A large multicenter study of methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic joint infections managed with implant retention

Patient-Related Predictors of Treatment Failure After Two-Stage Total Hip Arthroplasty Revision for Periprosthetic Joint Infection: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) treatment has high failure rates even after 2-stage revision. Risk factors for treatment failure (TF) after staged revision for PJI are not well defined, nor is it well established how they correlate with the risks of developing an index PJI. Identifying modifiable risk factors may allow preoperative optimization, while identifying nonmodifiable risk factors can influence surgical options or advise against further surgery. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to better define predictors of TF in 2-stage revision for PJI.

METHODS

The PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases were searched from their inception in December 1976 to April 15, 2023. Studies comparing patient-related variables between patients successfully treated who had 2-staged revision total hip arthroplasty (THA) and patients with persistent infections were included. Studies were screened, and 2 independent reviewers extracted data, while a third resolved discrepancies. Meta-analysis was performed on these data. There were 10,052 unique studies screened, and 21 studies met the inclusion criteria for data extraction.

RESULTS

There was good-quality evidence that obesity, liver cirrhosis, and previous failed revisions for PJI are nonmodifiable risk factors, while intravenous drug use (IVDU) and smoking are modifiable risk factors for TF after 2-stage revision for hip PJI. Reoperation between revision stages was also significantly associated with an increased risk of TF. Interestingly, other risk factors for an index PJI including male gender, American Society of Anesthesiology score, diabetes mellitus, and inflammatory arthropathy did not predict TF. Evidence on Charlson Comorbidity Index was limited.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with a smoking history, obesity, IVDU, previous failed revision for PJI, reoperation between stages, and liver cirrhosis are more likely to experience TF after 2-stage revision THA for PJI. Modifiable risk factors include smoking and IVDU and these patients should be referred to services for cessation as early as possible before 2-stage revision THA.

Enhanced antibiofilm potential of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound combined with 0.35% povidone-iodine in a rat model of periprosthetic joint infection

Aims

Although low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) combined with disinfectants has been shown to effectively eliminate portions of biofilm in vitro, its efficacy in vivo remains uncertain. Our objective was to assess the antibiofilm potential and safety of LIPUS combined with 0.35% povidone-iodine (PI) in a rat debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR) model of periprosthetic joint infection (PJI).

Methods

A total of 56 male Sprague-Dawley rats were established in acute PJI models by intra-articular injection of bacteria. The rats were divided into four groups: a Control group, a 0.35% PI group, a LIPUS and saline group, and a LIPUS and 0.35% PI group. All rats underwent DAIR, except for Control, which underwent a sham procedure. General status, serum biochemical markers, weightbearing analysis, radiographs, micro-CT analysis, scanning electron microscopy of the prostheses, microbiological analysis, macroscope, and histopathology evaluation were performed 14 days after DAIR.

Results

The group with LIPUS and 0.35% PI exhibited decreased levels of serum biochemical markers, improved weightbearing scores, reduced reactive bone changes, absence of viable bacteria, and decreased inflammation compared to the Control group. Despite the greater antibiofilm activity observed in the PI group compared to the LIPUS and saline group, none of the monotherapies were successful in preventing reactive bone changes or eliminating the infection.

Conclusion

In the rat model of PJI treated with DAIR, LIPUS combined with 0.35% PI demonstrated stronger antibiofilm potential than monotherapy, without impairing any local soft-tissue.

Appropriate Duration of Antimicrobial Treatment for Prosthetic Joint Infections: A Narrative Review

Prosthetic joint infections are considered difficult to treat they needing aggressive surgery and long antimicrobial treatments. However, the exact duration of these therapies has been established empirically. In the last years, several studies have explored the possibility of reducing the length of treatment in this setting, with conflicting results. In this narrative review, we critically appraise the published evidence, considering the different surgical approaches (implant retention [DAIR] and one-step and two-step exchange procedures) separately. In patients managed with DAIR, usually treated for at least 12 weeks, a large, randomized trial failed to show that 6 weeks were non-inferior. However, another randomized clinical trial supports the use of 8 weeks, as long as the surgical conditions are favorable and antibiotics with good antibiofilm activity can be administered. In patients managed with a two-step exchange procedure, usually treated during 6 weeks, a randomized clinical trial showed the efficacy of a 4-week course of antimicrobials. Also, the use of local antibiotics may allow the use of even shorter treatments. Finally, in the case of one-step exchange procedures, there is a trend towards reducing the length of therapy, and the largest randomized clinical trial supports the use of 6 weeks of therapy.

Debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR) for the early prosthetic joint infection of total knee and hip arthroplasties: a systematic review

PURPOSE

Early periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) represents one of the most fearsome complications of joint replacement. No international consensus has been reached regarding the best approach for early prosthetic knee and hip infections. The aim of this updated systematic review is to assess whether debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR) is an effective choice of treatment in early postoperative and acute hematogenous PJI.

METHODS

This systematic review was performed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The diagnostic criteria defining a PJI, the most present pathogen, and the days between the index procedure and the onset of the PJI were extracted from the selected articles. Additionally, the mean follow-up, antibiotic regimen, and success rate of the treatment were also reported.

RESULTS

The articles included provided a cohort of 970 patients. Ten studies specified the joint of their cohort in PJIs regarding either hip prostheses or knee prostheses, resulting in 454 total knees and 460 total hips. The age of the patients ranged from 18 to 92 years old. Success rates for the DAIR treatments in the following cohort ranged from 55.5% up to a maximum of 90% (mean value of 71%).

CONCLUSION

Even though the DAIR procedure is quite limited, it is still considered an effective option for patients developing an early post-operative or acute hematogenous PJI. However, there is a lack of studies, in particular randomized control trials (RCTs), comparing DAIR with one-stage and two-stage revision protocols in the setting of early PJIs, reflecting the necessity to conduct further high-quality studies to face the burden of early PJI.

What Is the Most Effective Treatment for Periprosthetic Joint Infection After Total Joint Arthroplasty in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis?: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a risk factor for periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) after total joint arthroplasty (TJA). The purpose of this study was to perform a systematic review comparing the failure rates of debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR), one-stage exchange arthroplasty/revision (OSR), and 2-stage exchange arthroplasty/revision (TSR) for RA patients with PJI and identify risk factors in the RA population associated with increased treatment failure rate.

METHODS

PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, and Ovid Embase databases were screened with the terms "rheumatoid arthritis," "total joint arthroplasty," "prosthetic joint infection," and "treatment for PJI" on August 29, 2021. Four hundred ninety-one studies were screened, of which 86 were evaluated. The primary outcome evaluated was failure of surgical treatment for PJI.

RESULTS

Ten retrospective cohort studies were included after full-text screening, yielding 401 patients with RA. Additional demographic and PJI management data were obtained for 149 patients. Patients with RA who underwent TSR demonstrated a lower failure rate (26.8%) than both DAIR (60.1%) and OSR (39.2%) (χ2 = 37.463, p < 0.00001). Patients with RA who underwent DAIR had a 2.27 (95% CI, 1.66-3.10) times higher risk of experiencing treatment failure than those who underwent TSR. Among risk factors, there was a significant difference in the C-reactive protein of patients who did vs. did not experience treatment failure (p = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

TSR has a higher rate of success in the management of PJI patients with RA compared with DAIR and OSR. The complete removal of the infected prosthesis and delayed reimplantation may lower the treatment failure rate.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

How We Approach Suppressive Antibiotic Therapy Following Debridement, Antibiotics, and Implant Retention for Prosthetic Joint Infection

The optimal treatment of prosthetic joint infection (PJI) remains uncertain. Patients undergoing debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR) receive extended antimicrobial treatment, and some experts leave patients at perceived highest risk of relapse on suppressive antibiotic therapy (SAT). In this narrative review, we synthesize the literature concerning the role of SAT to prevent treatment failure following DAIR, attempting to answer 3 key questions: (1) What factors identify patients at highest risk for treatment failure after DAIR (ie, patients with the greatest potential to benefit from SAT), (2) Does SAT reduce the rate of treatment failure after DAIR, and (3) What are the rates of treatment failure and adverse events necessitating treatment discontinuation in patients receiving SAT? We conclude by proposing risk-benefit stratification criteria to guide use of SAT after DAIR for PJI, informed by the limited available literature.

Incidence, associated disease burden and healthcare utilization due to Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic joint infection in European hospitals: the COMBACTE-NET ARTHR-IS multi-centre study

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to estimate the incidence, associated disease burden and healthcare utilization due to Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic joint infections (SA-PJI) after primary hip and knee arthroplasty in European centres.

METHODS

This study was conducted in patients who underwent primary hip and knee arthroplasty in 19 European hospitals between 2014 and 2016. The global incidence of PJI and SA-PJI was calculated. The associated disease burden was measured indirectly as infection-related mortality plus loss of function. For healthcare utilization, number and duration of hospitalizations, number and type of surgical procedures, duration of antibiotic treatments, and number of outpatient visits were collected. Subgroup and regression analyses were used to evaluate the impact of SA-PJI on healthcare utilization, controlling for confounding variables.

RESULTS

The incidence of PJI caused by any micro-organism was 1.41%, and 0.40% for SA-PJI. Among SA-PJI, 20.7% were due to MRSA with substantial regional differences, and were more frequent in partial hip arthroplasty (PHA). Related deaths and loss of function occurred in 7.0% and 10.2% of SA-PJI cases, respectively, and were higher in patients with PHA. Compared with patients without PJI, patients with SA-PJI had a mean of 1.4 more readmissions, 25.1 more days of hospitalization, underwent 1.8 more surgical procedures, and had 5.4 more outpatient visits, controlling for confounding variables. Healthcare utilization was higher in patients who failed surgical treatment of SA-PJI.

CONCLUSIONS

This study confirmed that the SA-PJI burden is high, especially in PHA, and provided a solid basis for planning interventions to prevent SA-PJI.

Multicenter evaluation of the BIOFIRE Joint Infection Panel for the detection of bacteria, yeast, and AMR genes in synovial fluid samples

The bioMérieux BIOFIRE Joint Infection (JI) Panel is a multiplex in vitro diagnostic test for the simultaneous and rapid (~1 h) detection of 39 potential pathogens and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes directly from synovial fluid (SF) samples. Thirty-one species or groups of microorganisms are included in the kit, as well as several AMR genes. This study, performed to evaluate the BIOFIRE JI Panel for regulatory clearance, provides data from a multicenter evaluation of 1,544 prospectively collected residual SF samples with performance compared to standard-of-care (SOC) culture for organisms or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing for AMR genes. The BIOFIRE JI Panel demonstrated a sensitivity of 90.9% or greater for all but six organisms and a positive percent agreement (PPA) of 100% for all AMR genes. The BIOFIRE JI Panel demonstrated a specificity of 98.5% or greater for detection of all organisms and a negative percent agreement (NPA) of 95.7% or greater for all AMR genes. The BIOFIRE JI Panel provides an improvement over SOC culture, with a substantially shorter time to result for both organisms and AMR genes with excellent sensitivity/PPA and specificity/NPA, and is anticipated to provide timely and actionable diagnostic information for joint infections in a variety of clinical scenarios.

Methicillin Resistance Increased the Risk of Treatment Failure in Native Joint Septic Arthritis Caused by Staphylococcus aureus

This study aimed to compare clinical characteristics and outcomes in patients with native joint septic arthritis (NJSA) due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in comparison to methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) and identify treatment failure risk factors. We conducted a multi-center retrospective study on adult NJSA patients at three teaching hospitals in South Korea from 2005 to 2017. Among 101 patients diagnosed with S. aureus NJSA, 39 (38.6%) had MRSA strains. Compared to MSSA, patients with MRSA had a higher prevalence of nosocomial infections (17.9% vs. 1.6%; p = 0.005) and received inappropriate antibiotics within 48 h more frequently (74.4% vs. 0%; p < 0.001). In total, twenty patients (19.8%) experienced treatment failure, which encompassed five patients (5.0%) who passed away, nine (8.9%) requiring repeated surgical drainage after 30 days of antibiotic therapy, and seven (6.9%) with relapse. The MRSA group showed a higher rate of overall treatment failure (33.3% vs. 11.3%; p = 0.007) with a notably increased frequency of requiring repeated surgical interventions after 30 days of antibiotic therapy (17.9% vs. 3.2%, p = 0.026), in contrast to the MSSA group. Independent risk factors for treatment failure included Charlson comorbidity score, elevated CRP levels, and methicillin resistance. Methicillin resistance is an independent risk factor for treatment failure, emphasizing the need for vigilant monitoring and targeted interventions in MRSA-related NJSA cases.

Administering Antibiotics for Less Than Four Weeks Increases the Risk of Relapse in Culture-Positive Septic Arthritis of Native Joints

(1) Objectives: This study investigated the optimal duration of antibiotic therapy and determined the risk factors associated with relapse in patients with culture-proven septic arthritis of native joints. (2) Methods: A retrospective review was conducted on patients aged ≥18 years diagnosed with native joint septic arthritis, with bacteria isolated from joints and/or blood. The exclusion criteria were prosthetic joint infections and cases with no identified microorganisms. The outcomes were assessed in the remission and relapse groups. (3) Results: Among 479 patients with native joint septic arthritis, 137 met the inclusion criteria, with a median follow-up duration of 2.7 years. The relapse rate was 9.5%, which mainly occurred within 30 days after antibiotic treatment completion. Compared with the remission group, the relapse group showed a significantly higher proportion of cases that received antibiotic therapy for ≤ 4 weeks (4.8% vs. 46.2%, p < 0.001), synovial fluid white blood cell (WBC) counts ≥150 × 103/mm3 (25.3% vs. 60.0%, p = 0.030), acute kidney injury (19.2% vs. 50%, p = 0.024), and extended-spectrum beta-lactamases-producing Enterobacteriaceae (0.8 vs. 15.4%, p = 0.024). Independent risk factors for relapse were determined as antibiotic therapy duration of ≤ 4 weeks (odds ratio (OR), 25.47; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.57-412.33; p = 0.023) and synovial fluid WBC counts ≥150 × 103/mm3 (OR, 17.46; 95% CI, 1.74-175.62; p = 0.015). (4) Conclusions: Patients with native joint septic arthritis require vigilant monitoring for relapse, particularly when treated with antibiotic regimens administered for less than four weeks or when synovial aspirates exhibit elevated WBC counts at diagnosis.

Periprosthetic Joint Infection: Current Clinical Challenges

Over the last several decades, periprosthetic joint infection has been increasing in incidence and is occurring in more complex patients. While there have been advances in both surgical and medical treatment strategies, there remain important gaps in our understanding. Here, we share our current approaches to the diagnosis and management of periprosthetic joint infection, focusing on frequent clinical challenges and collaborative interdisciplinary care.

Should We Use Rifampicin in Periprosthetic Joint Infections Caused by Staphylococci When the Implant Has Been Exchanged? A Multicenter Observational Cohort Study

Background

Previous studies demonstrated the efficacy of a rifampicin-based regimen in the treatment of acute staphylococcal periprosthetic joint infections (PJIs) treated with surgical debridement. However, evidence is lacking to support the use of rifampicin in cases where the implant is exchanged during revision.

Methods

We included all consecutive cases of staphylococcal PJIs treated from January 2013 to December 2018 with revision surgery in this international, retrospective, multicenter observational cohort study. PJI was defined according to the European Bone and Joint Infection Society diagnostic criteria. A relapse or reinfection during follow-up, the need for antibiotic suppressive therapy, the need for implant removal, and PJI-related death were defined as clinical failure. Cases without reimplantation or with follow-up <12 months were excluded.

Results

A total of 375 cases were included in the final analysis, including 124 1-stage exchanges (33.1%) and 251 2-stage exchanges (66.9%). Of those, 101 cases failed (26.9%). There was no statistically significant difference in failure of patients receiving rifampicin (22.5%, 42/187) and those not receiving rifampicin (31.4%, 59/188; P = .051). A subanalysis of chronic PJIs treated by 2-stage exchange arthroplasty demonstrated a lower failure rate in cases treated with rifampicin (15%) compared with the no-rifampicin group (35.5%; P = .005). In this subgroup, the use of rifampicin and an antibiotic holiday of >2 weeks were independent predictors of clinical success (odds ratio [OR], 0.36; 95% CI, 0.15-0.88; and OR, 0.19; 95% CI, 0.04-0.90; respectively).

Conclusions

Combination treatment with rifampicin increases treatment success in patients with chronic staphylococcal PJI treated with 2-stage exchange arthroplasty.

Incidence of Rifampicin Resistance in Periprosthetic Joint Infection: A Single-Centre Cohort Study on 238 Patients

BACKGROUND

Rifampicin is a pillar in the treatment of periprosthetic joint infection (PJI). However, rifampicin resistance is an increasing threat to PJI treatment. This study explores the incidence of rifampicin-resistant bacteria over time in a Swedish tertiary referral centre and the association of rifampicin resistance with infection-free survival after PJI.

METHODS

The study included 238 staphylococcal PJIs treated between 2001 and 2020 for which susceptibility data for rifampicin were available. Data on causative bacteria, rifampicin resistance, treatment, and outcome were obtained. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and Cox regression modelling estimated the infection-free cumulative survival and adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) for the risk of treatment failure.

RESULTS

Rifampicin-resistant causative bacteria were identified in 40 cases (17%). The proportion of rifampicin-resistant agents decreased from 24% in 2010-2015 to 12% in 2016-2020. The 2-year infection-free survival rates were 78.6% (95% CI, 66.4-93.1%) for the rifampicin-resistant group and 90.0% (95% CI, 85.8-94.4%) for the rifampicin-sensitive group. Patients with PJI caused by rifampicin-resistant bacteria had an increased risk of treatment failure (adjusted HR, 4.2; 95% CI, 1.7-10.3).

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of PJI caused by rifampicin-resistant bacteria did not increase over the past 20 years. The risk of treatment failure in PJI caused by rifampicin-resistant bacteria is more than four times that caused by rifampicin-sensitive bacteria, highlighting the importance of limiting the development of rifampicin resistance.

Hydrogel Coating versus Calcium Sulphate Beads as a Local Antibiotic Carrier for Debridement Procedures in Acute Periprosthetic Joint Infection: A Preliminary Study

Periprosthetic joint infections (PJI) are among the most difficult complications to treat in orthopaedic surgery. Debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR) represent an efficient strategy for acute PJI, especially when resorbable local antibiotic carriers and coatings are used. The aim of this pilot study was to evaluate the difference between using antibiotic-loaded hydrogel (ALH) and calcium sulphate (CS) beads in the DAIR procedure. We analysed 16 patients who had been treated since 2018 for acute PJI, namely eight patients with knee PJI (50%), seven with hip PJI (43.7%), and one with shoulder PJI (6.2%). Nine patients were treated with the Debridement, Antibiotic Coating and Retention of the Implant (DACRI) method, while seven were treated with the Debridement, Antibiotic Pearls, Retention of the Implant (DAPRI) method. We found no significant differences between the two groups in terms of age, sex, the American Society of Anesthesiologists risk score, Charlson Comorbidity Index, localisation, days from onset to diagnosis and pathogenesis. Furthermore, no differences were found between the DACRI and DAPRI groups in terms of infection control (15 patients, 93.75% with p = 0.36) and last C-Reactive Protein values (p = 0.26), with a mean follow-up of 26.1 ± 7.7 months. Treatment for one patient affected by knee Candida albicans PJI in the DACRI group was not successful. In conclusion, DAPRI and DACRI appear to be safe and effective treatments for PJIs. This evidence will encourage the development of new clinical research into local carriers and coatings for use in acute implant-associated infections.

Interest in the combination of antimicrobial therapy for orthopaedic device-related infections due to Enterococcus spp

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this study was to evaluate the management of orthopaedic device-related infections (ODRIs) due to Enterococcus spp.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study in a French tertiary university hospital. Patients with prosthetic joint- or osteosynthesis-associated infections caused by enterococci from 2013 to 2020 were included. Patients who died within 5 days after surgery; who were in palliative care; or who had osteosynthesis of the hand, foot or vertebra were excluded.

RESULTS

Thirty-six patients were included, with 24 in the arthroplasty group and 12 in the osteosynthesis material group. Most infections were polymicrobial (63.9%, n = 23). Debridement, antibiotics and implant retention (DAIR) was performed in 30.6% (n = 11), withdrawal of material in 16.7% (n = 6), one-stage exchange in 30.6% (n = 11) and two-stage exchange in 22.2% of cases (n = 8). The antibiotic regimen was amoxicillin in 41.6% (n = 15), rifampicin in 27.8% (n = 10), linezolid in 25% (n = 9) and/or fluoroquinolones in 30.6% (n = 11). Clinical success at 1 year was 67% (18/27). The only variable statistically associated with a decreased risk of clinical failure was a duration of antibiotic therapy of 12 weeks (p = 0.04). Patients with a lower body mass index and age tended to decrease the risk of clinical failure (p = 0.05 and 0.06 respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The management of enterococcal ODRIs is complex, and ODRI patients are at high risk for relapse. In our small study, a better outcome was not demonstrated for patients with combination therapy and rifampicin use. Further studies are needed to improve the medico-surgical strategy for treating these infections.

Debridement, antimicrobials, and implant retention in the treatment of late acute and early acute Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic joint infections

BACKGROUND

Staphylococcus aureus is the most common microbe in prosthetic joint infections (PJIs). Debridement, antimicrobials, and implant retention (DAIR) are often-recommended treatment modality for acute PJIs, even though it has had relatively poor outcomes in some studies. In this study, we wanted to examine treatment results with a multidisciplinary team in a specialised centre and obtain further information for treatment decisions in acute Staphylococcus aureus PJIs.

METHODS

All consecutive haematogenous late acute and postoperative early acute hip and knee Staphylococcus aureus PJIs treated with DAIR during 2011-2016 were included in this retrospective study. DAIR within three weeks from symptom onset and the exchange of modular parts were required.

RESULTS

Eighty-five acute Staphylococcus aureus PJIs were treated with DAIR in 83 patients: 28 late acute and 57 early acute PJIs. The late acute PJI patients were older and had malignancies more often than the early acute PJI patients. Bacteraemia was present in 50.6% of Staphylococcus aureus PJI patients, more often in late acute (73.1%) than in early acute (40.4%) patients (p = .006). The implant was retained in 80.0%: 89.3% of the late acute and 75.4% of the early acute PJIs. In 17 joints, DAIR failed and the joint had to be removed. Fourteen of these joints were successfully replaced. One infection-related death occurred. The one-year all-cause mortality rate was 3.6%. Suppressive antimicrobial treatment was given to 22 (26.5%) patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Reasonably good treatment results for acute Staphylococcus aureus PJIs are achievable by DAIR in a specialised centre with a strict treatment protocol and a multidisciplinary team. If the DAIR fails, a two-stage exchange is usually still possible, with good results.

Prosthetic knee joint infection caused by α-hemolytic Streptococcus species: a case report

BACKGROUND

Knee arthroplasty is an orthopedic surgical procedure in which a damaged joint is replaced with an artificial one. It is estimated that 1-2% of knee arthroplasties will encounter infection over their lifetime. Although α-hemolytic Streptococcus species play an important role in prosthetic joint infection, they are less common than staphylococcal species.

CASE PRESENTATION

In this report, a 50-year-old Iranian woman was diagnosed with prosthetic knee joint infection based on clinical, radiological, and laboratory findings. She was diabetic and had undergone a left total knee arthroplasty, which, 18 months after the surgery, presented pain, erythema, and edema in that knee. The primary culture of knee aspirate was positive for α-hemolytic Streptococcus species, but following antibiotic medication, culture was negative. The primary antibiotic regime was vancomycin and meropenem, which was changed to cefepime for the management of the infection based on the results of antimicrobial susceptibility testing.

CONCLUSIONS

This report indicated the clinical presentation and management of the patient with prosthetic joint infection in which the patient recovered without any severe complications or surgical intervention.

Rifampicin in periprosthetic joint infections: where do we stand and where are we headed?

INTRODUCTION

A periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is a major complication of arthroplasty. Treatment of PJI consists of surgical debridement with or without the exchange of the implant and long-term antimicrobial treatment. Rifampicin is regarded as one of the cornerstones of antimicrobial treatment for staphylococcal PJI, but the exact role of rifampicin for PJI in different clinical scenarios remains to be elucidated.

AREAS COVERED

In this perspective article, an overview is provided of in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies that were the basis of the current guidelines and recommendations for rifampicin use in daily practice for PJI. Controversial issues on indication, dosing, timing, duration and antibiotic drug interactions will be addressed. Finally, the most urgent clinical questions on rifampicin use that need answering in the nearby future will be formulated.

EXPERT OPINION

Many inquiries remain concerning the exact indications and clinical use of rifampicin in PJI. Randomized controlled trials are needed to answer these questions.

Success of Debridement, Antibiotics, and Implant Retention in Prosthetic Joint Infection Following Primary Total Knee Arthroplasty: Results from a Prospective Multicenter Study of 189 Cases

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to identify the success rate of debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR) for prosthetic joint infection (PJI) in a large prospective cohort of patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty (TKA). The ability for different PJI classification systems to predict success was assessed.

METHODS

Prospective data recorded in the Prosthetic Joint Infection in Australia and New Zealand Observational (PIANO) study was analyzed. 189 newly diagnosed knee PJIs were managed with DAIR between July 2014 and December 2017. Patients were prospectively followed up for 2 years. A strict definition of success was used, requiring the patient being alive with documented absence of infection, no ongoing antibiotics and the index prosthesis in place. Success was compared against the Coventry (early PJI = ≤1 month), International Consensus Meeting (early = ≤90 days), Auckland (early = <1 year), and Tsukayama (early = ≤1 month, hematogenous = >1 month with <7 days symptoms, chronic = >1 month with >7 days symptoms) classifications.

RESULTS

DAIR success was 45% (85/189) and was highest in early PJIs defined according to the Coventry (adjusted odds ratio [aOdds Ratio (OR)] = 3.9, P=0.01), the ICM (aOR = 3.1, p=0.01), and the Auckland classifications (aOR = 2.6, P=0.01). Success was lower in both hematogenous (aOR = 0.4, P=0.03) and chronic infections (aOR = 0.1, P=0.003).

CONCLUSION

Time since primary TKA is an important predictor of DAIR success. Success was highest in infections occurring <1 month of the primary TKA and progressively decreased as time since the primary TKA increased.

Principles of mechanical and chemical debridement with implant retention

BACKGROUND

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is one of the most common causes of early revision for total hip and knee arthroplasty. Mechanical and chemical debridement typically referred to as debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR) can be a successful technique to eradicate PJI in acute postoperative or acute hematogenous infections. This review will focus specifically on the indications, techniques, and outcomes of DAIR.

DISCUSSION

The success of mechanical and chemical debridement, or a DAIR operation, is reliant on a combination of appropriate patient selection and meticulous technique. There are many technical considerations to take into consideration. One of the most important factors in the success of the DAIR procedure is the adequacy of mechanical debridement. Techniques are surgeon-specific and perhaps contribute to the large variability in the literature on the success of DAIR. Factors that have been shown to be associated with success include the exchange of modular components, performing the procedure within seven days or less of symptom onset, and possibly adjunctive rifampin or fluoroquinolone therapy, though this remains controversial. Factors that have been associated with failure include rheumatoid arthritis, age greater than 80 years, male sex, chronic renal failure, liver cirrhosis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

CONCLUSIONS

DAIR is an effective treatment option for the management of an acute postoperative or hematogenous PJI in the appropriately selected patient with well-fixed implants.

Poor outcome after debridement and implant retention for acute hematogenous periprosthetic joint infection: a cohort study of 43 patients

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The management of acute hematogenous periprosthetic joint infection (AHI) is challenging and the optimal treatment is not clearly defined. The aim of this study was to evaluate the treatment outcome of AHI, and secondarily to investigate potential risk factors that affect outcome.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed 43 consecutive AHIs in a total hip or knee arthroplasty between 2013 and 2020 at a single center. We used the Delphi international consensus criteria to define infection. Patients were treated by either debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR) (n = 25), implant exchange/removal (n = 15), or suppressive antibiotics only (n = 3). AHI was defined as abrupt symptoms of infection ≥ 3 months after implantation in an otherwise well-functioning arthroplasty.

RESULTS

AHI was most often caused by Staphylococcus aureus (16/43) and streptococcal species (13/43), but a broad spectrum of microbes were identified. 25 of 43 were treated with DAIR, with success in 10 of 25, which was significantly lower than in patients treated with removal of the implant with success in 14 of 15. S. aureus infection, knee arthroplasty, and implant age < 2 years were associated with treatment failure. The 2-year mortality rate was 8 of 43.

CONCLUSION

The outcome following DAIR in AHIs was poor. The majority of infections were caused by virulent microbes, and we found a high mortality rate. Removal of the implant should more often be considered.

Treating Hepatitis C Prior to Total Hip Arthroplasty is Cost Effective: A Markov Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Patients infected with the hepatitis C virus (HCV) have high complication rates following total hip arthroplasty (THA). Advances in HCV therapy now enable clinicians to eradicate the disease, however, its cost effectiveness from an orthopaedic perspective remains to be demonstrated. We sought to conduct a cost effectiveness analysis comparing no therapy to direct acting antiviral therapy (DAA) prior to THA among HCV positive patients.

METHODS

A Markov model was utilized to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of treating HCV with DAA prior to THA. The model was powered with event probabilities, mortality, cost and quality adjusted life-year values for patients with and without HCV that were obtained from the published literature. This included treatment costs, successes of HCV eradication, incidences of superficial or periprosthetic joint infection (PJI), probabilities of utilizing various PJI treatment modalities, PJI treatment success/failures, and mortality rates. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was compared to a willingness-to-pay threshold of $50,000/QALY.

RESULTS

Our Markov model indicates that in comparison to no therapy, DAA prior to THA is cost-effective for HCV positive patients. THA in the setting of no therapy and DAA added 8.06 and 14.39 QALYs at a mean cost of $28,800 and $115,800. The ICER associated with HCV DAA in comparison to no therapy was $13,800/QALY, below the willingness-to-pay threshold of $50,000/QALY.

CONCLUSION

Hepatitis-C treatment with DAA prior to THA is cost-effective at all current drug list prices. Given these findings, strong consideration should be given to treating patients for HCV prior to elective THA.

Antimicrobial treatment of patients with a periprosthetic joint infection: basic principles

The antibiotic treatment of periprosthetic joint infections (PJI) is complicated by the presence of biofilm produced by bacteria on the abiotic surface of the implant. Bacteria within the deeper layers of the biofilm become metabolically less active, resulting in antibiotic tolerance due to several mechanisms. This review describes the basic principles of antibiotic treatment in PJI in relation to the behavior of bacteria within the biofilm. The concept of biofilm-active antibiotics will be explained from an in vitro as well as in vivo perspective. Evidence from clinical studies on biofilm-active antibiotics in PJI will be highlighted, mainly focusing on the role of rifampicin for Gram-positive microorganisms and fluoroquinolones for Gram-negative microorganisms. The optimal treatment duration will be discussed as the timing of switching to oral antibiotic therapy.

Diagnostic Role of mNGS in Polymicrobial Periprosthetic Joint Infection

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to explore the clinical value of metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) in the diagnosis of polymicrobial periprosthetic joint infection (PJI).

METHODS

Patients with complete data who underwent surgery at our hospital between July 2017 and January 2021 for suspected periprosthetic joint infection (PJI), according to the 2018 ICE diagnostic criteria, were enrolled, and all patients underwent microbial culture and mNGS detection, which were performed on the BGISEQ-500 platform. Microbial cultures were performed on two samples of synovial fluid, six samples of tissue, and two samples of prosthetic sonicate fluid for each patient. The mNGS was performed on 10 tissues, 64 synovial fluid samples, and 17 prosthetic sonicate fluid samples. The results of mNGS testing were based on the interpretation of mNGS results in the previous literature and the assertions of microbiologists and orthopedic surgeons. The diagnostic efficacy of mNGS in polymicrobial PJI was assessed by comparing the results of conventional microbial cultures and mNGS.

RESULTS

A total of 91 patients were finally enrolled in this study. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of conventional culture for the diagnosis of PJI were 71.0%, 95.4%, and 76.9%, respectively. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of mNGS for the diagnosis of PJI were 91.3%, 86.3%, and 90.1%, respectively. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of conventional culture for the diagnosis of polymicrobial PJI were 57.1%, 100%, and 91.3%, respectively. mNGS had a sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 85.7%, 60.0%, and 65.2%, respectively, for the diagnosis of polymicrobial PJI.

CONCLUSIONS

mNGS can improve the diagnosis efficiency of polymicrobial PJI, and the combination of culture and mNGS is a promising method to diagnose polymicrobial PJI.

Do Anti-Biofilm Antibiotics Have a Place in the Treatment of Diabetic Foot Osteomyelitis?

The choice of antibiotic regimens for use in patients presenting with diabetic foot osteomyelitis and their duration differs according to the situation. Antibiotics play a more important role in the medical option where no infected bone has been resected, while their role is reduced but not negligible in the case of surgical options. Some studies have reported the presence of biofilm structures in bone samples taken from patients with diabetic foot osteomyelitis, which raises the question of the place of anti-biofilm antibiotic regimens in this setting. During the last two decades, clinical studies have suggested a potential benefit for anti-biofilm antibiotics, mainly rifampicin against staphylococci and fluoroquinolones against gram-negative bacilli. However, no data from randomized controlled studies have been reported so far. The present work provides a summary of the available data on the question of the place of anti-biofilm antibiotics for the treatment of diabetic foot osteomyelitis, but also the potential limitations of such treatments.

Molecular Diagnosis of Osteoarticular Implant-Associated Infection: Available Techniques and How We Can Use Them

Despite recent advances during the last few years, microbiological diagnosis of prosthetic joint infections remains a challenge. Molecular biology techniques have been developed to try to overcome this problem, and recently, many of them have become available for many laboratories. Some of them, especially commercial multiplex PCR-based assays and universal 16S rDNA homemade PCR assays, are now available in many laboratories. Moreover, new technologies have appeared, especially metagenomics and next-generation sequencing. These techniques have demonstrated their potential in many studies but appear to be experimental at present. A few studies have evaluated the possible use of these methods in the clinical routine, and a review of the critical aspects for the selection of a molecular method (accuracy, complexity, cost) was performed. Finally, a proposal for a protocol that includes molecular biology techniques was made according to the literature published in this field. In conclusion, molecular biology techniques are ready to be used in the clinical routine of a microbiology laboratory, but their use must be carried out in accordance with the many special characteristics of each laboratory. In all cases, the interpretation of the results must be conducted by a multidisciplinary team with experience in the management of these patients.

The Clinical Outcome of Early Periprosthetic Joint Infections Caused by Staphylococcus epidermidis and Managed by Surgical Debridement in an Era of Increasing Resistance

INTRODUCTION

A risk factor for the failure of surgical debridement in patients with early periprosthetic joint infections (PJI) is the presence of multidrug-resistant microorganisms. Staphylococcus epidermidis is one of the most isolated microorganisms in PJI and is associated with emerging resistance patterns. We aimed to assess the antibiotic resistance patterns of S. epidermidis in early PJIs treated with surgical debridement and correlate them to clinical outcomes.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A retrospective multicentre observational study was conducted to evaluate patients with an early PJI (within 3 months after the index arthroplasty) by S. epidermidis with at least two positive intraoperative cultures. Clinical failure was defined as the need for additional surgical intervention or antibiotic suppressive therapy to control the infection.

RESULTS

A total of 157 patients were included. The highest rate of resistance was observed for methicillin in 82% and ciprofloxacin in 65% of the cases. Both were associated with a higher rate of clinical failure (41.2% vs. 12.5% (p 0.048) and 47.3% vs. 14.3% (p 0.015)), respectively. Furthermore, 70% of the cases had reduced susceptibility to vancomycin (MIC ≥ 2), which showed a trend towards a higher failure rate (39.6% vs. 19.0%, NS). Only 7% of the cases were rifampin-resistant. Only the resistance to fluoroquinolones was an independent risk factor for clinical failure in the multivariate analysis (OR 5.45, 95% CI 1.67-17.83).

CONCLUSION

S. epidermidis PJIs show a high rate of resistance. Resistance to fluoroquinolones is associated with clinical failure. Alternative prophylactic antibiotic regimens and optimising treatment strategies are needed to improve clinical outcomes.

The concordance between preoperative synovial fluid culture and intraoperative tissue cultures in periprosthetic joint infection: a systematic review

Background: this systematic review aims to evaluate the concordance between preoperative synovial fluid culture and intraoperative tissue cultures in patients with periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) undergoing total hip (THA) or knee arthroplasty (TKA) revision surgery. Methods: this review was conducted in accordance with the preferred reporting items for a systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic test accuracy studies (PRISMA-DTA) statement. Cochrane, Embase, PubMed, and Web of Science databases were searched to identify studies involving patients who had THA or TKA revision surgery for PJI and for whom preoperative synovial fluid culture and intraoperative tissue cultures were performed. Studies were only included if the diagnosis of PJI was based on the EBJIS (the European Bone and Joint Infection Society) or MSIS (Musculoskeletal Infection Society) criteria. Risk of bias was assessed using an amended version of Joanna Briggs Institute's (JBI) critical appraisal checklist for case series. Results: seven studies were included in this review comprising 1677 patients. All studies had a retrospective study design and five studies explored patients undergoing revision surgery of THA or TKA. Concordance rates varied between 52 % and 79 %, but different authors defined and calculated concordance differently. Six studies were judged as having an unclear to high risk of bias and one study as having a low risk of bias. Conclusions: the included studies showed a wide range of concordance rates between preoperative synovial fluid culture and intraoperative tissue cultures and the majority of studies had a high risk of bias. Higher-quality studies are warranted to obtain a more accurate estimate of this concordance rate. We recommend continuing the use of a system such as the EBJIS definition or MSIS criteria when diagnosing PJI.

The role of Staphylococcus aureus small colony variants in intraosseous invasion and colonization in periprosthetic joint infection

AIMS

This study aimed to explore the role of small colony variants (SCVs) of Staphylococcus aureus in intraosseous invasion and colonization in patients with periprosthetic joint infection (PJI).

METHODS

A PJI diagnosis was made according to the MusculoSkeletal Infection Society (MSIS) for PJI. Bone and tissue samples were collected intraoperatively and the intracellular invasion and intraosseous colonization were detected. Transcriptomics of PJI samples were analyzed and verified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

RESULTS

SCVs can be isolated from samples collected from chronic PJIs intraoperatively. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and immunofluorescence (IF) showed that there was more S. aureus in bone samples collected from chronic PJIs, but much less in bone samples from acute PJIs, providing a potential mechanism of PJI. Immunofluorescence results showed that SCVs of S. aureus were more likely to invade osteoblasts in vitro. Furthermore, TEM and IF also demonstrated that SCVs of S. aureus were more likely to invade and colonize in vivo. Cluster analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) showed that there were substantial differences in gene expression profiles between chronic and acute PJI. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis showed that these differentially expressed genes were enriched to chemokine-related signal pathways. PCR also verified these results.

CONCLUSION

Our study has shown that the S. aureus SCVs have a greater ability to invade and colonize in bone, resulting in S. aureus remaining in bone tissues long-term, thus explaining the pathogenesis of chronic PJI.Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2022;11(12):843-853.

Adjunctive Rifampin Following Debridement and Implant Retention for Staphylococcal Prosthetic Joint Infection: Is it Effective if not Combined With a Fluoroquinolone?

Whether rifampin benefits retained staphylococcal prosthetic joint infection is unsettled. In a meta-analysis of 8 studies, we found greater clinical cure with fluoroquinolone-rifampin vs all other regimens (odds ratio [OR], 2.68; 95% CI, 1.43-5.02), but no greater cure with other rifampin combinations vs regimens without rifampin (OR, 1.22; 95% CI, 0.79-1.88).

The Impact of Sex on the Outcomes of Prosthetic Joint Infection Treatment with Debridement, Antibiotics and Implant Retention: A Systematic Review and Individual Patient Data Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The influence of sex on the failure of débridement antibiotics and implant retention (DAIR) for treating prosthetic joint infection (PJI) is important for decision-making, patient counseling, and equitable health care. However, very few studies in the orthopaedic literature conduct sex-specific analyses.

AIM

The primary aim was to determine whether sex influences treatment success after DAIR.

METHODS

A systematic review and individual patient data (IPD) meta-analysis was conducted. MEDLINE (Ovid), EMBASE (Ovid), Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched, and IPD was requested via e-mail. Patients who underwent DAIR after developing PJI within 12 months of a primary total hip or knee arthroplasty were included in the analysis. Treatment failure was defined by the Delphi International Consensus criteria. Adjusted odds ratios for treatment failure were calculated using a mixed-effects logistic regression.

RESULTS

The study collected and analyzed IPD of 1,116 patients from 21 cohorts. The odds of treatment failure were 29% lower in women (odds ratio, 0.71; 95% CI 0.54 to 0.017; P = 0.017), after adjusting for duration of symptoms >7 days and Staphylococcus aureus infection (methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus or any infection with S aureus). None of the 64 studies included in the systematic review conducted a sex-specific analysis.

CONCLUSION

For patients who developed a PJI within 1 year postsurgery, females have lower odds of DAIR failure than males. Other factors also have varying effects on outcome for men and women. It is essential to implement sex-specific analysis in orthopaedic research.

Rates of Antimicrobial Resistance With Extended Oral Antibiotic Prophylaxis After Total Joint Arthroplasty

Background

There is increased interest and utilization of extended oral antibiotic prophylaxis (EOAP) following primary and revision total hip arthroplasties (THAs) and total knee arthroplasties (TKAs). The purpose of this study was to look for potential associations between EOAP and differential rates of antimicrobial resistance or epidemiology of organisms causing periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) following primary and aseptic revision THAs/TKAs.

Methods

Patients who developed PJI following a primary or aseptic revision TKA/THA at a single institution from 2009 to 2020 were retrospectively identified. Patients who received at least 7 days of EOAP following the surgery were noted. Rates of antimicrobial resistance were compared between standard antibiotic prophylaxis and EOAP cohorts using the Fisher's exact test.

Results

One hundred twenty-eight cultures were obtained from 119 patients with PJI. Fourty-four cases (37%) developed PJI after EOAP. Staphylococcus aureus was the most frequently isolated organism (30% of all cultures; 78% were methicillin-sensitive). Rates of antimicrobial resistance were similar between standard antibiotic prophylaxis and EOAP cohorts in all but 2 instances: Increased resistance to erythromycin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole was observed in coagulase-negative Staphylococci isolates in the EOAP cohort (89% vs 21%, P < .01; 44% vs 0%, P = .02). An increased frequency of gram-negative organisms was observed in the EOAP group (22% vs 8%, P = .03).

Conclusions

Rates of antimicrobial resistance were not significantly different between EOAP and standard antibiotic prophylaxis cohorts except in coagulase-negative Staphylococci. The increased frequency of gram-negative infections was present in the EOAP cohort. Larger, multicenter studies are needed to better understand the impact of EOAP on antimicrobial resistance and PJI epidemiology.

Level of Evidence

Level III; retrospective cohort study.

Development of an innovative in vivo model of PJI treated with DAIR

Introduction

Prosthetic Joint Infection (PJI) are catastrophic complications of joint replacement. Debridement, implant retention, and antibiotic therapy (DAIR) is the usual strategy in acute infections but fails in 45% of MRSA infections. We describe the development of a model of infected arthroplasty in rabbits, treated with debridement and a course of vancomycin with clinically relevant dosage.

Materials and methods

A total of 15 rabbits were assigned to three groups: vancomycin pharmacokinetics (A), infection (B), and DAIR (C). All groups received a tibial arthroplasty using a Ti-6Al-4V implant. Groups B and C were infected per-operatively with a 5.5 log10 MRSA inoculum. After 1 week, groups C infected knees were surgically debrided. Groups A and C received 1 week of vancomycin. Pharmacokinetic profiles were obtained in group A following 1st and 5th injections. Animals were euthanized 2 weeks after the arthroplasty. Implants and tissue samples were processed for bacterial counts and histology.

Results

Average vancomycin AUC_{0–12 h} were 213.0 mg*h/L (1st injection) and 207.8 mg*h/L (5th injection), reaching clinical targets. All inoculated animals were infected. CFUs were reproducible in groups B. A sharp decrease in CFU was observed in groups C. Serum markers and leukocytes counts increased significantly in infected groups.

Conclusion

We developed a reproducible rabbit model of PJI treated with DAIR, using vancomycin at clinically relevant concentrations.

Microbiological and Molecular Features Associated with Persistent and Relapsing Staphylococcus aureus Prosthetic Joint Infection

Background: Persistent and relapsing prosthetic joint infection (PJI) due to Staphylococcus aureus presents a clinical challenge. This study aimed to provide an extensive description of phenotypic and genomic changes that could be related to persistence or relapse. Methods: Initial and second S. aureus isolates from 6 cases of persistent and relapsing PJI, along with clinical isolates from 8 cases, with favorable outcome were included. All isolates were studied by phenotypic and genotypic approaches. Results: Recurrent S. aureus isolates exhibited a significant increase in adhesive capacity, invasion and persistence compared to resolved isolates. No association was found for the presence or absence of certain genes with the persistence or relapse of PJI. All sequential isolates showed identical sequence type (ST). Resistance gene loss during the infection and a great diversity of variants in different virulence genes between the pair of strains, mainly in genes encoding adhesins such as fnbA, were observed. Conclusions: S. aureus-caused relapse and persistence PJI is associated with bacterial phenotypical and genotypical adaptation. The main paths of adaptation were persistence in the intracellular compartment, and the loss of antibiotic resistance genes and variant acquisition, especially in genes encoding adhesins.

The Use of Rifampin in Total Joint Arthroplasty: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Comparative Studies

BACKGROUND

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is a devastating complication of total joint arthroplasty (TJA). Rifampin is an antibiotic with the ability to penetrate bacterial biofilms, and thus has been considered as a potentially important adjunct in the prevention and treatment of PJI. The aim of this systematic review is to evaluate and summarize the use of rifampin in TJA, particularly in the context of PJI.

METHODS

A literature search of all relevant electronic databases was performed. All comparative studies assessing the use of rifampin in the context of TJA were included. Descriptive data are reported, and a meta-analysis was performed using all studies which compared the addition of rifampin to standard care in treating PJI.

RESULTS

A total of 33 studies met inclusion criteria. A meta-analysis of 22 studies comparing the addition of rifampin to standard care for treating PJI found a significant reduction in failure rates (26.0% vs 35.9%; odds ratio 0.61, 95% confidence interval 0.43-0.86). The protective effect of rifampin was maintained in studies which included exchange arthroplasty as a treatment strategy, but not in studies only using an implant retention strategy. Among studies reporting adverse events of rifampin, there was a 20.5% adverse event rate.

CONCLUSION

Overall, rifampin appears to confer a protective effect against treatment failure following PJI. This treatment effect is particularly pronounced in the context of exchange arthroplasty. Further high-level evidence is needed to clarify the exact indications and doses of rifampin which can most effectively act as an adjunct in the treatment of PJI.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Level I-III Studies.

For Patients With Acute PJI Treated With Debridement, Antibiotics, and Implant Retention, What Factors Are Associated With Systemic Sepsis and Recurrent or Persistent Infection in Septic Patients?

BACKGROUND

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) can lead to a severe systemic inflammatory response and may result in systemic sepsis. However, little is known about how often systemic sepsis may occur in patients with PJI, and whether sepsis is associated with a greater likelihood of persistent or recurrent PJI.

QUESTIONS/PURPOSES

(1) Among patients who present with acute or acute hematogenous PJI and who were treated with debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention (DAIR), what proportion have sepsis and what factors are associated with a presentation with sepsis? (2) For patients presenting with sepsis, what factors are associated with persistent or recurrent PJI?

METHODS

In all, 320 patients who underwent DAIR for the treatment of acute postoperative or acute hematogenous PJI between January 2000 and December 2019 were included in this study. Exclusion criteria were patients with other known sources of infection, such as pneumonia or urinary tract infections, which could contribute to systemic sepsis (6% [18 of 320]), patients with chronic PJI, and those with less than 6 months of follow-up (21% [66 of 320]). Our final cohort consisted of 236 patients presenting with an acute postoperative or acute hematogenous PJI who underwent an irrigation and debridement procedure. Sepsis was defined by the criteria for systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) or bacteria-positive blood culture results. Inclusion of patients with positive blood culture by organisms that caused their joint infection was important as all patients presented with fulminant acute infection of a prosthetic joint. Data, including vital signs, surgical variables, and treatment outcomes, were collected retrospectively through a chart review of an electronic medical record system. The statistical analysis comparing patients with sepsis versus patients without sepsis consisted of logistic regression to identify factors associated with sepsis. After confirming its ability to identify patients with a higher association with the development of sepsis through area under the curve models, a nomogram was generated to standardize our results from the regression, which was supported by the area under the curve model, to help readers better identify patients who are more likely to develop sepsis.

RESULTS

A total of 44% (103 of 236) of patients had infections that met the criteria for sepsis. After controlling for confounding variables, including congestive heart failure, anemia, serum C-reactive protein (CRP), and the male sex, it was revealed that serum CRP (odds ratio 1.07 [95% confidence interval 1.04 to 1.11]; p < 0.001) and male sex (OR 1.96 [95% CI 1.03 to 3.81]; p = 0.04) were associated with the development of systemic sepsis. For patients presenting with sepsis, persistent or recurrent PJI were associated with an increased CRP level (OR 1.06 [95% CI 1.02 to 1.11]; p = 0.01) and number of prior surgical procedures on the joint (OR 2.30 [95% CI 1.21 to 4.89]; p = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

Overall, our findings support that patients with systematic sepsis may benefit from two-stage revision rather than DAIR to decrease the bioburden more effectively, especially in those with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and polymicrobial infections. High serum CRP levels and a history of prior surgical procedures on the involved joint should trigger prompt, aggressive surgical treatment if the patient's overall clinical status can tolerate such an intervention.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, therapeutic study.

Structural biofilm resistance of carbon-infiltrated carbon nanotube coatings

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is a devastating complication of orthopedic implant surgeries, such as total knee and hip arthroplasties. Treatment requires additional surgeries because antibiotics have limited efficacy due to biofilm formation and resistant bacterial strains such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). A non-pharmaceutical approach is needed, and examples of this are found in nature; dragonfly and cicada wings are antibacterial because of their nanopillar surface structure rather than their chemistry. Carbon-infiltrated carbon nanotube (CICNT) surfaces exhibit a similar nanopillar structure, and have been shown to facilitate osseointegration, and it is postulated that they might provide a structurally-derived resistance to bacterial proliferation and biofilm formation. The objective of this study was to test the biofilm resistance of CICNT coatings. Two types of CICNT were produced: a vertically aligned CNT forest on a silicon substrate using a layer of iron as the catalyst (CICNT-Si) and a random-oriented CNT forest on stainless steel (SS) substrate using the substrate as the catalyst (CICNT-SS). These were tested against SS and carbon controls. After 48 h in an MRSA biofilm reactor, samples demonstrated that both types of CICNT coatings significantly (p < 0.0001) reduced MRSA biofilm formation by 60%-80%. Morphologically, biofilm presence on both types of CICNT was also significantly reduced. Clinical Significance: Results suggest that a CICNT surface modification could be suitable and advantageous for medical devices susceptible to MRSA cell attachment and biofilm proliferation, particularly orthopedic implants.

Does a New Antibiotic Scheme Improve the Outcome of Staphylococcus aureus-Caused Acute Prosthetic Joint Infections (PJI) Treated with Debridement, Antibiotics and Implant Retention (DAIR)?

One of the most commonly used treatments for acute prosthetic joint infection (PJI) is DAIR (debridement, antibiotics and implant retention), which comprises the debridement and the retention of the implant, followed by antibiotic treatment. The efficacy of DAIR remains unclear, as the literature has demonstrated variable success rates, ranging from 26% to 92%. The Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most closely related causative microorganisms, especially with acute and late-acute PJI; it has been identified as one of the most significant predictors of DAIR failure. The current guidelines consider the use of vancomycin as the therapy of choice, but it requires the close control of possible side effects. The aim of this study is to determine if a new combination of antibiotics (a highly bactericidal initial combination followed by an antibiofilm scheme) decreases the failure of DAIR-treated acute prosthetic joint infection (PJI) caused by Staphylococcus aureus. A retrospective analysis of cases of orthopedic infections during a nine-year period (2011–2019) was performed. A total of 45 acute PJI cases caused by S. aureus were diagnosed. The results of two antibiotic schemes were compared: a novel scheme comprising 5 days of daptomycin (10 mg/kg/24 h) + cloxacillin (2 g/6 h) followed by levofloxacin (500 mg/24 h) + rifampicin (600 mg/24 h), versus a traditional, less bactericidal scheme of vancomycin (1000 mg/12 h) plus rifampicin (600 mg/24 h) or levofloxacin (500 mg/24 h) plus rifampicin (600 mg/24 h). Twenty-two out of the twenty-four patients treated with the new scheme (91.6%) were free of infection after 24.8 months of mean follow-up, whereas fourteen out of twenty-one patients (66.6%) were free of infection after 46.6 months of follow-up. This difference was statistically significant (p = 0.036). Demographic comparisons demonstrated homogeneous features, except the Charlson score, which was higher in the novel scheme group (p = 0.047). The combination of high-dose daptomycin and cloxacillin, followed by levofloxacin plus rifampicin, together with surgical treatment, shows better results when compared with other antibiotic schemes for treating acute PJI caused by S. aureus in which DAIR was performed.

Polymicrobial Colonization of Prosthetic Joint Infections Treated With Open Wound Management

BACKGROUND

Open wound management in prosthetic joint infection (PJI) patients has been used in problematic dehisced wounds hoping to stimulate granulation tissue and closure. However, infections that start as a monomicrobial PJI can become polymicrobial with resultant worse outcomes following open wound management. This study assessed the relationship between open wound management and the development of polymicrobial periprosthetic joint infections.

METHODS

We reviewed patients referred with a synovial cutaneous fistula. Patients with an open wound measuring less than 2 cm and less than two weeks of open wound management were excluded. Variables included original organisms cultured, type and length of open wound management, and organisms cultured at the time of revision infection surgery.

RESULTS

Of the 65 patients with a previous monomicrobial infection treated with open wound management, 22/65 (34%) progressed to a polymicrobial infection. Thirty (46%) wounds were packed open with gauze, 20 (31%) were managed with negative pressure wound therapy, and 15 (23%) had surface dressings only. Of the 22 patients who converted to a polymicrobial infection, only 10 (45%) were infection free at follow-up. In contrast, 30 of 43 patients (70%) whose infections remained monomicrobial were infection free at follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Open wound management can lead to conversion from a monomicrobial to a polymicrobial PJI, a rate of 34% in this series. Open prosthetic wound management should be discontinued for a fear of converting a monomicrobial infection to a difficult to treat polymicrobial infection. Surgeons must be prudent in the use of open wound management.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, Retrospective Case Series.

Characterization of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Periprosthetic Joint Infections

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is a troublesome clinical issue in total joint arthroplasty (TJA). Although methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is considered to be the most serious pathogen in PJIs, little is known about the genotypic and phenotypic characteristics of MRSA clones isolated from PJI patients. A total of 36 MRSA isolates from PJI patients were collected at the Chang-Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan from May 2016 to October 2019. All MRSA isolates were subjected to genome typing. The prevalence of Panton–Valentine leucocidin (PVL), the antibiotic susceptibility profile, and the biofilm formation ability were compared among different MRSA genogroups. Additionally, demographics and clinical manifestations of patients infected with different MRSA genogroups were investigated. Eight sequence types (STs) were identified among 36 isolated from PJIs. According to the incidence of MRSA genotypes in PJIs, in this study, we divided them into four groups, including ST8 (n = 10), ST59 (n = 8), ST239 (n = 11), and other STs (n = 7). For the antibiotic susceptibility testing, we found that all MRSA isolates in the ST239 group were highly resistant to ciprofloxacin, gentamicin trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and levofloxacin. Additionally, ST239 MRSA also had a higher ability to form biofilm than other groups. Importantly, patients with ST239 infection typically had a fever and exhibited higher levels of inflammatory markers, including C-reactive protein (CRP) and white blood cell count (WBC). Epidemiological investigations revealed that knee PJIs were mainly attributed to infection with ST59 MRSA and increasing trends for infection with ST8 and other ST types of MRSAs in PJI patients were observed from 2016 to 2019. The identification of MRSA genotypes in PJIs may be helpful for the management of PJIs.

Streptococcal and Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic joint infections: are they really different?

Background

Staphylococci and streptococci are the most frequent pathogens isolated from prosthetic joint infections (PJIs). The aim of this study was to analyze the outcome of streptococcal and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) PJIs.

Methods

All monomicrobial streptococcal and MSSA PJIs managed in a French Referral Center (2010–2017) were sampled from the prospective PJIs cohort study. The primary outcome of interest was the cumulative reinfection-free survival at a 2-year follow-up.

Results

Two hundred and nine patients with 91 streptococcal and 132 staphylococcal infections were analyzed. Patients with streptococcal PJI were older, and infection was more frequently hematogenous. Reinfection-free survival rates at 2-years after all treatment strategies were higher for patients with streptococcal PJI (91% vs 81%; P = .012), but differed according to the strategy. After exchange arthroplasty, no outcome differences were observed (89% vs 93%; P = .878); after debridement, antibiotics and implant retention (DAIR), the reinfection-free survival rate was higher for patients with streptococcal PJI (87% vs 60%; P = .062). For patients managed with prolonged suppressive antibiotic therapy (SAT) alone, those with streptococcal PJIs had a 100% infection-free survival (100% vs 31%; P < .0001).

Conclusions

Reinfection-free survival after DAIR and SAT was better for patients with streptococcal than those with MSSA PJIs. No difference was observed after prosthesis exchange.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12879-022-07532-x.

Comparative Phenotypic and Genomic Features of Staphylococci from Sonication Fluid of Orthopedic Implant-Associated Infections with Poor Outcome

Staphylococcus spp. remain the leading biofilm-forming agents causing orthopedic implant-associated infections (OIAI). This is a descriptive study of phenotypic and genomic features identified in clinical isolates of S. aureus and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) recovered from OIAIs patients that progressed to treatment failure. Ten isolates were identified by matrix-time-of-flight laser-assisted desorption mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) and tested for antibiotic susceptibility and biofilm formation. Genotypic characteristics, including, MLST (Multi Locus Sequence Typing), SCCmec typing, virulence and resistance genes were assessed by whole-genome sequencing (WGS). All S. aureus harbored mecA, blaZ, and multiple resistance genes for aminoglycosides and quinolones. All MRSA were strong biofilm producers harboring the complete icaADBC and icaR operon. Seven CoNS isolates comprising five species (S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus, S. sciuri, S. capitis and S. lugdunensis) were analyzed, with mecA gene detected in five isolates. S. haemolitycus (isolate 95), and S. lugdunensis were unable to form biofilm and did not harbor the complete icaADBCR operon. High variability of adhesion genes was detected, with atl, ebp, icaADBC operon, and IS256 being the most common. In conclusion, MRSA and CoNS isolates carrying genes for biofilm production, and resistance to β-lactam and aminoglycosides are associated with treatment failure in OIAIs.

Prosthetic Knee Infection With Coagulase-Negative Staphylococcus: A Harbinger of Poor Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) are biofilm-producing pathogens whose role in periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is increasing. There is little data on the prognosis and treatment considerations in the setting of PJI. We sought to evaluate the clinical characteristics, outcomes, and complications in these patients.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study of adult patients at a single tertiary medical center from 2009 to 2020 with culture-proven CoNS PJI after total knee arthroplasty, as diagnosed by Musculoskeletal Infection Society criteria. The primary outcome was treatment success, with failure defined as recurrent CoNS PJI, recurrent PJI with a new pathogen, and/or chronic oral antibiotic suppression at one year postoperatively.

RESULTS

We identified 55 patients with a CoNS total knee arthroplasty PJI with a mean follow-up of 29.8 months (SD: 16.3 months). The most commonly isolated organism was Staphylococcus epidermidis (n = 36, 65.5%). The overall prevalence of methicillin resistance was 63%. Surgical treatment included surgical debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention in 25 (45.5%) cases and two-stage revision (22 articulating and eight static antibiotic-impregnated spacers). At one-year follow-up, only 47% of patients had successful management of their infection. The surgical debridement, antibiotics, and implant retention cohort had the higher rate of treatment failure (60.0%) compared to two-stage revision (46.7%).

CONCLUSION

These results indicate a poor rate of success in treating CoNS PJI. This likely represents the interplay of inherent virulence through biofilm formation and decreased antibiotic efficacy.

Outcomes of Debridement, Antibiotics and Implant Retention (DAIR) for Periprosthetic Joint Infection in a High-Volume Arthroplasty Centre

PURPOSE

Prosthetic joint infection (PJI) following total knee arthroplasty (TKA) and total hip arthroplasty (THA) can be a devastating diagnosis. Debridement, antibiotics and implant retention (DAIR) is a preferred treatment modality for acute PJI. A retrospective analysis of infected primary arthroplasties to evaluate the success of DAIR and factors influencing its outcomes.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed all patients who underwent DAIR for PJI at our unit between 2010 and 2018. Patients who underwent revision surgery as an index procedure, arthroscopic washout and those with less than two years of follow-up were excluded. Treatment failure was defined as revision arthroplasty for recurrence of infection within 2 years of the index procedure. Chi-square and Fischer's exact test were used to compare between patient factors and DAIR outcomes. Kaplan-Meier survival curve and log-rank test were used to analyse implant survivorship following DAIR.

RESULTS

Of the sixty patients (40 knees, 20 hips) who underwent DAIR, eighteen (13 knees, 5 hips) required revision arthroplasty within 2 years accounting for a success rate of 70%. Predictive factors for revision were American Society of Anaesthesiologist (ASA) score of greater than 2 (p = 0.021), BMI > 35 (p = 0.046), C Reactive protein (CRP) > 200 mg/L (p = 0.007) and Staphylococcus aureus growth (p = 0.012). The five-year survival rate for DAIR was 70%, which remained constant after two years from DAIR.

CONCLUSION

Success rate of DAIR in PJI was 70% which was comparable to similar studies in the literature. ASA > 2, BMI > 35, CRP > 200 and staphylococcus aureus growth were predictors for DAIR failure. Implant survival rate and duration were better following DAIR in early-onset PJI.

Preoperative and perioperative risk factors, and risk score development for prosthetic joint infection due to Staphylococcus aureus: A multinational matched case-control study

OBJECTIVES

We aim to identify the preoperative and perioperative risk factors associated with post-surgical Staphylococcus aureus prosthetic joint infections (PJI), and to develop and validate risk-scoring systems, to allow a better identification of high-risk patients for more efficient targeted interventions.

METHODS

We performed a multicenter matched case-control study of patients who underwent a primary hip and knee arthroplasty from 2014 to 2016. Two multivariable models by logistic regression were performed, one for the preoperative and one for perioperative variables; also, predictive scores were developed and validated in an external cohort.

RESULTS

In total, 130 cases and 386 controls were included. The variables independently associated with S. aureus-PJI in the preoperative period were (adjusted OR; 95% CI): BMI >30 kg/m² (3.0; 1.9-4.8), resident in a long-term care facility (2.8; 1.05-7.5), fracture as reason for arthroplasty (2.7; 1.4-5.03), skin disorders (2.5; 0.9-7.04), previous surgery in the index joint (2.4; 1.3-4.4), male sex (1.9; 1.2-2.9) and ASA score 3-4 (1.8; 1.2-2.9). The AUROC curve was 0.73 (95% CI 0.68-0.78). In perioperative model, the risk factors were the previous ones plus surgical antibiotic prophylaxis administered out of the first 60 minutes before incision (5.9; 2.1-16.2), wound drainage for >72h after arthroplasty (4.5; 1.9-19.4) and use of metal bearing material vs. ceramic (1.9; 1.1-3.3). The AUROC curve was 0.78 (95% CI 0.72-0.83). The predictive scores developed were validated in the external cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

Predictive scores for S. aureus-PJI were developed and validated; this information would be useful for implementation of specific preventive measures.

A protocol for periprosthetic joint infections from the Northern Infection Network for Joint Arthroplasty (NINJA) in the Netherlands

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) is a devastating complication of joint arthroplasty surgery. Treatment success depends on accurate diagnostics, adequate surgical experience and interdisciplinary consultation between orthopedic surgeons, plastic surgeons, infectious disease specialists and medical microbiologists. For this purpose, we initiated the Northern Infection Network for Joint Arthroplasty (NINJA) in the Netherlands in 2014. The establishment of a mutual diagnostic and treatment protocol for PJI in our region has enabled mutual understanding, has supported agreement on how to treat specific patients, and has led to clarity for smaller hospitals in our region for when to refer patients without jeopardizing important initial treatment locally. Furthermore, a mutual PJI patient database has enabled the improvement of our protocol, based on medicine-based evidence from our scientific data. In this paper we describe our NINJA protocol.

Level of evidence: III

Antibiotic Therapy for Prosthetic Joint Infections: An Overview

Prosthetic joint infection (PJI) is a severe complication after arthroplasty. Its management combines surgical intervention, whose type depends on the clinical situation, and prolonged high-dose antibiotics adapted to the responsible microorganism(s) and the patient. Antibiotics are only one part of the therapeutic regimen and are closely related to the surgical strategy. Their efficacy depends to a large extent on the choice and quality of the surgical procedure, and the quality of the microbiological diagnosis. Although guidelines have been published, many aspects of antibiotic therapy remain poorly established. Choosing the optimal agent(s) is one aspect, with others being optimization of drugs’ pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters, the choice of administration route, use of monotherapy or combination regimens, therapeutic drug-monitoring and patient education to improve compliance and tolerance. Herein, we address PJI management based on recent literature data, guidelines and the experience of our referral center for complex bone-and-joint infections.

Risk Factors of DAIR Failure and Validation of the KLIC Score: A Multicenter Study of Four Hundred Fifty-Five Patients

Background: Debridement, antibiotic agents, and implant retention (DAIR) is a currently accepted approach for the treatment of early prosthetic joint infections (PJI). The success of a DAIR procedure has shown variable results throughout the published literature. Scoring systems such as the Kidney, Liver, Index surgery, Cemented prosthesis, and C-reactive protein value (KLIC) score for the selection of patients that are likely to benefit from DAIR have proved to be helpful in decision making. Our study aims to further validate the KLIC score using a large external multicentric cohort and to evaluate other risk factors for failure. Patients and Methods: A retrospective analysis of patients with an early acute PJI who were treated with DAIR and recorded in a database of eight Spanish university hospitals was performed. According to pre-operative variables of the KLIC study, patients were categorized into five groups: group A, ≤2 points; group B, 2.5-3.5 points; group C, 4-5 points; group D, 5.5-6.5 points; and group E, ≥7 points. Failure rates were compared between groups at 60 days and after 60 days of DAIR. Further variables for risk of failure were also analyzed. Results: A total of 455 patients with early acute PJI were included in the analyses. At 60 days, patients presenting with pre-operative elevated C-reactive protein serum levels, Staphylococcus aureus, and polymicrobial infections were associated with failure. Failure rates recorded were 12% for group A (n = 210), 18% for group B (n = 83), 26% for group C (n = 89), 24% for group D (n = 66), and 0% for group E (n = 7). Univariable analysis between consecutive groups of the KLIC score showed no differences for failure before 60 days of the DAIR procedure. Scheduled surgery and having the procedure performed by a specialized unit were also identified as important factors for DAIR success. Conclusions: Our results suggest the KLIC score was not useful for predicting failure in our cohort. Furthermore, our results indicate a specialized unit should conduct DAIR procedures.

Distribution and Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern of Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria and Risk Factors Among Kidney Transplantation Recipients with Infections Over 13 Years: A Retrospective Study

Background

Infection ranks as the most common complication after kidney transplantation (KT) and threatens outcomes of kidney transplantation recipients (KTR). This study aimed to investigate the microbiological profile of infection, assess bacterial resistance and identify risk factors for multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infection among KTR.

Methods

During the study period, 866 recipients underwent kidney transplant surgery. We studied the distribution of pathogens, resistance rate of MDR bacteria and the risk factors of MDR bacterial infection.

Results

Totally, 214 species of pathogens (110 species were MDR bacteria) were isolated in 119 KTR. Escherichia coli (E. coli) was the most common bacteria of the infection. MDR extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-E) were most resistant to ampicillin, cefazolin, ciprofloxacin and complex sulfamethoxazole, while quite sensitive to imipenem, amikacin and piperacillin/tazobactam (PIT). All MDR gram-positive bacteria were quite sensitive to linezolid and vancomycin, except that MDR Staphylococcus was also susceptible to rifampicin. Female gender (OR = 3.497, 95% CI = 1.445–8.467, P = 0.006), pathogen types > 1 (OR = 3.832, 95% CI = 1.429–10.273, P = 0.008) and postoperative time < 3 months (OR = 0.331, 95% CI = 0.137–0.799, P = 0.014) were independent risk factors for MDR bacterial infection.

Conclusion

PIT and amikacin may be an alternative choice of ESBL-E infection. Rifampicin can also be prescribed for MDR Staphylococcus infection. MDR bacterial infection was associated with female gender, pathogen types more than 1 and 3 months postoperative period.