Development and evaluation of three mortality prediction indices for cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii)

Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation

Each year in the United States, thousands of sick, injured, or displaced wild animals are presented to individuals or organizations who have either a federal or state permit that allows them to care for these animals with the goal of releasing them back to the wild. The purpose of this review is to demonstrate the complexity of considerations rehabilitators and veterinarians face while trying to optimize the welfare of wild animals in need of care and rehabilitation. The process of rehabilitation is inherently stressful for wildlife. Maintaining an animal's welfare during the rehabilitation process-from initial contact and tria+ge to the animal's euthanasia, release, or captive placement-requires deliberate, timely and humane decision making. The welfare of wild animals can be improved by preventing human-related causes of admission, providing resources and support for wildlife rehabilitation (almost all rehabilitation in the United States is privately funded and access to veterinary care is often limited); further developing evidence-based wildlife rehabilitation methods and welfare measures, attracting more veterinary professionals to the field, harmonizing regulatory oversight with standards of care, training, and accountability, and increasing public education.

Whole Blood Fatty Acid Profiles of Cold-Stunned Juvenile Green, Kemp’s Ridley, and Loggerhead Sea Turtles

When subjected to cold environmental temperatures, cheloniid sea turtles can experience debilitating lethargy, anorexia, and potential mortality in a phenomenon known as cold-stunning. Every year, hundreds to thousands of cold-stunned sea turtles are transported to rehabilitation centers for medical and nutritional care. The objective of this study was to investigate one aspect of nutritional status in cold-stunned sea turtles: fatty acid profiles. Blood was collected from eleven green (Chelonia mydas), twelve Kemp’s ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), and three loggerhead (Caretta caretta) juvenile sea turtles found cold-stunned along the coast of North Carolina, USA. Whole blood (~160 µL) was dried onto specialized paper spot cards, frozen, and subsequently analyzed via gas chromatography to quantify fatty acid percentages. Significant differences among species were identified for 19 out of 36 individual fatty acids analyzed and six out of seven fatty acid groups evaluated (P < 0.5). The whole blood fatty acid profiles of cold-stunned green and Kemp’s ridley sea turtles were similar to prior published profiles of healthy conspecifics. Marginal numerical differences noted upon visual comparison included that cold-stunned sea turtles had lower proportions of total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and monoenes and higher proportions of total saturated fatty acids relative to healthy conspecifics. These differences may reflect acute impacts of cold-stunning on circulating plasma fatty acids or may be the result of natural seasonal variations. These data provide practical information to aid in the diet design of sea turtles in rehabilitation settings.

Comparison Between Effects of Four Crystalloid Solutions on Acid-Base and Electrolyte Abnormalities in Stranded Juvenile Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta)

Dehydration, electrolyte abnormalities, and acid-base alterations are common findings in stranded sea turtles. Fluid therapy is essential for reestablishment of homeostasis. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy and effects on acid-base and electrolyte status of four different crystalloids (0.9% NaCl solution, 0.9% NaCl and lactated Ringer's solutions 1:1 ratio, Plasmalyte, and Jarchow's solution) in 63 stranded juvenile loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta). Crystalloid fluids were administered intracoelomically on the day of admission for a duration of three consecutive days at a rate of 20 mL/kg/day through the inguinal fossa. Blood samples were collected at three timepoints: on admission, 24 h after discontinuing fluid therapy and prior to release. Samples were analyzed using a portable electronic blood analyzer for pH, pCO₂, pO₂, bicarbonate, lactate, sodium, potassium, chloride, glucose, and BUN concentration. Thirty-four loggerhead turtles (53.9%) had some type of acid-base alteration at the time of admission. The combination of 0.9% NaCl and lactated Ringer's solutions resulted in the highest percentage of improved/resolved acid-base and electrolyte abnormalities (33.4 % more animals with normal acid-base status compared to the admission time) compared to Jarchow's solution, which was the least effective (15.8% decrease in the number of animals with normal acid-base status compared to the admission time). This study constitutes the second controlled study of fluid therapy in sea turtles, and corroborates the recommendation made previously on the use of 0.9% NaCl + lactated Ringer solution to resolve mild to moderate acid-base alterations in juvenile loggerhead turtles. In addition, convalescent acid-base, electrolyte and plasma biochemical reference intervals are also provided as a standard profile for sea turtle rehabilitation centers.

LACTIC ACIDOSIS INDUCED BY MANUAL RESTRAINT FOR HEALTH EVALUATION AND COMPARISON OF TWO POINT-OF-CARE ANALYZERS IN HEALTHY LOGGERHEAD SEA TURTLES (CARETTA CARETTA)

Sea turtles are often restrained manually for brief periods during veterinary evaluation and care in rescue, rehabilitation, research, and aquarium settings. Blood gas values and lactate are routinely evaluated during triage of sea turtles, and lactate clearance is of prognostic significance in cold-stunned individuals. Although increases in blood lactate have been associated with muscle exertion, experimental forced submergence, trawl and pound net capture, and general anesthesia, changes in blood lactate associated with short periods of manual restraint have not been evaluated. Venous blood gas and lactate values were tested in 16 juvenile loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) before and after manual restraint for a 15-min routine veterinary examination. The agreement of blood lactate values between two point-of care analyzers (i-STAT and Lactate Plus) was also compared. Blood pH and bicarbonate (HCO₃^-) decreased significantly (P < 0.001), and partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO₂) increased significantly (P < 0.0001) after 15 min. Lactate increased significantly between time points for both analyzers (P < 0.0001). Linear regression analysis showed excellent correlation for lactate measurements obtained on both analyzers (r = 0.998). The mean difference in lactate concentrations between the analyzers was statistically significant, indicating that the methods cannot be used interchangeably (P < 0.0001). Deming regression and Bland-Altman plots identified a slight negative proportional bias for lactate measurement by the Lactate Plus compared with the i-STAT. These results suggest that clinicians should evaluate blood gas values and lactate at the beginning of health evaluations and interpret serial lactate values in sea turtles with caution, because even short periods of manual restraint can induce lactic acidosis and considerably influence these values.

Osteomyelitis in cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) hospitalized for rehabilitation: 25 cases (2008-2018)

OBJECTIVE

To characterize osteolytic lesions in cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) hospitalized for rehabilitation and describe methods used for the management of such lesions.

ANIMALS

25 stranded, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles hospitalized between 2008 and 2018.

PROCEDURES

Medical records of sea turtles with a diagnosis of osteolytic lesions were reviewed retrospectively to obtain the date of diagnosis, clinical signs, radiographic findings, microbial culture results, hematologic and plasma biochemical data, cytologic and histologic findings, antimicrobial history, time to first negative culture result, treatment duration, and outcome.

RESULTS

Lesions were identified radiographically a median of 50 days after admission and were located within epiphyses or metaphyses of various appendicular joints. Lesions were associated with periarticular swelling (n = 24), lameness (16), lethargy (2), and hyporexia (2). Bacterial culture yielded growth of single organisms (n = 16), multiple organisms (2), or no growth (6). Significant differences in hematologic and biochemical data were detected between the times of diagnosis and convalescence. Cytologic and histologic findings characterized the lesions as osteomyelitis leading to septic arthritis. Sixteen sea turtles were managed medically, and 8 were managed medically and surgically. Surgery resulted in rapid improvement in joint mobility and overall clinical status. Most (22/25 [88%]) sea turtles survived and were released after long-term management.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

During rehabilitation, cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles may be affected by osteomyelitis. Medical management based on antimicrobial susceptibility testing was effective for most turtles. Long term management efforts in turtles are justified by high survival rate.

Characterization of oral and cloacal microbial communities in cold-stunned Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) during the time course of rehabilitation

Microbial communities of animals play a role in health and disease, including immunocompromised conditions. In the northeastern United States, cold-stunning events often cause endangered Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) to become stranded on beaches in autumn. These sea turtles are admitted to rehabilitation facilities when rescued alive and are presumed immunocompromised secondary to hypothermia. To better understand the role that microbes play in the health of cold-stunned sea turtles, we characterized the oral and cloacal microbiome from Kemp's ridley turtles at multiple timepoints during rehabilitation, from admission to pre-release, by using Illumina sequencing to analyze the 16S rRNA gene. Microbial communities were distinct between body sites and among turtles that survived and those that died. We found that clinical parameters such as presence of pneumonia or values for various blood analytes did not correlate with oral or cloacal microbial community composition. We also investigated the effect of antibiotics on the microbiome during rehabilitation and prior to release and found that the type of antibiotic altered the microbial community composition, yet overall taxonomic diversity remained the same. The microbiome of cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles gradually changed through the course of rehabilitation with environment, antibiotics, and disease status all playing a role in those changes and ultimately the release status of the turtles.

Prognostic value of packed cell volume and blood glucose concentration in 954 client-owned chelonians

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the prognostic value of PCV and blood glucose concentration in chelonians presented for veterinary care and to develop risk categories on the basis of the interaction of these analytes.

ANIMALS

954 client-owned chelonians (34 genera).

PROCEDURES

Medical records of 1,059 client-owned chelonians presented to 2 veterinary institutions between 2014 and 2018 were reviewed. Logistic regression models were developed to evaluate factors associated with death, including PCV and blood glucose concentrations.

RESULTS

There were 954 chelonians (34 genera) for which the data required to be included in the analysis were available. Both PCV and blood glucose concentration were significant prognostic indicators of death. Odds of death for chelonians with severe anemia (PCV, < 10%) and moderate anemia (PCV, 11% to 20%) were 6.8 times (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 6.8; 95% CI, 3.8 to 12.3) and 1.6 times (aOR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.01 to 2.7), respectively, the odds of death for chelonians with PCV within reference range. Odds of death for chelonians with severe hypoglycemia (< 30 mg/dL), moderate hyperglycemia (91 to 150 mg/dL), and severe hyperglycemia (> 181 mg/dL) were 5.3 times (aOR, 5.3; 95% CI; 2.4 to 11.4), 3 times (aOR, 3.0;95% CI, 1.4 to 6.3), and 4.3 times (aOR, 4.3; 95% CI, 2.4 to 7.6), respectively, the odds of death for chelonians with blood glucose concentration within reference range. Five risk categories were identified on the basis of PCV and blood glucose concentration.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Derangements in PCV and blood glucose concentration in client-owned chelonians were associated with increased odds of death. On the basis of these results, more aggressive diagnostic testing and treatments may be indicated in chelonians with similar alterations.

Venous blood gas and biochemical analysis of wild captured green turtles (Chelonia mydas) and Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) from the Gulf of Mexico

Blood was collected from wild captured green and Kemp’s ridley turtles off the west coast of Florida, USA. Blood gases and biochemical values were analyzed using a point of care (POC) device in the field. Analytes include pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO₂), partial pressure of oxygen (pO₂), total carbon dioxide (TCO₂), bicarbonate (HCO₃), base excess (BE), oxygen saturation (sO₂), lactate, sodium (Na), potassium (K), chloride (Cl), total carbon dioxide (TCO₂), anion gap, ionized calcium, glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine (Crea), hematocrit (Hct), and hemoglobin (Hb). These are novel data for wild healthy Kemp’s ridley turtles, and results for green turtles were generally consistent with past studies of green turtles with exceptions primarily in blood gas values. Ninety percent of the green turtles had fibropapillomatosis (FP), but none of the blood analytes were correlated with disease severity. Only BUN was correlated with weight of green turtles, and there was no correlation between blood parameters and weight of Kemp’s ridley turtles. This study provides data that are useful in understanding the physiologic status of sea turtles specific to this region, allowing for comparisons to other populations, life stages, and disease states.

Blood analytes of immature Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) from Georgia, USA: reference intervals and body size correlations

Health assessments of wildlife species are becoming increasingly important in an ever-changing environment. Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii; hereafter, Kemp's ridleys) are critically endangered and incur several on-going threats to their population recovery; therefore, it is imperative to advance the understanding of baseline blood analyte data as a diagnostic and monitoring tool. For in-water, trawl-captured, immature Kemp's ridleys (minimum N = 31) from Georgia, USA, the objectives of this study were to (1) establish reference intervals (RIs) for packed cell volume (PCV) and 27 plasma biochemistry analytes and (2) determine length-specific relationships in blood analytes. We observed significant positive correlations between minimum straight carapace length and PCV, amylase, calcium:phosphorus ratio, cholesterol, magnesium, triglycerides, total solids, total protein and all protein fractions (e.g. alpha-, beta- and gamma-globulins); aspartate aminotransferase and chloride showed significant negative relationships. These results suggest that certain blood analytes in Kemp's ridleys change as these animals grow, presumptively due to somatic growth and dietary shifts. The information presented herein, in due consideration of capture technique that may have impacted glucose and potassium concentrations, represents the first report of blood analyte RIs for Kemp's ridley sea turtles established by guidelines of the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology and will have direct applications for stranded individuals in rehabilitative care and for future investigations into the health status of wild individuals from this population.

Crude Oil and Dispersant Cause Acute Clinicopathological Abnormalities in Hatchling Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta)

Following the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon MC252 oil rig in 2010, 319 live sea turtles exposed to crude oil and oil-dispersant (Corexit) combinations were admitted to rehabilitation centers for decontamination and treatment. Treatment of oiled sea turtles was guided by expected physiological and pathological effects of crude oil exposure extrapolated from studies in other species and from a single loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) study. While invaluable starting points, inherent limitations to extrapolation, and small sample size of the experimental exposure study, reduce their utility for clinical guidance and for assessing oil spill impacts. Effects of dispersants were not included in the previous experimental exposure study, and cannot be effectively isolated in the analysis of field data from actual spills. A terminal study of pivotal temperature of sex determination using eggs salvaged from doomed loggerhead nests provided an opportunity for an ancillary exposure study to investigate the acute effects of crude oil, dispersant, and a crude oil/dispersant combination in sea turtle hatchlings. Eggs were incubated at 27.2-30.8°C, and hatchlings were randomly assigned to control, oil, dispersant, and combined oil/dispersant exposures for 1 or 4 days. Contaminant exposures were started after a 3 day post-hatching period simulating nest emergence. Turtles were placed in individual glass bowls containing aged seawater and exposed to oil (Gulf Coast-Mixed Crude Oil Sweet, CAS #8002-05-9, 0.833 mL/L) and/or dispersant (Corexit 9500A, 0.083 mL/L), replicating concentrations encountered during oil spills and subsequent response. Statistically significant differences between treatments and non-exposed controls were detected for PCV, AST, uric acid, glucose, calcium, phosphorus, total protein, albumin, globulin, potassium, and sodium. The principal dyscrasias reflected acute osmolar, electrolyte and hydration challenges that were more numerous and greater in combined oil/dispersant exposures at 4 days. Clinicopathological findings were supported by a failure to gain weight (associated with normal hatchling hydration in seawater) in dispersant and combination exposed hatchlings. These findings can help guide clinical response for sea turtles exposed to crude oil and crude oil/dispersant combinations, and indicate potential impacts on wildlife to consider when deploying dispersants in an oil spill response.

Clinicopathological prognostic indicators of survival and pathological findings in cold-stressed Florida manatees Trichechus manatus latirostris

Cold-stress syndrome (CSS) is a leading natural cause of mortality in free-ranging Florida manatees Trichechus manatus latirostris, but comprehensive investigations into blood analyte derangements and prognostic indicators in CSS are lacking. The objectives of this study were to (1) compare admission blood analyte data of manatees pre and post rehabilitation for CSS to identify clinicopathological derangements, (2) identify blood analyte prognostic indicators for survival, and (3) correlate post-mortem anatomic pathological changes with clinicopathological findings to improve the understanding of CS pathophysiology. CSS manatees admitted to a rehabilitation facility between 2007 and 2017 were included: 59 manatees with data for clinicopathological analysis (7 non-survivors and 49 survivors) and 14 manatees with necropsy data (7 with and 7 without blood analyte data). Main interpretive clinicopathological findings indicated systemic inflammation, bone marrow damage, diuresis, malnutrition, tissue necrosis, fat mobilization, hepatic impairment, acid-base imbalances, and gastrointestinal ulceration. The best diagnostically performing prognostic indicators for survival included platelet concentration, aspartate aminotransferase, calcium, and blood urea nitrogen. The main anatomic pathological findings were cutaneous lesions (n = 14), lipid depletion (n = 12), upper gastrointestinal ulceration and/or hemorrhage (n = 9), and pneumonia (n = 5). Based on the identified blood prognostic indicators interpreted in the context of anatomic pathological findings, multi-organ tissue injury, gastrointestinal ulceration and/or hemorrhage, and hemodynamic and platelet derangements are the presumptive major factors of CSS manatee mortality. These results contribute to the understanding of the complex CSS pathophysiology and offer the use of blood analyte prognostic indicators as a clinically applicable tool for the medical care of manatees during rehabilitation, thereby contributing to increased rehabilitation success and conservation of the Florida manatee.

Health status assessment of traumatic injury freshwater turtles

A group of injured yellow-bellied sliders (Trachemys scripta) and river cooters (Pseudemys concinna) were evaluated for a variety of health values at presentation to the NC State Turtle Rescue Team and prior to release. An i-STAT Portable Clinical Analyzer and CG8+ cartridges were used to determine venous blood gas and biochemical values, the packed cell volume (PCV) and total protein were evaluated using hematocrit tubes and high speed centrifugation, and a differential WBC percentage was determined manually with Diff-Quick stained blood smear slides. Forty-six turtles were sampled on presentation and twenty-three of those were sampled again prior to release. Blood values were analyzed for significant differences between samples collected at presentation and prior to release, as well as differences between surviving and non-surviving turtles. Five variables were identified as significantly different between presenting and recuperated samples: pH, pCO2, Glu, % heterophils, and % eosinophils. When comparing samples between turtles that survived versus those that did not, two variables were identified as being significant prognostic indicators; lactate and PCV. Identification of these significant variables can aid in determining patient prognosis and triage therapy for injured aquatic turtles.

Venous blood gas in free-living eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) and effects of physiologic, demographic and environmental factors

Sustainable wildlife populations depend on healthy individuals, and the approach to determine wellness of individuals is multifaceted. Blood gas analysis serves as a useful adjunctive diagnostic test for health assessment, but it is uncommonly applied to terrestrial reptiles. This study established reference intervals for venous blood gas panels in free-living eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina, N = 102) from Illinois and Tennessee, and modeled the effects of environmental and physiologic parameters on each blood gas analyte. Blood gas panels included pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO₂), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO₂), total carbon dioxide (TCO₂), bicarbonate (HCO₃^-), base excess (BE) and lactate. Candidate sets of general linear models were constructed for each blood gas analyte and ranked using an information-theoretic approach (AIC). Season, packed cell volume (PCV) and activity level were the most important predictors for all blood gas analytes (P < 0.05). Elevations in PCV were associated with increases in pCO₂ and lactate, and decreases in pH, pO₂, HCO₃^-, TCO₂ and BE. Turtles with quiet activity levels had lower pH and pO₂ and higher pCO₂ than bright individuals. pH, HCO₃^-, TCO₂ and BE were lowest in the summer, while pCO₂ and lactate were highest. Overall, blood pH was most acidic in quiet turtles with elevated PCVs during summer. Trends in the respiratory and metabolic components of the blood gas panel tended to be synergistic rather than antagonistic, demonstrating that either (1) mixed acid-base disturbances are common or (2) chelonian blood pH can reach extreme values prior to activation of compensatory mechanisms. This study shows that box turtle blood gas analytes depend on several physiologic and environmental parameters and the results serve as a baseline for future evaluation.

Inter-rater reliability of categorical versus continuous scoring of fish vitality: Does it affect the utility of the reflex action mortality predictor (RAMP) approach?

Scoring reflex responsiveness and injury of aquatic organisms has gained popularity as predictors of discard survival. Given this method relies upon the individual interpretation of scoring criteria, an evaluation of its robustness is done here to test whether protocol-instructed, multiple raters with diverse backgrounds (research scientist, technician, and student) are able to produce similar or the same reflex and injury score for one of the same flatfish (European plaice, Pleuronectes platessa) after experiencing commercial fishing stressors. Inter-rater reliability for three raters was assessed by using a 3-point categorical scale (‘absent’, ‘weak’, ‘strong’) and a tagged visual analogue continuous scale (tVAS, a 10 cm bar split in three labelled sections: 0 for ‘absent’, ‘weak’, ‘moderate’, and ‘strong’) for six reflex responses, and a 4-point scale for four injury types. Plaice (n = 304) were sampled from 17 research beam-trawl deployments during four trips. Fleiss kappa (categorical scores) and intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC, continuous scores) indicated variable inter-rater agreement by reflex type (ranging between 0.55 and 0.88, and 67% and 91% for Fleiss kappa and ICC, respectively), with least agreement among raters on extent of injury (Fleiss kappa between 0.08 and 0.27). Despite differences among raters, which did not significantly influence the relationship between impairment and predicted survival, combining categorical reflex and injury scores always produced a close relationship of such vitality indices and observed delayed mortality. The use of the continuous scale did not improve fit of these models compared with using the reflex impairment index based on categorical scores. Given these findings, we recommend using a 3-point categorical over a continuous scale. We also determined that training rather than experience of raters minimised inter-rater differences. Our results suggest that cost-efficient reflex impairment and injury scoring may be considered a robust technique to evaluate lethal stress and damage of this flatfish species on-board commercial beam-trawl vessels.

ADVANCES IN ANIMAL WELFARE FOR FREE-LIVING ANIMALS

Over several decades, animal welfare has grown into its own free-standing field of scientific study, from its early beginnings in laboratory animal research to eventually include exhibited animals and farm animals. While it has always been present to some degree, consideration of animal welfare for free-ranging animals has lagged behind, developing as a field of study in the last 20 yr or so. Part of that increase was that animal welfare legislation was finally applied to studies being done on free-ranging animals. But it is the appreciation by the biologists and veterinarians working on wild animals, in which the quality of their results is largely controlled by the quality of the animals they use in their studies, which has resulted in increased attention to the well-being or welfare of the animals that they use. Other important influences driving the recognition of wildlife welfare have been changes in the public's expectations of how wild animals are dealt with, a shift in focus of wildlife professionals from managing animals that can be hunted or angled to include nongame species, the decrease in participation in hunting and fishing by members of the public, and the entry of large numbers of women into fish and wildlife agencies and departments and into veterinary medicine. Technical improvements have allowed the safe capture and handling of large or dangerous animals as immobilization drugs and equipment have been developed. The increasing use of sedating drugs allows for handling of animals with reduced stress and other impacts. A number of topics, such as toe-clipping, branding, defining which taxa can or cannot feel pain, catch-and-release fishing, and more, remain controversial within wildlife science. How we treat the wild animals that we deal with defines who we are as wildlife professionals, and animal welfare concerns and techniques for free-ranging animals will continue to develop and evolve.

Assessment of ground transportation stress in juvenile Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii)

Sea turtle rehabilitation centres frequently transport sea turtles for long distances to move animals between centres or to release them at beaches, yet there is little information on the possible effects of transportation-related stress ('transport stress') on sea turtles. To assess whether transport stress is a clinically relevant concern for endangered Kemp's ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii), we obtained pre-transport and post-transport plasma samples from 26 juvenile Kemp's ridley sea turtles that were transported for 13 h (n = 15 turtles) or 26 h (n = 11 turtles) by truck for release at beaches. To control for effects of handling, food restriction and time of day, the same turtles were also studied on 'control days' 2 weeks prior to transport, i.e. with two samples taken to mimic pre-transport and post-transport timing, but without transportation. Blood samples were analysed for nine clinical health measures (pH, pCO2, pO2, HCO3, sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, lactate and haematocrit) and four 'stress-associated' parameters (corticosterone, glucose, white blood cell count and heterophil-to-lymphocyte ratio). Vital signs (heart rate, respiratory rate and cloacal temperature) were also monitored. Corticosterone and glucose showed pronounced elevations due specifically to transportation; for corticosterone, this elevation was significant only for the longer transport duration, whereas glucose increased significantly after both transport durations. However, clinical health measures and vital signs showed minimal or no changes in response to any sampling event (with or without transport), and all turtles appeared to be in good clinical health after both transport durations. Thus, transportation elicits a mild, but detectable, adrenal stress response that is more pronounced during longer durations of transport; nonetheless, Kemp's ridley sea turtles can tolerate ground transportation of up to 26 h in good health. These results are likely to depend on specific transportation and handling protocols.

Diagnosis and management of Enterococcus spp infections during rehabilitation of cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii): 50 cases (2006-2012)

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate clinical data for cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) with Enterococcus spp infections during rehabilitation.

DESIGN

Retrospective case series.

ANIMALS

50 stranded cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles hospitalized between 2006 and 2012.

PROCEDURES

Medical records for turtles from which Enterococcus spp were isolated were reviewed retrospectively, and clinical data, including morphometric data, body temperature at admission, physical examination findings, antimicrobial medication history, history of medications administered IV, environmental data, day of diagnosis, clinical signs at diagnosis, microbiological testing results, sources of positive culture results, hematologic and plasma biochemical data, cytologic and histopathologic results, radiographic findings, antimicrobial treatments, time to first negative culture result, treatment duration, results of subsequent cultures, and case outcome, were collated and analyzed.

RESULTS

Enterococcus spp were isolated from bacteriologic cultures of blood, bone, joint, and respiratory tract samples and a skin lesion, with supporting evidence of infection provided by histopathologic, cytologic, and radiographic data. Positive culture results were associated with clinical problems such as lethargy, anorexia, and lameness. Most (34/43 [79%]) turtles for which an antemortem diagnosis was made survived with treatment and were released into the wild.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Cold-stunned Kemp's ridley turtles may be affected by serious Enterococcus spp infections during rehabilitation. Recognition and treatment of these infections are important for successful rehabilitation.

Blood gases, biochemistry, and hematology of Galapagos green turtles (Chelonia mydas)

The green turtle, Chelonia mydas, is an endangered marine chelonian with a circum-global distribution. Reference blood parameter intervals have been published for some chelonian species, but baseline hematology, biochemical, and blood gas values are lacking from the Galapagos sea turtles. Analyses were done on blood samples drawn from 28 green turtles captured in two foraging locations on San Cristóbal Island (14 from each site). Of these turtles, 20 were immature and of unknown sex; the other eight were males (five mature, three immature). A portable blood analyzer (iSTAT) was used to obtain near immediate field results for pH, lactate, pO₂, pCO₂, HCO₃⁻, Hct, Hb, Na, K, iCa, and Glu. Parameter values affected by temperature were corrected in two ways: (1) with standard formulas; and (2) with auto-corrections made by the iSTAT. The two methods yielded clinically equivalent results. Standard laboratory hematology techniques were employed for the red and white blood cell counts and the hematocrit determination, which was also compared to the hematocrit values generated by the iSTAT. Of all blood analytes, only lactate concentrations were positively correlated with body size. All other values showed no significant difference between the two sample locations nor were they correlated with body size or internal temperature. For hematocrit count, the iSTAT blood analyzer yielded results indistinguishable from those obtained with high-speed centrifugation. The values reported in this study provide baseline data that may be useful in comparisons among populations and in detecting changes in health status among Galapagos sea turtles. The findings might also be helpful in future efforts to demonstrate associations between specific biochemical parameters and disease.