance to measure learning and adjustments to reversals, respectively. We found that inhibition of the ventrolateral orbitofrontal cortex (vlOFC), but not BLA, eliminated adjustments to stimulus-based reversals. Inhibition of BLA, but not vlOFC, selectively impaired action-based probabilistic reversal learning, leaving deterministic reversal learning intact. vlOFC exhibited a sex-dependent role in early adjustment to action-based reversals, but not in overall learning. These results reveal dissociable roles for BLA and vlOFC in flexible learning and highlight a more crucial role for BLA in learning meaningful changes in the reward environment.

Dissociable contributions of basolateral amygdala and ventrolateral orbitofrontal cortex to flexible learning under uncertainty

Reversal learning measures the ability to form flexible associations between choice outcomes with stimuli and actions that precede them. This type of learning is thought to rely on several cortical and subcortical areas, including highly interconnected orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and basolateral amygdala (BLA), and is often impaired in various neuropsychiatric and substance use disorders. However, unique contributions of these regions to stimulus- and action-based reversal learning have not been systematically compared using a chemogenetic approach and particularly before and after the first reversal that introduces new uncertainty. Here, we examined the roles of ventrolateral OFC (vlOFC) and BLA during reversal learning. Male and female rats were prepared with inhibitory DREADDs targeting projection neurons in these regions and tested on a series of deterministic and probabilistic reversals during which they learned about stimulus identity or side (left or right) associated with different reward probabilities. Using a counterbalanced within-subject design, we inhibited these regions prior to reversal sessions. We assessed initial and pre-post reversal changes in performance to measure learning and adjustments to reversals, respectively. We found that inhibition of vlOFC, but not BLA, eliminated adjustments to stimulus-based reversals. Inhibition of BLA, but not vlOFC, selectively impaired action-based probabilistic reversal learning, leaving deterministic reversal learning intact. vlOFC exhibited a sex-dependent role in early adjustment to action-based reversals, but not in overall learning. These results reveal dissociable roles for BLA and vlOFC in flexible learning and highlight a more crucial role for BLA in learning meaningful changes in the reward environment.

Computational mechanisms underlying motivation to earn symbolic reinforcers

Reinforcement learning (RL) is a theoretical framework that describes how agents learn to select options that maximize rewards and minimize punishments over time. We often make choices, however, to obtain symbolic reinforcers (e.g. money, points) that can later be exchanged for primary reinforcers (e.g. food, drink). Although symbolic reinforcers are motivating, little is understood about the neural or computational mechanisms underlying the motivation to earn them. In the present study, we examined how monkeys learn to make choices that maximize fluid rewards through reinforcement with tokens. The question addressed here is how the value of a state, which is a function of multiple task features (e.g. current number of accumulated tokens, choice options, task epoch, trials since last delivery of primary reinforcer, etc.), drives value and affects motivation. We constructed a Markov decision process model that computes the value of task states given task features to capture the motivational state of the animal. Fixation times, choice reaction times, and abort frequency were all significantly related to values of task states during the tokens task (n=5 monkeys). Furthermore, the model makes predictions for how neural responses could change on a moment-by-moment basis relative to changes in state value. Together, this task and model allow us to capture learning and behavior related to symbolic reinforcement.

The motivational role of the ventral striatum and amygdala in learning from gains and losses

The ventral striatum (VS) and amygdala are two structures often implicated as essential structures for learning. The literature addressing the contribution of these areas to learning, however, is not entirely consistent. We propose that these inconsistencies are due to learning environments and the effect they have on motivation. To differentiate aspects of learning from environmental factors that affect motivation, we ran a series of experiments with varying task factors. We compared monkeys (Macaca mulatta) with VS lesions, amygdala lesions, and unoperated controls on reinforcement learning (RL) tasks that involve learning from both gains and losses as well as from deterministic and stochastic schedules of reinforcement. We found that for all three groups, performance varied by experiment. All three groups modulated their behavior in the same directions, to varying degrees, across the three experiments. This behavioral modulation is why we find deficits in some experiments, but not others. The amount of effort animals exhibited differed depending on the learning environment. Our results suggest that the VS is important for the amount of effort animals will give in rich deterministic and relatively leaner stochastic learning enivornments. We also showed that monkeys with amygdala lesions can learn stimulus-based RL in stochastic environments and environments with loss and conditioned reinforcers. These results show that learning environments shape motivation and that the VS is essential for distinct aspects of motivated behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Multiple routes of communication within the amygdala-mPFC network: A comparative approach in humans and macaques

The network formed by the amygdala (AMG) and the medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC), at the interface between our internal and external environment, has been shown to support some important aspects of behavioral adaptation. Whether and how the anatomo-functional organization of this network evolved across primates remains unclear. Here, we compared AMG nuclei morphological characteristics and their functional connectivity with the mPFC in humans and macaques to identify potential homologies and differences between these species. Based on selected studies, we highlight two subsystems within the AMG-mPFC circuits, likely involved in distinct temporal dynamics of integration during behavioral adaptation. We also show that whereas the mPFC displays a large expansion but a preserved intrinsic anatomo-functional organization, the AMG displays a volume reduction and morphological changes related to specific nuclei. We discuss potential commonalities and differences in the dialogue between AMG nuclei and mPFC in humans and macaques based on available data.

Mechanisms of adjustments to different types of uncertainty in the reward environment across mice and monkeys

Despite being unpredictable and uncertain, reward environments often exhibit certain regularities, and animals navigating these environments try to detect and utilize such regularities to adapt their behavior. However, successful learning requires that animals also adjust to uncertainty associated with those regularities. Here, we analyzed choice data from two comparable dynamic foraging tasks in mice and monkeys to investigate mechanisms underlying adjustments to different types of uncertainty. In these tasks, animals selected between two choice options that delivered reward probabilistically, while baseline reward probabilities changed after a variable number (block) of trials without any cues to the animals. To measure adjustments in behavior, we applied multiple metrics based on information theory that quantify consistency in behavior, and fit choice data using reinforcement learning models. We found that in both species, learning and choice were affected by uncertainty about reward outcomes (in terms of determining the better option) and by expectation about when the environment may change. However, these effects were mediated through different mechanisms. First, more uncertainty about the better option resulted in slower learning and forgetting in mice, whereas it had no significant effect in monkeys. Second, expectation of block switches accompanied slower learning, faster forgetting, and increased stochasticity in choice in mice, whereas it only reduced learning rates in monkeys. Overall, while demonstrating the usefulness of metrics based on information theory in examining adaptive behavior, our study provides evidence for multiple types of adjustments in learning and choice behavior according to uncertainty in the reward environment.

Zunyimycin C enhances immunity and improves cognitive impairment and its mechanism

This study aimed to explore the efficacy of zunyimycin C in the immunological enhancement of hypoimmune mice and improvement of cognitive impairment in a mice model of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Zunyimycin C was administered intranasally to interfere with AD mouse models or gavage to hypoimmune animals. Results of the Morris water maze (MWM) showed that zunyimycin may improve the learning and memory abilities of the AD mice model. The results of differential expression analysis of mRNA levels of inflammatory factors and pathways in brain tissues of the AD mouse model suggested that differential expression was more obvious under Zun-Int L. Western blot revealed that the relative expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the brain tissue of the AD mouse model in the Zun-Pre group was significantly higher than that in the other groups, and the difference was statistically significant. The relative expression of interleukin (IL)-6 protein in the brain tissue of mice in the low-dose intervention group was significantly lower than that in the other groups, and the difference was statistically significant. As for hypoimmune animals, short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) assay and intestinal flora assay results showed that zunyimycin C may change intestinal flora diversity and SCFA biosynthesis. The prophylactic administration of zunyimycin C could not inhibit acute neuroinflammation in AD mice. Zunyimycin C may participate in the immune response by activating the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK signaling pathway to stimulate microglia to produce more inflammatory factors. Zunyimycin C may inhibit autophagy by activating the PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway, promote cell survival, mediate neuroprotective effects of reactive microglia and reactive astrocytes, and reduce IL-1β in brain tissue and IL-6 secretion, thereby attenuating neuroinflammation in AD mice and achieving the effect of improving learning and memory impairment. Zunyimycin C may play a role in immunological enhancement by changing intestinal flora diversity and SCFAs.

Prefrontal cortex interactions with the amygdala in primates

This review addresses functional interactions between the primate prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the amygdala, with emphasis on their contributions to behavior and cognition. The interplay between these two telencephalic structures contributes to adaptive behavior and to the evolutionary success of all primate species. In our species, dysfunction in this circuitry creates vulnerabilities to psychopathologies. Here, we describe amygdala-PFC contributions to behaviors that have direct relevance to Darwinian fitness: learned approach and avoidance, foraging, predator defense, and social signaling, which have in common the need for flexibility and sensitivity to specific and rapidly changing contexts. Examples include the prediction of positive outcomes, such as food availability, food desirability, and various social rewards, or of negative outcomes, such as threats of harm from predators or conspecifics. To promote fitness optimally, these stimulus-outcome associations need to be rapidly updated when an associative contingency changes or when the value of a predicted outcome changes. We review evidence from nonhuman primates implicating the PFC, the amygdala, and their functional interactions in these processes, with links to experimental work and clinical findings in humans where possible.

Organization of Parieto-Prefrontal and Temporo-Prefrontal Networks in the Macaque

The connectivity among architectonically defined areas of the frontal, parietal, and temporal cortex of the macaque has been extensively mapped through tract tracing methods. To investigate the statistical organization underlying this connectivity, and identify its underlying architecture, we performed a hierarchical cluster analysis on 69 cortical areas based on their anatomically defined inputs. We identified 10 frontal, 4 parietal, and 5 temporal hierarchically related sets of areas (clusters), defined by unique sets of inputs and typically composed of anatomically contiguous areas. Across cortex, clusters that share functional properties were linked by dominant information processing circuits in a topographically organized manner that reflects the organization of the main fiber bundles in the cortex. This led to a dorsal-ventral subdivision of the frontal cortex, where dorsal and ventral clusters showed privileged connectivity with parietal and temporal areas, respectively. Ventrally, temporo-frontal circuits encode information to discriminate objects in the environment, their value, emotional properties, and functions such as memory and spatial navigation. Dorsal parieto-frontal circuits encode information for selecting, generating, and monitoring appropriate actions based on visual-spatial and somatosensory information. This organization may reflect evolutionary antecedents, in which the vertebrate pallium, which is the ancestral cortex, was defined by a ventral and lateral olfactory region and a medial hippocampal region.

Toward a holistic view of value and social processing in the amygdala: Insights from primate behavioral neurophysiology

Located medially within the temporal lobes, the amygdala is a formation of heterogenous nuclei that has emerged as a target for investigations into the neural bases of both primitive and complex behaviors. Although modern neuroscience has eschewed the practice of assigning broad functions to distinct brain regions, the amygdala has classically been associated with regulating negative emotional processes (such as fear or aggression), primarily through research performed in rodent models. Contemporary studies, particularly those in non-human primate models, have provided evidence for a role of the amygdala in other aspects of cognition such as valuation of stimuli or shaping social behaviors. Consequently, many modern perspectives now also emphasize the amygdala's role in processing positive affect and social behaviors. Importantly, several recent experiments have examined the intersection of two seemingly autonomous domains; how both valence/value and social stimuli are simultaneously represented in the amygdala. Results from these studies suggest that there is an overlap between valence/value processing and the processing of social behaviors at the level of single neurons. These findings have prompted researchers investigating the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying social interactions to question what contributions reward-related processes in the amygdala make in shaping social behaviors. In this review, we will examine evidence, primarily from primate neurophysiology, suggesting that value-related processes in the amygdala interact with the processing of social stimuli, and explore holistic hypotheses about how these amygdalar interactions might be instantiated.

Functions of primate amygdala neurons in economic decisions and social decision simulation

Long implicated in aversive processing, the amygdala is now recognized as a key component of the brain systems that process rewards. Beyond reward valuation, recent findings from single-neuron recordings in monkeys indicate that primate amygdala neurons also play an important role in decision-making. The reward value signals encoded by amygdala neurons constitute suitable inputs to economic decision processes by being sensitive to reward contingency, relative reward quantity and temporal reward structure. During reward-based decisions, individual amygdala neurons encode both the value inputs and corresponding choice outputs of economic decision processes. The presence of such value-to-choice transitions in single amygdala neurons, together with other well-defined signatures of decision computation, indicate that a decision mechanism may be implemented locally within the primate amygdala. During social observation, specific amygdala neurons spontaneously encode these decision signatures to predict the choices of social partners, suggesting neural simulation of the partner's decision-making. The activity of these 'simulation neurons' could arise naturally from convergence between value neurons and social, self-other discriminating neurons. These findings identify single-neuron building blocks and computational architectures for decision-making and social behavior in the primate amygdala. An emerging understanding of the decision function of primate amygdala neurons can help identify potential vulnerabilities for amygdala dysfunction in human conditions afflicting social cognition and mental health.