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Ukonaho S, Berger V, Franco dos Santos DJ, Htut W, Aung HH, Nyeing UK, Reichert S, Lummaa V. Seasonal variation in molecular and physiological stress markers in Asian elephants. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 11:coad029. [PMID: 38026806 PMCID: PMC10660384 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coad029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Free-living species exhibit seasonal variation in various life history traits, including vital rates such as birth and death patterns. Different physiological mechanisms are thought to underlie the expression of life history traits that contribute to lifetime fitness. However, although the broad impacts of seasonality on life history traits and trade-offs is well established in many systems, the exact physiological mechanisms responsible for driving differences within and between individuals are poorly understood. Among them, molecular and physiological stress pathways, such as stress hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and oxidative stress, have potential to mediate relationships between individual survival, reproduction and environmental seasonality. Here, we determine how different physiological markers of stress including faecal cortisol metabolites (FCMs), heterophils/lymphocytes (H/L) ratio, two markers indicating oxidative balance including a marker of oxidative damage (reactive oxygen metabolites, ROM) and a marker of antioxidant defences (superoxide dismutase, SOD) and body weight vary in a large semi-captive population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) exposed to extreme seasonality (e.g. elevated temperatures). Individuals showed higher FCM levels and H/L ratios during cold season, indicating increased stress, and the lowest FCM levels during monsoon season and H/L ratios during hot and dry season, but we found no pattern in oxidative stress (ROM and SOD) levels. Hot season also associated with a decline in body weight. The present study shows how different physiological parameters (FCM levels and H/L ratio), molecular (oxidative stress) and body condition vary with seasonal changes, and how these parameters might allow individuals to adapt to such variations. Our results on an endangered long-lived species are crucial in indicating the most productive timing for conservation efforts, predicting how individuals cope with environmental changes, and allow for a more accurate representation of how animal physiology operates in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Ukonaho
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie, 5, Turku 20014, Finland
| | - Vérane Berger
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie, 5, Turku 20014, Finland
| | | | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, MONREC, Myanmar
| | | | | | - Sophie Reichert
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie, 5, Turku 20014, Finland
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie, 5, Turku 20014, Finland
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Kosaruk W, Brown JL, Towiboon P, Punyapornwithaya V, Pringproa K, Thitaram C. Measures of Oxidative Status Markers in Relation to Age, Sex, and Season in Sick and Healthy Captive Asian Elephants in Thailand. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13091548. [PMID: 37174585 PMCID: PMC10177462 DOI: 10.3390/ani13091548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is a pathological condition that can have adverse effects on animal health, although little research has been conducted on wildlife species. In this study, blood was collected from captive Asian elephants for the assessment of five serum oxidative status markers (reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentrations; malondialdehyde, MDA; albumin; glutathione peroxidase, GPx; and catalase) in healthy (n = 137) and sick (n = 20) animals. Health problems consisted of weakness, puncture wounds, gastrointestinal distress, eye and musculoskeletal problems, and elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD). Fecal samples were also collected to assess glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) as a measure of stress. All data were analyzed in relation to age, sex, sampling season, and their interactions using generalized linear models, and a correlation matrix was constructed. ROS and serum albumin concentrations exhibited the highest concentrations in aged elephants (>45 years). No sex differences were found for any biomarker. Interactions were observed for age groups and seasons for ROS and catalase, while GPx displayed a significant interaction between sex and season. In pairwise comparisons, significant increases in ROS and catalase were observed in summer, with higher ROS concentrations observed only in the adult female group. Lower catalase activity was exhibited in juvenile males, subadult males, adult females, and aged females compared to subadult and adult elephants (males and females) in winter and the rainy season. There was a positive association between catalase activity and fGCMs (r = 0.23, p < 0.05), and a number of red blood cell parameters were positively associated with several of these biomarkers, suggesting high oxidative and antioxidative activity covary in red cells (p < 0.05). According to health status, elephants with EEHV-HD showed the most significant changes in oxidative stress markers, with MDA, GPx, and catalase being higher and albumin being lower than in healthy elephants. This study provides an analysis of understudied health biomarkers in Asian elephants, which can be used as additional tools for assessing the health condition of this species and suggests age and season may be important factors in data interpretation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Worapong Kosaruk
- Doctoral Degree Program in Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Patcharapa Towiboon
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Kidsadagon Pringproa
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Department of Veterinary Bioscience and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Thitaram
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Health, Chiang Mai University Animal Hospital, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Elephant, Wildlife, and Companion Animals Research Group, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand
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Liehrmann O, Cosnard C, Riihonen V, Viitanen A, Alander E, Jardat P, Koski SE, Lummaa V, Lansade L. What drives horse success at following human-given cues? An investigation of handler familiarity and living conditions. Anim Cogn 2023:10.1007/s10071-023-01775-0. [PMID: 37072511 PMCID: PMC10113126 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01775-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
Cues such as the human pointing gesture, gaze or proximity to an object are widely used in behavioural studies to evaluate animals' abilities to follow human-given cues. Many domestic mammals, such as horses, can follow human cues; however, factors influencing their responses are still unclear. We assessed the performance of 57 horses at a two-way choice task testing their ability to follow cues of either a familiar (N = 28) or an unfamiliar informant (N = 29). We investigated the effects of the length of the relationship between the horse and a familiar person (main caregiver), their social environment (living alone, in dyads, or in groups) and their physical environment (living in stalls/paddocks, alternating between paddocks and pastures, or living full time in pastures). We also controlled for the effects of horses' age and sex. Our results showed that horses' success rate at the task was not affected by the familiarity of the informant and did not improve with the relationship length with the familiar informant but did increase with the age of the horses. Horses living in groups had better success than the ones kept either in dyads or alone. Finally, horses housed in small paddocks had lower success than those living on pasture. These results indicate that with age, horses get better at following human-given indications regardless of who the human informant is and that an appropriate living and social environment could contribute to the development of socio-cognitive skills towards humans. Therefore, such aspects should be considered in studies evaluating animal behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Océane Liehrmann
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, Natura Building, 20500, Turku, Finland.
| | - Camille Cosnard
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, Natura Building, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Veera Riihonen
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, Natura Building, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Alisa Viitanen
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, Natura Building, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Emmi Alander
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, Natura Building, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Plotine Jardat
- CNRS, IFCE, INRAE, Université de Tours, PRC, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Sonja E Koski
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, Natura Building, 20500, Turku, Finland
- Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, University of Helsinki, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, Natura Building, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Léa Lansade
- CNRS, IFCE, INRAE, Université de Tours, PRC, 37380, Nouzilly, France
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Fink LB, Mukobi A, Gruber L, Reed C, DeLibero J, Jackson S, Neill S, Walz J, Sines C, VanBeek B, Scarlata CD, Wielebnowski N. Longitudinal Analysis of Variability in Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolite Concentrations in Three Orangutans ( Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus and Pongo pygmaeus abelii) before, during, and after Transition from a Regular Habitat Environment to Temporary Housing in Indoor Holding Facilities. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12233303. [PMID: 36496824 PMCID: PMC9737607 DOI: 10.3390/ani12233303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Considerable research has been conducted on the effects of inter-institutional transfers, but far less consideration has been given to intra-institutional transfers and extended housing in off-habitat holding. On 15 May 2018, The Oregon Zoo's orangutans (n = 3) were moved from the Red Ape Reserve (RAR) to the Veterinary Medical Center (VMC) indoor holding areas and remained there until 22 December 2020, resulting in over two years of housing in a facility not specifically designed for orangutans. This study aimed to quantify potential changes in fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGM) typically associated with increased adrenal activity as a result of transfers, as well as potential differences in fGM concentrations associated with housing in the two different types of locations. We collected fecal samples from all orangutans during three time periods: the initial housing at RAR (RAR1), the time spent at VMC holding (VMC), and the return to RAR (RAR2). Samples were analyzed using enzyme-immunoassay (EIA) analyses and compared using two-way ANOVA tests with Games-Howell post-hoc evaluations. The results of our analyses showed the following: (1) significant differences in fGM concentrations based on location in two orangutans, with the highest fGM concentration occurring in fecal samples collected at the VMC; and (2) a lack of significant fGM peaks following multiple intra-institutional transfers for all three orangutans. Though requiring further corroboration through future studies, we speculated that pre-transfer behavior training and intensive, continued care by familiar animal care staff may have helped to mitigate the stress responses commonly associated with transfers and major changes in housing. Furthermore, this study highlights the individualistic nature of the stress response, as illustrated by the substantial variation in fGM concentrations across different housing regimens in the three orangutans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel B. Fink
- Oregon Zoo, Portland, OR 97221, USA
- Department of Biology, Portland State University, 1719 SW 10th Avenue, SRTC rm 246, Portland, OR 97201, USA
- Correspondence:
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Seltmann MW, Jackson J, Lynch E, Brown JL, Htut W, Lahdenperä M, Lummaa V. Sex-specific links between the social landscape and faecal glucocorticoid metabolites in semi-captive Asian elephants. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2022; 319:113990. [PMID: 35151724 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2022.113990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Although social behaviour is common in group-living mammals, our understanding of its mechanisms in long-lived animals is largely based on studies in human and non-human primates. There are health and fitness benefits associated with strong social ties, including increased life span, reproductive success, and lower disease risk, which are attributed to the proximate effects of lowered circulating glucocorticoid hormones. However, to deepen our understanding of health-social dynamics, we must explore species beyond the primate order. Here, using Asian elephants as a model species, we combine social data generated from semi-captive timber elephants in Myanmar with measurements of faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations. These data enable a "natural experiment" because individuals live in work groups with different demographic compositions. We examine sex-specific FGM concentrations for four different aspects of an individuals' social world: general sociality, work group size, sex ratio and the presence of immatures (<5 years) within the work group. Males experienced lower FGM concentrations when engaged in more social behaviours and residing in female-biased work groups. Surprisingly, females only exhibited lower FGM concentrations when residing with calves. Together, our findings highlight the importance of sociality on individual physiological function among elephants, which may have broad implications for the benefits of social interactions among mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John Jackson
- Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark; Deparmtent of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 2JD, UK
| | - Emily Lynch
- The North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, NC 27205, USA
| | - Janine L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institue, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, Yangon, Myanmar
| | - Mirkka Lahdenperä
- Department of Public Health, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, 20014 Turku, Finland; Centre for Population Health Research, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
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Liehrmann O, Crawley JAH, Seltmann MW, Feillet S, Nyein UK, Aung HH, Htut W, Lahdenperä M, Lansade L, Lummaa V. Handler familiarity helps to improve working performance during novel situations in semi-captive Asian elephants. Sci Rep 2021; 11:15480. [PMID: 34326446 PMCID: PMC8322261 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95048-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Working animals spend hours each day in close contact with humans and require training to understand commands and fulfil specific tasks. However, factors driving cooperation between humans and animals are still unclear, and novel situations may present challenges that have been little-studied to-date. We investigated factors driving cooperation between humans and animals in a working context through behavioural experiments with 52 working semi-captive Asian elephants. Human-managed Asian elephants constitute approximately a third of the remaining Asian elephants in the world, the majority of which live in their range countries working alongside traditional handlers. We investigated how the familiarity and experience of the handler as well as the elephant's age and sex affected their responses when asked to perform a basic task and to cross a novel surface. The results highlighted that when novelty is involved in a working context, an elephant's relationship length with their handler can affect their cooperation: elephants who had worked with their handler for over a year were more willing to cross the novel surface than those who had a shorter relationship with their handler. Older animals also tended to refuse to walk on the novel surface more but the sex did not affect their responses. Our study contributes much needed knowledge on human-working animal relationships which should be considered when adjusting training methods and working habits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Océane Liehrmann
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20500, Turku, Finland.
| | | | | | - Sherine Feillet
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20500, Turku, Finland
- Université Sorbonne Paris Nord, 93430, Villetaneuse, France
| | - U Kyaw Nyein
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Gyogone Forest Compound, Bayint Naung Road, Insein Township, Yangon, 11011, Myanmar
| | - Htoo Htoo Aung
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Gyogone Forest Compound, Bayint Naung Road, Insein Township, Yangon, 11011, Myanmar
| | - Win Htut
- Myanma Timber Enterprise, Gyogone Forest Compound, Bayint Naung Road, Insein Township, Yangon, 11011, Myanmar
| | - Mirkka Lahdenperä
- Department of Public Health, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, 20520, Turku, Finland
| | - Léa Lansade
- CNRS, IFCE, INRAE, Université de Tours, PRC, 37380, Nouzilly, France
| | - Virpi Lummaa
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20500, Turku, Finland
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