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Jacobs AK, Morley SD, Samuel K, Morgan K, Boswell L, Kendall TJ, Dorward DA, Fallowfield JA, Hayes PC, Plevris JN. Hepatic angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 expression in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease and in patients with fatal COVID-19. World J Gastroenterol 2024; 30:3705-3716. [DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v30.i31.3705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 08/13/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), characterised by hepatic lipid accumulation, causes inflammation and oxidative stress accompanied by cell damage and fibrosis. Liver injury (LI) is also frequently reported in patients hospitalised with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), while pre-existing MASLD increases the risk of LI and the development of COVID-19-associated cholangiopathy. Mechanisms of injury at the cellular level remain unclear, but it may be significant that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which causes COVID-19, uses angiotensin-converting expression enzyme 2 (ACE2), a key regulator of the ‘anti-inflammatory’ arm of the renin-angiotensin system, for viral attachment and host cell invasion.
AIM To determine if hepatic ACE2 levels are altered during progression of MASLD and in patients who died with severe COVID-19.
METHODS ACE2 protein levels and localisation, and histological fibrosis and lipid droplet accumulation as markers of MASLD were determined in formalin-fixed liver tissue sections across the MASLD pathological spectrum (isolated hepatocellular steatosis, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) +/- fibrosis, end-stage cirrhosis) and in post-mortem tissues from patients who had died with severe COVID-19, using ACE2 immunohistochemistry and haematoxylin and eosin and picrosirius red staining of total collagen and lipid droplet areas, followed by quantification using machine learning-based image pixel classifiers.
RESULTS ACE2 staining is primarily intracellular and concentrated in the cytoplasm of centrilobular hepatocytes and apical membranes of bile duct cholangiocytes. Strikingly, ACE2 protein levels are elevated in non-fibrotic MASH compared to healthy controls but not in the progression to MASH with fibrosis and in cirrhosis. ACE2 protein levels and histological fibrosis are not associated, but ACE2 and liver lipid droplet content are significantly correlated across the MASLD spectrum. Hepatic ACE2 levels are also increased in COVID-19 patients, especially those showing evidence of LI, but are not correlated with the presence of SARS-CoV-2 virus in the liver. However, there is a clear association between the hepatic lipid droplet content and the presence of the virus, suggesting a possible functional link.
CONCLUSION Hepatic ACE2 levels were elevated in nonfibrotic MASH and COVID-19 patients with LI, while lipid accumulation may promote intra-hepatic SARS-CoV-2 replication, accelerating MASLD progression and COVID-19-mediated liver damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angus K Jacobs
- Hepatology Laboratory, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - Steven D Morley
- Hepatology Laboratory, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - Kay Samuel
- Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service, Jack Copland Centre, Edinburgh EH14 4BE, United Kingdom
| | - Katie Morgan
- Hepatology Laboratory, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - Lyndsey Boswell
- Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, United Kingdom
| | - Timothy J Kendall
- Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, United Kingdom
- Edinburgh Pathology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - David A Dorward
- Edinburgh Pathology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan A Fallowfield
- Institute for Regeneration and Repair, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, United Kingdom
| | - Peter C Hayes
- Hepatology Laboratory, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - John N Plevris
- Hepatology Laboratory, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
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Elgazzaz M, Filipeanu C, Lazartigues E. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 Posttranslational Modifications and Implications for Hypertension and SARS-CoV-2: 2023 Lewis K. Dahl Memorial Lecture. Hypertension 2024; 81:1438-1449. [PMID: 38567498 PMCID: PMC11168885 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.124.22067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2), a multifunctional transmembrane protein, is well recognized as an important member of the (RAS) renin-angiotensin system with important roles in the regulation of cardiovascular function by opposing the harmful effects of Ang-II (angiotensin II) and AT1R (Ang-II type 1 receptor) activation. More recently, ACE2 was found to be the entry point for the SARS-CoV-2 virus into cells, causing COVID-19. This finding has led to an exponential rise in the number of publications focused on ACE2, albeit these studies often have opposite objectives to the preservation of ACE2 in cardiovascular regulation. However, notwithstanding accumulating data of the role of ACE2 in the generation of angiotensin-(1-7) and SARS-CoV-2 internalization, numerous other putative roles of this enzyme remain less investigated and not yet characterized. Currently, no drug modulating ACE2 function or expression is available in the clinic, and the development of new pharmacological tools should attempt targeting each step of the lifespan of the protein from synthesis to degradation. The present review expands on our presentation during the 2023 Lewis K. Dahl Memorial Lecture Sponsored by the American Heart Association Council on Hypertension. We provide a critical summary of the current knowledge of the mechanisms controlling ACE2 internalization and intracellular trafficking, the mutual regulation with GPCRs (G-protein-coupled receptors) and other proteins, and posttranslational modifications. A major focus is on ubiquitination which has become a critical step in the modulation of ACE2 cellular levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Elgazzaz
- Department of Physiology, Augusta University, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Genetics Unit, Department of Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41522, Egypt
| | - Catalin Filipeanu
- Department of Pharmacology, Howard University, Washington, DC 20059, USA
| | - Eric Lazartigues
- Cardiovascular Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
- Southeast Louisiana Veterans Health Care System, New Orleans, LA 70119, USA
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Mendiola-Salazar XA, Munguía-Laguna MA, Franco M, Cano-Martínez A, Santamaría Sosa J, Bautista-Pérez R. SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Enhances Carboxypeptidase Activity of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6276. [PMID: 38892464 PMCID: PMC11172802 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25116276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated whether severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein may modify angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) activity in the plasma, heart, kidney, liver, lung, and six brain regions (amygdala, brain stem, cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and striatum) of diabetic and hypertensive rats. We determine ACE2 activity in the plasma and lysates of heart, kidney, liver, lung, and six brain regions. MLN-4760 inhibits ACE2 activity in the plasma and all organs. On the other hand, soluble ACE2 (sACE2) activity increased in the plasma of diabetic rats, and there was no change in the plasma of hypertensive rats. ACE2 activity was augmented in the liver, brain stem, and striatum, while it decreased in the kidney, amygdala, cortex, and hippocampus of diabetic rats. ACE2 activity increased in the kidney, liver, and lung, while it decreased in the heart, amygdala, cortex, and hypothalamus of hypertensive rats. We measured the ACE2 content via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and found that ACE2 protein levels increased in the heart, while it decreased in the plasma, kidney, brain stem, cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and striatum of diabetic rats. ACE2 protein levels decreased in the brain stem, cortex, hippocampus, and hypothalamus of hypertensive rats. Our data showed that the spike protein enhanced ACE2 activity in the liver and lungs of diabetic rats, as well as in the heart and three of the brain regions (cortex, hypothalamus, and striatum) of hypertensive rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xóchitl Andrea Mendiola-Salazar
- Department of Molecular Biology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología “Ignacio Chávez”, Mexico City 14080, Mexico (M.A.M.-L.)
- Carrera de Médico Cirujano, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 54090, Mexico
| | - Melanie A. Munguía-Laguna
- Department of Molecular Biology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología “Ignacio Chávez”, Mexico City 14080, Mexico (M.A.M.-L.)
| | - Martha Franco
- Department of Cardio-Renal Pathophysiology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología “Ignacio Chávez”, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (M.F.); (J.S.S.)
| | - Agustina Cano-Martínez
- Department of Physiology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología “Ignacio Chávez”, Mexico City 14080, Mexico;
| | - José Santamaría Sosa
- Department of Cardio-Renal Pathophysiology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología “Ignacio Chávez”, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (M.F.); (J.S.S.)
| | - Rocío Bautista-Pérez
- Department of Molecular Biology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología “Ignacio Chávez”, Mexico City 14080, Mexico (M.A.M.-L.)
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Elgazzaz M, Lakkappa N, Berdasco C, Mohan UP, Nuzzo A, Restivo L, Martinez A, Scarborough A, Guidry JJ, Sriramula S, Xu J, Daoud H, Mendiola Plá MA, Bowles DE, Beyer AM, Mauvais-Jarvis F, Yue X, Filipeanu CM, Lazartigues E. UBR1 Promotes Sex-Dependent ACE2 Ubiquitination in Hypertension. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2024:2024.05.23.24307722. [PMID: 38826318 PMCID: PMC11142264 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.23.24307722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
Background Angiotensin (Ang)-II impairs the function of the antihypertensive enzyme ACE2 by promoting its internalization, ubiquitination and degradation thus contributing to hypertension. However, few ACE2 ubiquitination partners have been identified and their role in hypertension remains unknown. Methods Proteomics and bioinformatic analysis were used to identify ACE2 ubiquitination partners in the brain, heart, and kidney from Ang-II-infused C57BL6/J mice from both sexes and validated the interaction between UBR1 and ACE2 in cells. Central and peripheral UBR1 knockdown was then performed in male mice to investigate its role in the maintenance of hypertension. Results Proteomics analysis from hypothalamus identified UBR1 as a potential E3 ligase promoting ACE2 ubiquitination. Enhanced UBR1 expression, associated with ACE2 reduction, was confirmed in various tissues from hypertensive male mice and human samples. Treatment of endothelial and smooth muscle cells with testosterone, but not 17β-estradiol, confirmed a sex-specific regulation of UBR1. In vivo silencing of UBR1 using chronic administration of small interference RNA resulted in the restoration of ACE2 levels in hypertensive males. A transient decrease in blood pressure following intracerebroventricular, but not systemic, infusion was also observed. Interestingly, UBR1 knockdown increased the brain activation of Nedd4-2, an E3 ligase promoting ACE2 ubiquitination and reduced expression of SGK1, the kinase inactivating Nedd4-2. Conclusions: These data demonstrate that UBR1 is a novel ubiquitin ligase targeting ACE2 in hypertension. UBR1 and Nedd4-2 E3 ligases appear to work synergistically to ubiquitinate ACE2. Targeting of these ubiquitin ligases may represent a novel strategy to restore ACE2 compensatory activity in hypertension.
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Xu J, Jiang W, Hu T, Long Y, Shen Y. NEDD4 and NEDD4L: Ubiquitin Ligases Closely Related to Digestive Diseases. Biomolecules 2024; 14:577. [PMID: 38785984 PMCID: PMC11117611 DOI: 10.3390/biom14050577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Protein ubiquitination is an enzymatic cascade reaction and serves as an important protein post-translational modification (PTM) that is involved in the vast majority of cellular life activities. The key enzyme in the ubiquitination process is E3 ubiquitin ligase (E3), which catalyzes the binding of ubiquitin (Ub) to the protein substrate and influences substrate specificity. In recent years, the relationship between the subfamily of neuron-expressed developmental downregulation 4 (NEDD4), which belongs to the E3 ligase system, and digestive diseases has drawn widespread attention. Numerous studies have shown that NEDD4 and NEDD4L of the NEDD4 family can regulate the digestive function, as well as a series of related physiological and pathological processes, by controlling the subsequent degradation of proteins such as PTEN, c-Myc, and P21, along with substrate ubiquitination. In this article, we reviewed the appropriate functions of NEDD4 and NEDD4L in digestive diseases including cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis, chemotherapeutic drug resistance, and multiple signaling pathways, based on the currently available research evidence for the purpose of providing new ideas for the prevention and treatment of digestive diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Yueming Shen
- Department of Digestive Diseases, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, 161 Shaoshan Road, Changsha 410000, China; (J.X.); (W.J.); (T.H.); (Y.L.)
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6
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Chen K, Cheng X, Yuan S, Sun Y, Hao J, Tan Q, Lin Y, Li S, Yang J. Signature and function of plasma exosome-derived circular RNAs in patients with hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage. Mol Genet Genomics 2024; 299:50. [PMID: 38734849 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-024-02144-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is one of the major causes of death and disability, and hypertensive ICH (HICH) is the most common type of ICH. Currently, the outcomes of HICH patients remain poor after treatment, and early prognosis prediction of HICH is important. However, there are limited effective clinical treatments and biomarkers for HICH patients. Although circRNA has been widely studied in diseases, the role of plasma exosomal circRNAs in HICH remains unknown. The present study was conducted to investigate the characteristics and function of plasma exosomal circRNAs in six HICH patients using circRNA microarray and bioinformatics analysis. The results showed that there were 499 differentially expressed exosomal circRNAs between the HICH patients and control subjects. According to GO annotation and KEGG pathway analyses, the targets regulated by differentially expressed exosomal circRNAs were tightly related to the development of HICH via nerve/neuronal growth, neuroinflammation and endothelial homeostasis. And the differentially expressed exosomal circRNAs could mainly bind to four RNA-binding proteins (EIF4A3, FMRP, AGO2 and HUR). Moreover, of differentially expressed exosomal circRNAs, hsa_circ_00054843, hsa_circ_0010493 and hsa_circ_00090516 were significantly associated with bleeding volume and Glasgow Coma Scale score of the subjects. Our findings firstly revealed that the plasma exosomal circRNAs are significantly involved in the progression of HICH, and could be potent biomarkers for HICH. This provides the basis for further research to pinpoint the best biomarkers and illustrate the mechanism of exosomal circRNAs in HICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kejie Chen
- School of Public Health, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610500, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyuan Cheng
- Department of Emergency, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610500, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanshan Yuan
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610500, People's Republic of China
| | - Yang Sun
- Department of Emergency, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610500, People's Republic of China
| | - Junli Hao
- School of Bioscience and Technology, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610500, People's Republic of China
| | - Quandan Tan
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610500, People's Republic of China
| | - Yapeng Lin
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610500, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuping Li
- Department of Emergency, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610500, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jie Yang
- Department of Neurology, Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610072, People's Republic of China.
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Bader M, Steckelings UM, Alenina N, Santos RA, Ferrario CM. Alternative Renin-Angiotensin System. Hypertension 2024; 81:964-976. [PMID: 38362781 PMCID: PMC11023806 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.123.21364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The renin-angiotensin system is the most important peptide hormone system in the regulation of cardiovascular homeostasis. Its classical arm consists of the enzymes, renin, and angiotensin-converting enzyme, generating angiotensin II from angiotensinogen, which activates its AT1 receptor, thereby increasing blood pressure, retaining salt and water, and inducing cardiovascular hypertrophy and fibrosis. However, angiotensin II can also activate a second receptor, the AT2 receptor. Moreover, the removal of the C-terminal phenylalanine from angiotensin II by ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) yields angiotensin-(1-7), and this peptide interacts with its receptor Mas. When the aminoterminal Asp of angiotensin-(1-7) is decarboxylated, alamandine is generated, which activates the Mas-related G-protein-coupled receptor D, MrgD (Mas-related G-protein-coupled receptor type D). Since Mas, MrgD, and the AT2 receptor have opposing effects to the classical AT1 receptor, they and the enzymes and peptides activating them are called the alternative or protective arm of the renin-angiotensin system. This review will cover the historical aspects and the current standing of this recent addition to the biology of the renin-angiotensin system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Bader
- Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Charité - University Medicine, Berlin, Germany
- Institute for Biology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - U. Muscha Steckelings
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, Dept. of Cardiovascular & Renal Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Natalia Alenina
- Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC), Berlin, Germany
- DZHK (German Center for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robson A.S. Santos
- National Institute of Science and Technology in Nanobiopharmaceutics (Nanobiofar) - Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences - Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Carlos M. Ferrario
- Laboratory of Translational Hypertension, Department of Surgery, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27157, USA
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Wang P, Ren Z, Wang W, Liu M, Jia Y, Zhang M, Xue Y, Zhang C, Xu J, Wang C, Wang X. Candesartan upregulates angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 in kidneys of male animals by decreased ubiquitination. FASEB J 2024; 38:e23537. [PMID: 38498345 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202302707r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Candesartan is a common angiotensin-II receptor-1 blocker used for patients with cardiovascular and renal diseases. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is a negative regulator of blood pressure (BP), and also a major receptor for coronaviruses. To determine whether and how candesartan upregulates ACE2, we examined BP and ACE2 in multi-organs from male and female C57BL/6J mice treated with candesartan (1 mg/kg, i.p.) for 7 days. Relative to the vehicle, candesartan lowered BP more in males than females; ACE2 protein abundances were increased in kidneys, not lungs, hearts, aorta, liver, spleen, brain, or serum, only from males. Ace2-mRNA was similar in kidneys. Candesartan also decreased BP in normal, hypertensive, and nephrotic male rats. The renal ACE2 was increased by the drug in normal and nephrotic male rats but not spontaneously hypertensive ones. In male mouse kidneys, ACE2 was distributed at sodium-hydrogen-exchanger-3 positive proximal-convoluted-tubules; ACE2-ubiquitination was decreased by candesartan, accompanied with increased ubiquitin-specific-protease-48 (USP48). In candesartan-treated mouse renal proximal-convoluted-tubule cells, ACE2 abundances and activities were increased while ACE2-ubiquitination and colocalization with lysosomal and proteosomal markers were decreased. The silence of USP48 by siRNA caused a reduction of ACE2 in the cells. Thus, the sex-differential ACE2 upregulation by candesartan in kidney from males may be due to the decreased ACE2-ubiquitination, associated with USP48, and consequent degradation in lysosomes and proteosomes. This is a novel mechanism and may shed light on candesartan-like-drug choice in men and women prone to coronavirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Wang
- The Core Laboratory for Clinical Research, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Nephrology, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhiyun Ren
- The Core Laboratory for Clinical Research, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Weiwan Wang
- The Core Laboratory for Clinical Research, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mingda Liu
- The Core Laboratory for Clinical Research, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yutao Jia
- Department of Nephrology, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mingzhuo Zhang
- The Core Laboratory for Clinical Research, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Nephrology, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ying Xue
- The Core Laboratory for Clinical Research, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chenyang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jianteng Xu
- Laboratory Division, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Cheng Wang
- The Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaoyan Wang
- The Core Laboratory for Clinical Research, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Nephrology, BenQ Medical Center, The Affiliated BenQ Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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9
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Lazartigues E, Llorens-Cortes C, Danser AHJ. New Approaches Targeting the Renin-Angiotensin System: Inhibition of Brain Aminopeptidase A, ACE2 Ubiquitination, and Angiotensinogen. Can J Cardiol 2023; 39:1900-1912. [PMID: 37348757 PMCID: PMC10730775 DOI: 10.1016/j.cjca.2023.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the availability of various therapeutic classes of antihypertensive drugs, hypertension remains poorly controlled, in part because of poor adherence. Hence, there is a need for the development of antihypertensive drugs acting on new targets to improve control of blood pressure. This review discusses novel insights (including the data of recent clinical trials) with regard to interference with the renin-angiotensin system, focusing on the enzymes aminopeptidase A and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in the brain, as well as the substrate of renin- angiotensinogen-in the liver. It raises the possibility that centrally acting amino peptidase A inhibitors (eg, firibastat), preventing the conversion of angiotensin II to angiotensin III in the brain, might be particularly useful in African Americans and patients with obesity. Firibastat additionally upregulates brain ACE2, allowing the conversion of angiotensin II to its protective metabolite angiotensin-(1-7). Furthermore, antisense oligonucleotides or small interfering ribonucleic acids suppress hepatic angiotensinogen for weeks to months after 1 injection and thus could potentially overcome adherence issues. Finally, interference with ACE2 ubiquitination is emerging as a future option for the treatment of neurogenic hypertension, given that ubiquitination resistance might upregulate ACE2 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Lazartigues
- Cardiovascular Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; Department of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; Neuroscience Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA; Southeast Louisiana Veterans Health Care System, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Catherine Llorens-Cortes
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, College de France, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France; CEA, Medicines and Healthcare Technologies Department, SIMoS, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - A H Jan Danser
- Division of Pharmacology, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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10
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Xiao Y, Chang L, Ji H, Sun H, Song S, Feng K, Nuermaimaiti A, Halemubieke S, Mei L, Lu Z, Yan Y, Wang L. Posttranslational modifications of ACE2 protein: Implications for SARS-CoV-2 infection and beyond. J Med Virol 2023; 95:e29304. [PMID: 38063421 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.29304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Revised: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
The present worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has highlighted the important function of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a receptor for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) entry. A deeper understanding of ACE2 could offer insights into the mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 infection. While ACE2 is subject to regulation by various factors in vivo, current research in this area is insufficient to fully elucidate the corresponding pathways of control. Posttranslational modification (PTM) is a powerful tool for broadening the variety of proteins. The PTM study of ACE2 will help us to make up for the deficiency in the regulation of protein synthesis and translation. However, research on PTM-related aspects of ACE2 remains limited, mostly focused on glycosylation. Accordingly, a comprehensive review of ACE2 PTMs could help us better understand the infection process and provide a basis for the treatment of COVID-19 and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingzi Xiao
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Le Chang
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Huimin Ji
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Huizhen Sun
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Shi Song
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Kaihao Feng
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Abudulimutailipu Nuermaimaiti
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Shana Halemubieke
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Mei
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhuoqun Lu
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Yan
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Lunan Wang
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing Hospital/National Center of Gerontology, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- National Center for Clinical Laboratories, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Laboratory Medicine, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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Wang CW, Chuang HC, Tan TH. ACE2 in chronic disease and COVID-19: gene regulation and post-translational modification. J Biomed Sci 2023; 30:71. [PMID: 37608279 PMCID: PMC10464117 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-023-00965-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), a counter regulator of the renin-angiotensin system, provides protection against several chronic diseases. Besides chronic diseases, ACE2 is the host receptor for SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-2 virus, mediating the first step of virus infection. ACE2 levels are regulated by transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational regulation or modification. ACE2 transcription is enhanced by transcription factors including Ikaros, HNFs, GATA6, STAT3 or SIRT1, whereas ACE2 transcription is reduced by the transcription factor Brg1-FoxM1 complex or ERRα. ACE2 levels are also regulated by histone modification or miRNA-induced destabilization. The protein kinase AMPK, CK1α, or MAP4K3 phosphorylates ACE2 protein and induces ACE2 protein levels by decreasing its ubiquitination. The ubiquitination of ACE2 is induced by the E3 ubiquitin ligase MDM2 or UBR4 and decreased by the deubiquitinase UCHL1 or USP50. ACE2 protein levels are also increased by the E3 ligase PIAS4-mediated SUMOylation or the methyltransferase PRMT5-mediated ACE2 methylation, whereas ACE2 protein levels are decreased by AP2-mediated lysosomal degradation. ACE2 is downregulated in several human chronic diseases like diabetes, hypertension, or lung injury. In contrast, SARS-CoV-2 upregulates ACE2 levels, enhancing host cell susceptibility to virus infection. Moreover, soluble ACE2 protein and exosomal ACE2 protein facilitate SARS-CoV-2 infection into host cells. In this review, we summarize the gene regulation and post-translational modification of ACE2 in chronic disease and COVID-19. Understanding the regulation and modification of ACE2 may help to develop prevention or treatment strategies for ACE2-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Wen Wang
- Immunology Research Center, National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, 35053 Taiwan
| | - Huai-Chia Chuang
- Immunology Research Center, National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, 35053 Taiwan
| | - Tse-Hua Tan
- Immunology Research Center, National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, 35053 Taiwan
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