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Haldar T, Sardar SK, Ghosal A, Prasad A, Nakano YS, Dutta S, Nozaki T, Ganguly S. Andrographolide induced cytotoxicity and cell cycle arrest in Giardia trophozoites. Exp Parasitol 2024; 262:108773. [PMID: 38723845 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2024.108773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Giardiasis is a prevalent parasitic diarrheal disease caused by Giardia lamblia, affecting people worldwide. Recently, the availability of several drugs for its treatment has highlighted issues such as multidrug resistance, limited effectiveness and undesirable side effects. Therefore, it is necessary to develop alternative new drugs and treatment strategies that can enhance therapeutic outcomes and effectively treat giardiasis. Natural compounds show promise in the search for more potent anti-giardial agents. Our investigation focused on the effect of Andrographolide (ADG), an active compound of the Andrographis paniculata plant, on Giardia lamblia, assessing trophozoite growth, morphological changes, cell cycle arrest, DNA damage and inhibition of gene expression associated with pathogenic factors. ADG demonstrated anti-Giardia activity almost equivalent to the reference drug metronidazole, with an IC50 value of 4.99 μM after 24 h of incubation. In cytotoxicity assessments and morphological examinations, it showed significant alterations in trophozoite shape and size and effectively hindered the adhesion of trophozoites. It also caused excessive ROS generation, DNA damage, cell cycle arrest and inhibited the gene expression related to pathogenesis. Our findings have revealed the anti-giardial efficacy of ADG, suggesting its potential as an agent against Giardia infections. This could offer a natural and low-risk treatment option for giardiasis, reducing the risk of side effects and drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapas Haldar
- Division of Parasitology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), India
| | - Sanjib K Sardar
- Division of Parasitology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), India
| | - Ajanta Ghosal
- Division of Parasitology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), India
| | - Akash Prasad
- Division of Parasitology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), India
| | - Yumiko Saito Nakano
- Department of Parasitology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, 1-23-1 Toyama, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 162-8640, Japan
| | - Shanta Dutta
- Division of Bacteriology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), Kolkata, India
| | - Tomoyoshi Nozaki
- Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of International Health, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Sandipan Ganguly
- Division of Parasitology, ICMR-National Institute of Cholera and Enteric Diseases (ICMR-NICED), India.
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2
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Rampedi PN, Ogunrombi MO, Adeleke OA. Leading Paediatric Infectious Diseases-Current Trends, Gaps, and Future Prospects in Oral Pharmacotherapeutic Interventions. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:712. [PMID: 38931836 PMCID: PMC11206886 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16060712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Paediatric infectious diseases contribute significantly to global health challenges. Conventional therapeutic interventions are not always suitable for children, as they are regularly accompanied with long-standing disadvantages that negatively impact efficacy, thus necessitating the need for effective and child-friendly pharmacotherapeutic interventions. Recent advancements in drug delivery technologies, particularly oral formulations, have shown tremendous progress in enhancing the effectiveness of paediatric medicines. Generally, these delivery methods target, and address challenges associated with palatability, dosing accuracy, stability, bioavailability, patient compliance, and caregiver convenience, which are important factors that can influence successful treatment outcomes in children. Some of the emerging trends include moving away from creating liquid delivery systems to developing oral solid formulations, with the most explored being orodispersible tablets, multiparticulate dosage forms using film-coating technologies, and chewable drug products. Other ongoing innovations include gastro-retentive, 3D-printed, nipple-shield, milk-based, and nanoparticulate (e.g., lipid-, polymeric-based templates) drug delivery systems, possessing the potential to improve therapeutic effectiveness, age appropriateness, pharmacokinetics, and safety profiles as they relate to the paediatric population. This manuscript therefore highlights the evolving landscape of oral pharmacotherapeutic interventions for leading paediatric infectious diseases, crediting the role of innovative drug delivery technologies. By focusing on the current trends, pointing out gaps, and identifying future possibilities, this review aims to contribute towards ongoing efforts directed at improving paediatric health outcomes associated with the management of these infectious ailments through accessible and efficacious drug treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penelope N. Rampedi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Sefako Makgatho Health Science University, Pretoria 0208, South Africa; (P.N.R.); (M.O.O.)
| | - Modupe O. Ogunrombi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Sefako Makgatho Health Science University, Pretoria 0208, South Africa; (P.N.R.); (M.O.O.)
| | - Oluwatoyin A. Adeleke
- Preclinical Laboratory for Drug Delivery Innovations, College of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 3J5, Canada
- School of Pharmacy, Sefako Makgatho Health Science University, Pretoria 0208, South Africa
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3
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Richardson D, Pakianathan M, Ewens M, Mitchell H, Mohammed H, Wiseman E, Tweed M, Nichols K, Rawdah W, Cooper R, Macrowan R, Irish M, Evans A, Godbole G. British Association of Sexual Health and HIV (BASHH) United Kingdom national guideline for the management of sexually transmitted enteric infections 2023. Int J STD AIDS 2023:9564624231168217. [PMID: 37247427 DOI: 10.1177/09564624231168217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This is the first British Association of Sexual Health and HIV (BASHH) national guideline for the management of sexually transmitted enteric infections (STEI). This guideline is primarily aimed for level 3 sexual health clinics; however, it may also be applicable to other settings such as primary care or other hospital departments where individuals with STEI may present. This guideline makes recommendations on testing, management, partner notification and public health control of STEI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Richardson
- University Hospitals Sussex NHS Foundation Trust, Brighton, UK
- Brighton & Sussex Medical School, Brighton, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Waseem Rawdah
- University Hospitals Sussex NHS Foundation Trust, Brighton, UK
| | - Richard Cooper
- University Hospitals Sussex NHS Foundation Trust, Brighton, UK
| | | | | | - Amy Evans
- University Hospitals Sussex NHS Foundation Trust, Brighton, UK
- Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Leeds, UK
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4
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Grajeda BI, De Chatterjee A, Villalobos CM, Pence BC, Ellis CC, Enriquez V, Roy S, Roychowdhury S, Neumann AK, Almeida IC, Patterson SE, Das S. Giardial lipid rafts share virulence factors with secreted vesicles and participate in parasitic infection in mice. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:974200. [PMID: 36081774 PMCID: PMC9445159 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.974200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia lamblia, a protozoan parasite, is a major cause of waterborne infection, worldwide. While the trophozoite form of this parasite induces pathological symptoms in the gut, the cyst form transmits the infection. Since Giardia is a noninvasive parasite, the actual mechanism by which it causes disease remains elusive. We have previously reported that Giardia assembles cholesterol and GM1 glycosphingolipid-enriched lipid rafts (LRs) that participate in encystation and cyst production. To further delineate the role of LRs in pathogenesis, we isolated LRs from Giardia and subjected them to proteomic analysis. Various cellular proteins including potential virulence factors-e.g., giardins, variant surface proteins, arginine deaminases, elongation factors, ornithine carbomyltransferases, and high cysteine-rich membrane proteins-were found to be present in LRs. Since Giardia secretes virulence factors encapsulated in extracellular vesicles (EVs) that induce proinflammatory responses in hosts, EVs released by the parasite were isolated and subjected to nanoparticle tracking and proteomic analysis. Two types of EV-i.e., small vesicles (SVs; <100 nm, exosome-like particles) and large vesicles (LVs; 100-400 nm, microvesicle-like particles)-were identified and found to contain a diverse group of proteins including above potential virulence factors. Although pretreatment of the parasite with two giardial lipid raft (gLR) disruptors, nystatin (27 μM) and oseltamivir (20 μM), altered the expression profiles of virulence factors in LVs and SVs, the effects were more robust in the case of SVs. To examine the potential role of rafts and vesicles in pathogenicity, Giardia-infected mice were treated with oseltamivir (1.5 and 3.0 mg/kg), and the shedding of cysts were monitored. We observed that this drug significantly reduced the parasite load in mice. Taken together, our results suggest that virulence factors partitioning in gLRs, released into the extracellular milieu via SVs and LVs, participate in spread of giardiasis and could be targeted for future drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian I. Grajeda
- Infectious Disease and Immunology, Border Biomedical Research Center and the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Atasi De Chatterjee
- Infectious Disease and Immunology, Border Biomedical Research Center and the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Carmen M. Villalobos
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Breanna C. Pence
- Infectious Disease and Immunology, Border Biomedical Research Center and the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Cameron C. Ellis
- Infectious Disease and Immunology, Border Biomedical Research Center and the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Vanessa Enriquez
- Infectious Disease and Immunology, Border Biomedical Research Center and the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Sourav Roy
- Infectious Disease and Immunology, Border Biomedical Research Center and the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Sukla Roychowdhury
- Infectious Disease and Immunology, Border Biomedical Research Center and the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Aaron K. Neumann
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Igor C. Almeida
- Infectious Disease and Immunology, Border Biomedical Research Center and the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
| | - Steven E. Patterson
- Center for Drug Design, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Siddhartha Das
- Infectious Disease and Immunology, Border Biomedical Research Center and the Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, United States
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5
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Maertens B, Gagnaire A, Paerewijck O, De Bosscher K, Geldhof P. Regulatory role of the intestinal microbiota in the immune response against Giardia. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10601. [PMID: 34011991 PMCID: PMC8134572 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90261-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Giardia duodenalis is one of the most commonly found intestinal parasites in mammalian hosts. Infections can generally be cleared by mounting an adequate protective immune response that is orchestrated through IL-17A. This study was aimed to investigate if and how the intestinal microbiome affects the protective Th17 response against Giardia by analysing and comparing the immune response following a G. muris and G. duodenalis infection in antibiotic treated and untreated mice. Depletion of the intestinal flora by antibiotic treatment had a severe effect on the infection dynamics of both Giardia species. Not only duration of infection was affected, but also the parasite burden increased significantly. Markers associated with a protective immune response, such as IL-17A and mannose binding lectin 2 were still significantly upregulated following infection in the antibiotic-treated mice, despite the lack of protection. On the other hand, the antibiotic treatment significantly decreased the level of IgA in the intestinal lumen by affecting its transporter and by reducing the number of IgA+ B-cells at the Peyer's patches. Furthermore, the depletion of the gut microbiota by antibiotics also significantly lowered the intestinal motility. The combination of these factors likely results in a decreased clearance of the parasite from the intestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Maertens
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - A Gagnaire
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - O Paerewijck
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - K De Bosscher
- VIB Department of Medical Protein Research, Translational Nuclear Receptor Research Lab, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - P Geldhof
- Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
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6
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Giardia lamblia and Helicobacter pylori coinfection in gastrointestinal biopsies: A retrospective single-center analysis from Switzerland. Ann Diagn Pathol 2021; 53:151756. [PMID: 33989960 DOI: 10.1016/j.anndiagpath.2021.151756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The protozoan Giardia lamblia (GL) and the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (HP) are common causes of gastrointestinal disease. Coinfection is common and has been reported in studies from Africa, Europe, North America and Asia, but data for Switzerland are scarce. AIM To investigate GL and HP prevalence and coinfection rate in gastrointestinal biopsies from the Zurich area of Switzerland. METHODS Cases were retrieved from the laboratory information system (Medica Institute of Clinical Pathology, Zurich, Switzerland). Histological slides of cases with GL were reviewed, as were the concurrent gastric biopsies, where available. RESULTS Between January 1, 2013 and December 31, 2020, GL was found in 88 (0.14%) of 62,402 patients with a small intestine biopsy and HP in 10,668 (15.5%) of 68,961 patients with a gastric biopsy. 74/88 (84.1%) of patients with GL had unremarkable small intestine biopsies, 13/88 (14.8%) had increased intraepithelial lymphocytes, 5/88 (5.7%) showed villous atrophy and 2/88 (2.3%) acute inflammation. 71/88 patients (80.7%) with GL had an available gastric biopsy, of which 12/71 (16.9%) were unremarkable, 28/71 (39.4%) had HP-associated gastritis, 11/71 (15.5%) showed reactive gastropathy and 1/71 (1.4%) had autoimmune gastritis. CONCLUSION Coinfection with HP is common in patients with GL in gastrointestinal biopsies from the Zurich area of Switzerland. Therefore, gastroenterologists should consider sampling the stomach when GL is suspected for evaluation of possible concurrent HP-associated gastritis. Likewise, pathologists should scrutinize any small intestine biopsy for the presence of GL when HP-associated gastritis is seen, and vice versa.
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7
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Are biopsies always necessary in upper and lower gastrointestinal endoscopy in children? A retrospective 10-year analysis. Eur J Pediatr 2021; 180:1089-1098. [PMID: 33064219 DOI: 10.1007/s00431-020-03838-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Little attention has been given to the efficiency and validity of performing routine endoscopic biopsies in normal areas in children. This study aimed to investigate the need to perform routine biopsies in upper gastrointestinal endoscopy (UDE) and colonoscopy in normal areas by comparing macroscopy and histology. It was a 10-year retrospective analysis with the inclusion of 761 UDEs and 177 colonoscopies. Considering all segments, UDEs showed false-positive result rates of 73.11% and false-negative result rates of 14.34%. The histological results modified the initial management in 53.95% of patients. Considering all segments, colonoscopies showed false-positive result rates of 63.64% and false-negative result rates of 30.97%. The histological results modified the initial management in 34.45% of patients.Conclusion: If biopsies were obtained only in abnormal areas, the diagnosis would be lost in 53.95% of the patients in upper endoscopies and 85.7% of the colonoscopies, which justifies routine maintenance of biopsies in macroscopically normal areas in children. What is Known: • Little attention has been given to the efficiency and validity of endoscopic biopsies of normal areas during pediatric exams. • Only a few pediatric studies have correlated macroscopic and histological findings from endoscopic biopsies, and low sensitivity and specificity, as well as poor agreement, were reported. What is New: • Our study confirms the evidence that routine biopsies from macroscopically normal areas during upper and lower digestive endoscopies can lead to histopathological diagnoses and different medical management. • This is the first research on this topic in a Latin population, from a developing country, reassuring the results obtained in previous papers from other countries.
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8
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Conners EE, Miller AD, Balachandran N, Robinson BM, Benedict KM. Giardiasis Outbreaks - United States, 2012-2017. MMWR-MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT 2021; 70:304-307. [PMID: 33661866 PMCID: PMC7948938 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7009a2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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Benedict K, Jackson BR, Chiller T, Beer KD. Estimation of Direct Healthcare Costs of Fungal Diseases in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2020; 68:1791-1797. [PMID: 30204844 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 245] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fungal diseases range from relatively-minor superficial and mucosal infections to severe, life-threatening systemic infections. Delayed diagnosis and treatment can lead to poor patient outcomes and high medical costs. The overall burden of fungal diseases in the United States is challenging to quantify, because they are likely substantially underdiagnosed. METHODS To estimate the total, national, direct medical costs associated with fungal diseases from a healthcare payer perspective, we used insurance claims data from the Truven Health MarketScan 2014 Research Databases, combined with hospital discharge data from the 2014 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project National Inpatient Sample and outpatient visit data from the 2005-2014 National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey and the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey. All costs were adjusted to 2017 dollars. RESULTS We estimate that fungal diseases cost more than $7.2 billion in 2017, including $4.5 billion from 75055 hospitalizations and $2.6 billion from 8993230 outpatient visits. Hospitalizations for Candida infections (n = 26735, total cost $1.4 billion) and Aspergillus infections (n = 14820, total cost $1.2 billion) accounted for the highest total hospitalization costs of any disease. Over half of outpatient visits were for dermatophyte infections (4981444 visits, total cost $802 million), and 3639037 visits occurred for non-invasive candidiasis (total cost $1.6 billion). CONCLUSIONS Fungal diseases impose a considerable economic burden on the healthcare system. Our results likely underestimate their true costs, because they are underdiagnosed. More comprehensive estimates of the public health impact of these diseases are needed to improve their recognition, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlin Benedict
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Brendan R Jackson
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Tom Chiller
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Karlyn D Beer
- Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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10
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Abstract
Giardia is the commonest parasitic diarrheal pathogen affecting humans and a frequent cause of waterborne/foodborne parasitic diseases worldwide. Prevalence of giardiasis is higher in children, living in poor, low hygiene settings in developing countries, and in travelers returning from highly endemic areas. The clinical picture of giardiasis is heterogeneous, with high variability in severity of clinical disease. It can become chronic or be followed by post-infectious sequelae. An alarming increase in cases refractory to the conventional treatment with nitroimidazoles (ie, metronidazole) has been reported in low prevalence settings, such as European Union countries, especially in patients returning from Asia. In view of its relevance, we aim in this review to recapitulate present clinical knowledge about Giardia, with a special focus on the challenge of treatment-refractory giardiasis. We propose a working definition of clinically drug-resistant giardiasis, summarize knowledge regarding resistance mechanisms, and discuss its clinical management according to research-based evidence and medical practice. Advances in development and identification of novel drugs and potential non-pharmacological alternatives are also reviewed with the overall aim to define knowledge gaps and suggest future directions for research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Lalle
- Department of Infectious Diseases, European Reference Laboratory for Parasites, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy,
| | - Kurt Hanevik
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Tropical Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Clinical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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Beer KD, Collier SA, Du F, Gargano JW. Response to Escobedo et al. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 67:481. [PMID: 29596601 PMCID: PMC6075678 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Karlyn D Beer
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sarah A Collier
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Fan Du
- Human-Computer Interaction Lab, University of Maryland, College Park
| | - Julia W Gargano
- Division of Viral Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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12
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Escobedo AA, Almirall P, Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Cimerman S, Salazar Y, Ávila I, Alvarez S. Why Are Patients With Giardiasis Not Treated Earlier? Two Sides of the Same Coin. Clin Infect Dis 2018; 67:480. [DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Angel A Escobedo
- Department of Parasitology, Academic Paediatric Hospital “Pedro Borrás,” La Habana, Cuba
- Working Group on Zoonoses, International Society for Chemotherapy, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Pedro Almirall
- Municipal Centre of Hygiene, Epidemiology and Microbiology “Plaza,” La Habana, Cuba
| | - Alfonso J Rodríguez-Morales
- Working Group on Zoonoses, International Society for Chemotherapy, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Research Group Public Health and Infection, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Tecnológica de Pereira (UTP), Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia
| | - Sérgio Cimerman
- Institute of Infectious Diseases “Emilio Ribas,” São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Yohana Salazar
- Institute of Tropical Medicine “Pedro Kourí,” La Habana, Cuba
| | - Ivonne Ávila
- Academic Paediatric Hospital“Centro Habana,” La Habana, Cuba
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