CBCT in orthodontics: a systematic review on justification of CBCT in a paediatric population prior to orthodontic treatment

Incidental findings from cone-beam computed tomography in children and adolescents: a systematic review

PURPOSE

The use of cone-beam computed tomographies (CBCT) in orthodontics and pediatric dentistry is constantly increasing. The aim of this systematic review was to critically appraise and summarize evidence from clinical studies on the prevalence of incidental findings from CBCTs of children and adolescents.

METHODS

Systematic literature searches without restrictions were undertaken in eight databases from inception up to March 2024 for studies reporting on incidental findings from CBCT images of children and adolescents. After duplicate study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment with a custom tool based on the Joanna Briggs institute's tool for prevalence studies, qualitative (narrative) data synthesis was performed.

RESULTS

Ten studies covering a total of 1818 patients (48.5% male; average age 12.3 years) were included. The prevalence of incidental findings ranged from 0.4 to 80.3%, but high heterogeneity was seen between studies (I2 = 99%). Incidental findings were most often related to airways (63.7%), followed by bone (23.6%), teeth (19.2), spine (26.2) and temporomandibular joint (3.8%). However, several methodological issues existed with included studies (incomplete reporting of patient- or CBCT-related details, incomplete categorization and reporting on the severity of findings, small sample sizes, and research transparency issues).

CONCLUSION

Evidence indicates that incidental findings can be often found in the CBCTs of child and adolescent patients. However, when a CBCT image is justified for children or adolescents, it should be adequately assessed for incidental findings by either a specialist oral and maxillofacial radiologist or a dentist with appropriate training and experience.

Novel AI-based tool for primary tooth segmentation on CBCT using convolutional neural networks: A validation study

BACKGROUND

Primary teeth segmentation on cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) scans is essential for paediatric treatment planning. Conventional methods, however, are time-consuming and necessitate advanced expertise.

AIM

The aim of this study was to validate an artificial intelligence (AI) cloud-based platform for automated segmentation (AS) of primary teeth on CBCT. Its accuracy, time efficiency, and consistency were compared with manual segmentation (MS).

DESIGN

A dataset comprising 402 primary teeth (37 CBCT scans) was retrospectively retrieved from two CBCT devices. Primary teeth were manually segmented using a cloud-based platform representing the ground truth, whereas AS was performed on the same platform. To assess the AI tool's performance, voxel- and surface-based metrics were employed to compare MS and AS methods. Additionally, segmentation time was recorded for each method, and intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) assessed consistency between them.

RESULTS

AS revealed high performance in segmenting primary teeth with high accuracy (98 ± 1%) and dice similarity coefficient (DSC; 95 ± 2%). Moreover, it was 35 times faster than the manual approach with an average time of 24 s. Both MS and AS demonstrated excellent consistency (ICC = 0.99 and 1, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The platform demonstrated expert-level accuracy, and time-efficient and consistent segmentation of primary teeth on CBCT scans, serving treatment planning in children.

Automated Segmentation of Graft Material in 1-Stage Sinus Lift Based on Artificial Intelligence: A Retrospective Study

OBJECTIVES

Accurate assessment of postoperative bone graft material changes after the 1-stage sinus lift is crucial for evaluating long-term implant survival. However, traditional manual labeling and segmentation of cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) images are often inaccurate and inefficient. This study aims to utilize artificial intelligence for automated segmentation of graft material in 1-stage sinus lift procedures to enhance accuracy and efficiency.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Swin-UPerNet along with mainstream medical segmentation models, such as FCN, U-Net, DeepLabV3, SegFormer, and UPerNet, were trained using a dataset of 120 CBCT scans. The models were tested on 30 CBCT scans to evaluate model performance based on metrics including the 95% Hausdorff distance, Intersection over Union (IoU), and Dice similarity coefficient. Additionally, processing times were also compared between automated segmentation and manual methods.

RESULTS

Swin-UPerNet outperformed other models in accuracy, achieving an accuracy rate of 0.84 and mean precision and IoU values of 0.8574 and 0.7373, respectively (p < 0.05). The time required for uploading and visualizing segmentation results with Swin-UPerNet significantly decreased to 19.28 s from the average manual segmentation times of 1390 s (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Swin-UPerNet exhibited high accuracy and efficiency in identifying and segmenting the three-dimensional volume of bone graft material, indicating significant potential for evaluating the stability of bone graft material.

Evaluation of midpalatal suture maturation stage in 5- to 20-year-olds using cone-beam computed tomography

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to evaluate the midpalatal suture (MPS) maturation stages using the cone-beam computed tomography classification method in Chinese children aged 5-10 years, adolescents aged 11-15 years, and postadolescents aged 16-20 years and identify a correlation between maturation stage and age and sex.

METHODS

Axial sections of tomographic images from 717 participants (369 female and 348 male participants) aged 5-20 years were used to classify the maturation stage of the MPS (stages A, B, C, D, and E). Kappa statistics were used to evaluate the measurement error. The chi-square test was applied to analyze the differences in the distribution of MPS stages by age group and by sex among all participants, as well as the adolescent group. The Fisher exact test was employed to assess the differences in MPS stage distribution by sex among children aged 5-10 years and among the postadolescent group. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to assess the potential variance in age distribution between stages C and D.

RESULTS

The most prevalent maturation stage was stage C (40.3%). Of the total population, 69.4% had MPS in stages A, B, or C. A significant difference in age distribution was observed between stage C and stage D (P <0.001). The distribution of the MPS maturation stage significantly varied by age group (P <0.001) and sex (P <0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The distribution of participants in advanced maturation stages increases with age. Female patients generally experience earlier MPS maturation than male patients, particularly between the ages of 11-20 years.

Longitudinal study of root resorption on incisors caused by impacted maxillary canines-a clinical and cone beam CT assessment

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the long-term status of incisors with canine-induced root resorption (CIRR).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Subjects with impacted maxillary canines (IMC) and persisting incisors with CIRR examined with cone beam computed tomography (CBCT), diagnosed ≥ 5 years earlier, were recalled. The resorption grade in the horizontal and vertical plane was assessed on CBCT images at baseline (T0) and follow-up (T1). Clinical examination was done at T1 which included probing depth, gingival retraction, mobility, ankylosis, discoloration and vitality test. In addition, patients completed a questionnaire regarding symptoms from the incisors.

RESULTS

Forty subjects (mean age 13.7 ± 2.1 years) with 43 IMC and 47 incisors with CIRR were recruited. The IMC either spontaneously erupted, were surgically exposed or surgically removed. Thirty-four of the patients were treated with a fixed appliance and six had no orthodontic treatment. The follow-up range was 5.5-14.6 years. None of the incisors were lost or endodontically treated at T1. The horizontal resorption grade was unchanged in 38, improved in 7, and worsened in 2 teeth. The corresponding results for the vertical resorption grade were unchanged in 20 and worsened in 27 teeth. Three incisors with severe horizontal resorption at T0 were significantly more obliterated at T1 (P = .01). No significant differences were found in clinical parameters or patient-reported outcomes between incisors with CIRR and non-resorbed contralateral incisors at T1.

LIMITATIONS

The extent of root resorption during active orthodontic treatment was not possible to assess as only CBCT images from T0 and T1 were available.

CONCLUSION

Incisors with CIRR caused by IMC have a high survival rate in a long-term perspective and do not cause more symptoms or exhibit more signs of pathology than non-resorbed contralateral incisors. Extraction of asymptomatic incisors based solely on root resorption should not be performed routinely.

Sphenoid Sinus Volumes of Patients with Unilateral Cleft Lip and Palate

OBJECTIVE

There is only one study in the literature in which 3D evaluation of sphenoid sinus volume in patients with cleft lip and palate was used. This shows that this issue has not been adequately evaluated. The present study aimed to compare the volume of the sphenoid sinuses in patients with cleft lip and palate on cone-beam computed tomography images, and to compare them with healthy controls. The high variability of sphenoid sinus volumes poses a risk for iatrogenic lesions during surgical procedures. Because the degree of pneumatization due to increased volume increases the likelihood of exposure of vital neurovascular structures such as the internal carotid artery, maxillary nerves, and optic nerves.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

University Hospital.

PATIENTS

A total of 64 patients (32 cleft palate, 32 controls) over 18 years of age who had sphenoid sinuses in the image area were included in our study.

OUTCOMES

Sphenoid Sinus Volume.

RESULTS

When the groups were compared in terms of total sinus volume, there was a statistically significant difference between them. Total sinus volume was significantly mean 2.806,87 mm lower in patients with cleft lip and palate compared to the healthy group (P = .015).

CONCLUSION

To be aware this lower volume of the sphenoid sinus in cleft lip and palate patients will be useful for the surgical approach to sphenoid sinus. However, the literature on the subject is insufficient, more comprehensive clinical and radiological studies are needed on a larger sample.

Two-Dimensional Radiographic Diagnosis of Maxillary Canine Impactions

Background: The primary aim of this study was to evaluate, using conventional radiographic imaging, the height, angulation, and mesiodistal position of impacted maxillary canines to determine if these variables are significantly associated with the palatal or buccal positioning of the tooth. Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted on all patients diagnosed and treated for at least one impacted maxillary canine over a 4-year period in the Principality of Asturias. The final sample included 159 impacted canines. The variables analyzed were age, gender, associated pathology, location, angulation, height, mesiodistal position, buccopalatal position, and treatment method. Follow-up periods ranged from 12 to 50 months. Results: The mean age of the patients was 21 years (range 10-41 years), with most cases occurring in patients aged 14 to 30 years. Females accounted for 66.1% of the sample, with a female-to-male ratio of 1.95:1. The type of treatment (extraction/traction, surgical-orthodontic approach) was significantly associated with patient age. Additionally, the proximity of the impacted canine crown to the palatal or buccal cortices was significantly related to the treatment choice. However, no significant relationship was observed between the palatal/buccal position of the canine crown and its height or angulation. Conclusions: In the present work, the upper canines included by the palatal did not have a greater height or angulation than the canines included by the vestibule.

Three-dimensional assessment of root canal morphology of primary dentition using cone beam computed tomography

BACKGROUND

Root canal therapy in primary teeth is exceedingly complex due to the unique internal geometry of the pulp cavity.

AIM

The purpose of this study was to evaluate variations in primary teeth root canal morphology and applicability of the Ahmed et al. (Int Endod J, 50, 2017, 761) alphanumeric system for classifying them.

DESIGN

A retrospective analysis of 2024 primary teeth from an existing CBCT database was performed for assessing variations in root canal morphology. Descriptive statistics and the chi-squared test were used for data analysis.

RESULTS

The maxillary canines exhibited splitting levels of 5.9% (right) and 6.6% (left), and merging levels of 1% (both sides); maxillary lateral incisors showed splitting levels of 2.6% (right) and 0.8% (left), with no merging observed; mandibular second molars had splitting levels of 1.5% (right) and 0.8% (left), with no merging observed; and mandibular lateral incisors exhibited a merging level of 0.9% (right), with no splitting observed.

CONCLUSION

This study provides new insights into the variations in root canal morphology of primary teeth, particularly highlighting the variations found in primary canines. The Ahmed et al. (Int Endod J, 50, 2017, 761) classification system was found to be a useful tool for categorizing these variations.

Comparative Assessment of Pharyngeal Airway Dimensions in Skeletal Class I, II, and III Emirati Subjects: A Cone Beam Computed Tomography Study

The aim of the current study was to evaluate the pharyngeal airway dimensions of individuals with different skeletal patterns in a cohort of the Emirati population. The specific aim was to assess the relationship between pharyngeal airway dimensions and anterior facial height in relation to different skeletal patterns. This retrospective study was conducted on a sample of 103 CBCT scans of adult Emirati subjects categorized into three groups according to their skeletal classification as indicated by the ANB angle: Class I (n = 35), Class II (n = 46), and Class III (n = 22). All CBCT scans were taken using an i-CAT CBCT imaging machine (Imaging Sciences, Hatfield, PA, USA). The age range of the patients was 19 to 68 years (62 women and 41 men). ANOVA, t-tests, Kruskal-Wallis, and Mann-Whitney tests were employed for comparing means among groups. The correlation coefficient was used to evaluate the association between variables. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. This study revealed significant associations between various airway parameters and cephalometric measurements. Positive correlations were observed between nasal cavity volume and nasopharynx volume, as well as anterior facial height. Oropharynx volume exhibited positive correlations with hypopharynx volume and total airway volume, and negative correlations with overjet, ANB angle, and patient age. Hypopharynx volume correlated positively with total airway volume and the most constricted area of the airway (MCA). Total airway volume showed positive correlations with MCA and anterior facial height. MCA had negative correlations with ANB angle and patient age. Nasopharynx volume was significantly larger in the skeletal Class I group than in the Class II or Class III groups, while the other airway parameters showed no significant differences among the groups (p > 0.05). Several airway parameters showed a correlation with anterior facial height among the different skeletal patterns. Nasopharyngeal airway volume was significantly larger in the skeletal Class I group than in Class II and III groups in the studied sample.

Skeletal effects of posterior crossbite treatment with either quad helix or rapid maxillary expansion: a randomized controlled trial with 1-year follow-up

OBJECTIVES

To assess skeletal and dental effects and evaluate possible side effects of maxillary expansion with two different appliances, directly after expansion and 1 year postexpansion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Forty-two patients with unilateral posterior crossbite (mean 9.5 ± 0.9 years) were randomized to either rapid maxillary expansion (RME) banded on the deciduous second molars and bonded to the primary canines or slow expansion with quad helix (QH) on the permanent first molars. Cone-beam computed tomography records were taken at baseline, directly after correction of the posterior crossbite and at follow-up 1 year after expansion.

RESULTS

All patients were analyzed. RME opened the midpalatal suture more anteriorly and inferiorly (mean 4.1 mm) and less posteriorly and superiorly (mean 1.0 mm). No effect on midpalatal suture could be shown in the QH group after expansion, P < .001. Buccal bone width had significantly decreased (P < .001) in the QH group compared with the RME group. Buccal fenestrations and root resorption on the left first molar had a higher prevalence directly after expansion finished in the QH group (P = .0086, P = .013) but were not significant at 1-year follow-up (P = .11, P = .22).

CONCLUSIONS

Opening of the suture with RME was more anterior and inferior, and the QH did not open the midpalatal suture at all. More buccal bone loss and fenestrations were seen on the permanent first molar in patients treated with conventional QH than RME anchored to deciduous teeth.

Feasibility of spheno-occipital synchondrosis fusion stages as an indicator for the assessment of maxillomandibular growth: A mixed longitudinal study

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the relative growth rates (RGRs) of the maxilla and mandible at varying fusion stages of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis (SOS), thereby elucidating the potential of SOS stages in predicting maxillomandibular growth.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 320 subjects (171 boys and 149 girls), aged 6 to 18 years, were retrospectively included. Each subject had a minimum of two longitudinal cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) images, with no more than one interval of SOS fusion stage change between the two scans. Subjects were categorized based on their SOS fusion stages and genders. The RGRs of the maxilla and mandible at various SOS fusion stages were measured and compared using longitudinal CBCT images.

RESULTS

Significant statistical differences were observed in maxillomandibular RGRs across various SOS fusion stages. In girls, the sagittal growth of the maxilla remained stable and active until SOS 3, subsequently exhibited deceleration in SOS 4-5 (compared to SOS 3-4, P < .05) and continued to decrease in SOS 5-6. Whereas in boys, the sagittal growth of the maxilla remained stable until SOS 4, and a deceleration trend emerged starting from SOS 5 to 6 (P < .01 compared to SOS 4-5). Mandibular growth patterns in both genders exhibited a progression of increasing-accelerating-decelerating rates from SOS 2 to 6. The highest RGRs for total mandibular length were observed in SOS 3-4 and SOS 4-5.

CONCLUSION

Spheno-occipital synchondrosis fusion stages can serve as a valid indicator of maxillomandibular growth maturation.

Ultrasonic mapping of midpalatal suture - An ex-vivo study

OBJECTIVE

Rapid maxillary expansion is a common orthodontic procedure to correct maxillary constriction. Assessing the midpalatal suture (MPS) expansion plays a crucial role in treatment planning to determine its effectiveness. The objectives of this preliminary investigation are to demonstrate a proof of concept that the palatal bone underlying the rugae can be clearly imaged by ultrasound (US) and the reconstructed axial view of the US image accurately maps the MPS patency.

METHODS

An ex-vivo US scanning was conducted on the upper jawbones of two piglet's carcasses before and after the creation of bone defects, which simulated the suture opening. The planar images were processed to enhance bone intensity distribution before being orderly stacked to fuse into a volume. Graph-cut segmentation was applied to delineate the palatal bone to generate a bone volume. The accuracy of the reconstructed bone volume and the suture opening was validated by the micro-computed tomography (µCT) data used as the ground truth and compared with cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) data as the clinical standard. Also included in the comparison is the rugae thickness. Correlation and Bland-Altman plots were used to test the agreement between the two methods: US versus µCT/CBCT.

RESULTS

The reconstruction of the US palatal bone volumes was accurate based on surface topography comparison with a mean error of 0.19 mm for pre-defect and 0.15 mm and 0.09 mm for post-defect models of the two samples, respectively when compared with µCT volumes. A strong correlation (R2 ≥ 0.99) in measuring MPS expansion was found between US and µCT/CBCT with MADs of less than 0.05 mm, 0.11 mm and 0.23 mm for US, µCT and CBCT, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

It was possible to axially image the MPS opening and rugae thickness accurately using high-frequency ultrasound.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

This study introduces an ionizing radiation-free, low-cost, and portable technique to accurately image a difficult part of oral cavity anatomy. The advantages of conceivable visualization could promise a successful clinical examination of MPS to support the predictable treatment outcome of maxillary transverse deficiency.

Optimizing cone-beam computed tomography exposure for an effective radiation dose and image quality balance

Purpose

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of different cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) acquisition protocols on reducing the effective radiation dose while maintaining image quality.

Materials and Methods

The effective dose emitted by a CBCT device was calculated using thermoluminescent dosimeters placed in a Rando Alderson phantom. Image quality was assessed by 3 experienced evaluators. The relationship between image quality and confidence was evaluated using the Fisher exact test, and the agreement among raters was assessed using the kappa test. Multiple linear regression analysis was performed to investigate whether the technical parameters could predict the effective dose. P-values<0.05 were considered to indicate statistical significance.

Results

The optimized protocol (3 mA, 99 kVp, and 450 projection images) demonstrated good image quality and a lower effective dose for radiation-sensitive organs. Image quality and confidence had consistent values for all structures (P<0.05). Multiple linear regression analysis resulted in a statistically significant model. The milliamperage (b=0.504; t=3.406; P=0.027), kilovoltage peak (b=0.589; t=3.979; P=0.016) and number of projection images (b=0.557; t=3.762; P=0.020) were predictors of the effective dose.

Conclusion

Optimized CBCT acquisition protocols can significantly reduce the effective radiation dose while maintaining acceptable image quality by adjusting the milliamperage and projection images.

Accuracy and reliability of magnetic resonance imaging in orthodontic diagnosis and treatment planning-a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-ionizing imaging technique. Using MRI in dentistry may potentially lower the general radiation dose of the examined population, provided MRI can replace various radiation-based images. Furthermore, novel MRI imaging modalities for three-dimensional and two-dimensional cephalometrics have recently been developed for orthodontic diagnosis.

OBJECTIVES

This systematic review aimed to determine the diagnostic accuracy and reliability of MRI in orthodontic diagnosis and treatment planning.

SEARCH METHODS

An electronic search was conducted on 20 November 2022 in the following databases: PubMed, LILACS, Web of Science, EMBASE, Scopus, and Cochrane. The search was updated on 30 August 2023. Furthermore, a grey literature search was performed in Google Scholar and Open-Grey.

SELECTION CRITERIA

This review included descriptive, observational, cohort studies, cross-sectional, case-control studies, and randomized/non-randomized trials related to the research question. The study excluded studies related to patients with syndromes, chronic diseases, craniofacial anomalies, or bone diseases.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The included studies were quality assessed using the "Joanna Brigg's Critical Appraisal Tool for diagnostic test accuracy". The GRADE approach for non-randomized studies was used for strength-of-evidence analysis.

RESULTS

Eight of the 10 included studies compared MRI with either cone beam computed tomography or lateral cephalogram and found a high intra- and inter-rater agreement for landmark identification. The risk of bias was high in four studies, moderate in three, and low in three studies. Homogeneity was lacking among the included studies in terms of MRI imaging parameters and sample characteristics. This should be taken into consideration by future studies where uniformity with respect to these parameters may be considered.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite dissimilarity and heterogeneity in the sample population and other methodological aspects, all the included studies concluded that MRI enjoyed considerable intra- and inter-examiner reliability and was comparable to current diagnostic standards in orthodontics. Furthermore, the studies agreed on the innovative potential of MRI in radiation-free diagnosis and treatment planning in orthodontics in the future.

REGISTRATION

CRD number: CRD420223XXXXX.

Quantitative assessment of cleft volume and evaluation of cleft's impact on adjacent anatomical structures using CBCT imaging

OBJECTIVES

To determine pre-operative cleft volume and evaluate cleft´s impact on surrounding anatomical structures in children and adolescents with orofacial clefts using cone bean computed tomography (CBCT) imaging.

METHODS

The present retrospective study retrieved CBCT examinations of 68 patients from a previous study. The examinations had been exposed either before (n = 53) or after (n = 15) alveolar bone grafting. Pre-operative volume of cleft was determined, and type and location were evaluated. Morphological changes on the adjacent anatomical structures, including the incisive foramen, the nasal septum and floor, and the inferior turbinate, were assessed.

RESULTS

Mean bilateral cleft volume was 0.76 cm3, while mean unilateral cleft volume was 1.08 cm3; the difference was significant (p < 0.001). Variation in cleft volume, however, was large. The incisive foramen was not visible in the majority of cases with bilateral clefts (71%); the difference was significant (p = 0.001). In cases with unilateral clefts, the nasal septum in 87% was curved towards the cleft or graft side. Also, the mean size of the widest part of the inferior turbinate was 8.8 mm on the cleft or graft side and 10.4 mm on the non-cleft side. The difference was significant (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

When required, CBCT is a feasible method for quantitatively illustrating alveolar clefts and their impact on the morphological development of surrounding structures. Variation in cleft volume was large.

Optimizing radiation safety in dentistry: Clinical recommendations and regulatory considerations

BACKGROUND

The value of dental radiographs to oral health care decision making must be balanced with radiation safety to minimize patient exposure and occupational risk of oral health care providers. This review summarizes recommendations and regulatory guidance regarding dental radiography and cone-beam computed tomography. An expert panel presents recommendations on radiation safety, appropriate imaging practices, and reducing radiation exposure.

TYPES OF STUDIES REVIEWED

A systematic search run in Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews identified relevant topical systematic reviews, organizational guidelines, and regulatory reviews published in the peer-reviewed literature since 2010. A supplemental search of the gray literature (eg, technical reports, standards, and regulations) identified topical nonindexed publications. Inclusion criteria required relevance to primary oral health care (ie, general or pediatric dentistry).

RESULTS

A total of 95 articles, guidance documents, and regulations met the inclusion criteria. Resources were characterized as applicable to all modalities, operator and occupational protection, dose reduction and optimization, and quality assurance and control.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Understanding factors affecting imaging safety and applying fundamental principles of radiation protection consistent with federal, state, and local requirements are essential for limiting patient ionizing radiation exposure, in conjunction with implementing optimal imaging procedures to support prudent use of dental radiographs and cone-beam computed tomographic imaging. The regulatory guidance and best practice recommendations summarized in this article should be followed by dentists and other oral health care providers.

The use of CBCT in orthodontics with special focus on upper airway analysis in patients with sleep-disordered breathing

Applications of cone-beam CT (CBCT) in orthodontics have been increasingly discussed and evaluated in science and practice over the last two decades. The present work provides a comprehensive summary of current consolidated practice guidelines, cutting-edge innovative applications, and future outlooks about potential use of CBCT in orthodontics with a special focus on upper airway analysis in patients with sleep-disordered breathing. The present scoping review reveals that clinical applications of CBCT in orthodontics are broadly supported by evidence for the diagnosis of dental anomalies, temporomandibular joint disorders, and craniofacial malformations. On the other hand, CBCT imaging for upper airway analysis-including soft tissue diagnosis and airway morphology-needs further validation in order to provide better understanding regarding which diagnostic questions it can be expected to answer. Internationally recognized guidelines for CBCT use in orthodontics are existent, and similar ones should be developed to provide clear indications about the appropriate use of CBCT for upper airway assessment, including a list of specific clinical questions justifying its prescription.

Convolutional neural network-assisted diagnosis of midpalatal suture maturation stage in cone-beam computed tomography

OBJECTIVES

The selection of treatment for maxillary expansion is closely related to the calcification degree of the midpalatal suture. A classification method for individual assessment of the morphology of midpalatal suture in cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) is useful for evaluating the calcification degree. Currently, convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have been introduced into the field of oral and maxillofacial imaging diagnosis. This study validated the ability of CNN models in assessing the maturation stage of the midpalatal suture.

METHODS

The existing CNN model ResNet50 was trained to locate the CBCT transverse plane which contained a complete midpalatal suture. ResNet18, ResNet50, RessNet101, Inception-v3, and Efficientnetv2-s models were trained to evaluate the midpalatal suture maturation stage. Multi-class classification metrics, accuracy, recall, precision, F1-score, and area under the curve values from the receiver operating characteristic curve were used to evaluate the performance of the models, and gradient-weighted class activation map technology was utilised to visualise five midpalatal suture maturation stages for each model.

RESULTS

Resnet50 demonstrated an accuracy of 99.74 % in identifying the transverse plane that contained the complete midpalatal suture. The highest accuracies achieved on the two-stage, three-stage, and five-stage maturation classification tests were 95.15, 88.06, and 75.37 %, all of which exceeded the average accuracy of three experienced orthodontists.

CONCLUSIONS

The CNN model can locate the plane of the midpalatal suture in CBCT images and can assist clinicians in assessing the maturation stage of the midpalatal suture to select the means of maxillary expansion.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The application of artificial intelligence on CBCT midpalatal suture plane localisation and maturation stage evaluation enhances diagnostic and treatment efficiency and accuracy of individual assessment of midpalatal suture calcification degree. Additionally, it assists the clinical palatal expansion technique in achieving ideal results.

Dental-dedicated MRI, a novel approach for dentomaxillofacial diagnostic imaging: technical specifications and feasibility

MRI is a noninvasive, ionizing radiation-free imaging modality that has become an indispensable medical diagnostic method. The literature suggests MRI as a potential diagnostic modality in dentomaxillofacial radiology. However, current MRI equipment is designed for medical imaging (eg, brain and body imaging), with general-purpose use in radiology. Hence, it appears expensive for dentists to purchase and maintain, besides being complex to operate. In recent years, MRI has entered some areas of dentistry and has reached a point in which it can be provided following a tailored approach. This technical report introduces a dental-dedicated MRI (ddMRI) system, describing how MRI can be adapted to fit dentomaxillofacial radiology through the appropriate choice of field strength, dental radiofrequency surface coil, and pulse sequences. Also, this technical report illustrates the possible application and feasibility of the suggested ddMRI system in some relevant diagnostic tasks in dentistry. Based on the presented cases, it is fair to consider the suggested ddMRI system as a feasible approach to introducing MRI to dentists and dentomaxillofacial radiology specialists. Further studies are needed to clarify the diagnostic accuracy of ddMRI considering the various diagnostic tasks relevant to the practice of dentistry.

AI in Orthodontics: Revolutionizing Diagnostics and Treatment Planning-A Comprehensive Review

The advent of artificial intelligence (AI) in medicine has transformed various medical specialties, including orthodontics. AI has shown promising results in enhancing the accuracy of diagnoses, treatment planning, and predicting treatment outcomes. Its usage in orthodontic practices worldwide has increased with the availability of various AI applications and tools. This review explores the principles of AI, its applications in orthodontics, and its implementation in clinical practice. A comprehensive literature review was conducted, focusing on AI applications in dental diagnostics, cephalometric evaluation, skeletal age determination, temporomandibular joint (TMJ) evaluation, decision making, and patient telemonitoring. Due to study heterogeneity, no meta-analysis was possible. AI has demonstrated high efficacy in all these areas, but variations in performance and the need for manual supervision suggest caution in clinical settings. The complexity and unpredictability of AI algorithms call for cautious implementation and regular manual validation. Continuous AI learning, proper governance, and addressing privacy and ethical concerns are crucial for successful integration into orthodontic practice.

Diagnostic accuracy of conventional orthodontic radiographic modalities and cone-beam computed tomography for localization of impacted maxillary canine teeth

BACKGROUND

Orthodontic treatment planning for an impacted canine tooth requires accurate information about its position. The aim of this study was to compare the diagnostic accuracy of two conventional orthodontic radiographic modalities with cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) for localization of impacted maxillary canine teeth.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Panoramic radiographs, lateral cephalograms, and CBCT scans of 30 patients with unilaterally impacted maxillary canine teeth were retrieved from the archives. Eight expert orthodontists evaluated the parameters related to the location of impacted canine teeth by using panoramic radiographs and lateral cephalograms of patients. After 4 weeks, the same parameters were evaluated on CBCT scans of patients. The diagnostic accuracy of conventional modalities and CBCT was compared with each other and also with the gold standard.

RESULTS

The conventional radiographic modalities and CBCT had similar accuracy for assessment of the overall inclination (p = 0.11), apex morphology (p = 0.18), and mesiodistal position of the apex (p = 0.12). CBCT had significantly higher accuracy for determination of incisal tip location (p = 0.001), labiopalatal (p = 0.001) and vertical (p = 0.01) position of the crown tip, minimum bone thickness covering the crown (p = 0.001), and root resorption of the adjacent tooth (p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The combination of panoramic radiographs and lateral cephalograms was sufficiently accurate to assess some diagnostic parameters such as overall inclination, apex morphology, and mesiodistal apex location of impacted canine teeth.

Measuring the alveolar bone level in adolescents: A comparison between ultrasound and cone beam computed tomography

BACKGROUND

Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) is an imaging modality, which is used routinely in orthodontic diagnosis and treatment planning but delivers much higher radiation than conventional dental radiographs. Ultrasound is a noninvasive imaging method that creates an image without ionizing radiation.

AIM

To investigate the reliability of ultrasound and the agreement between ultrasound and CBCT in measuring the alveolar bone level (ABL) on the buccal/labial side of the incisors in adolescent orthodontic patients.

DESIGN

One hundred and eighteen incisors from 30 orthodontic adolescent patients were scanned by CBCT with 0.3-mm voxel size and ultrasound at 20 MHz frequency. The ABL, distance from the cementoenamel junction (CEJ) to the alveolar bone crest (ABC), was measured twice to evaluate the agreement between ultrasound and CBCT. In addition, the intra- and inter-rater reliabilities in measuring the ABL by four raters were compared.

RESULTS

The mean difference (MD) in the ABL between ultrasound and CBCT was -0.07 mm with 95% limit of agreement (LoA) from -0.47 to 0.32 mm for all teeth. For each jaw, the MDs between the ultrasound and CBCT were -0.18 mm (for mandible with 95% LoA from -0.53 to 0.18 mm) and 0.03 mm (for maxilla with 95% LoA from -0.28 to 0.35 mm). In comparison, ultrasound had higher intra-rater (ICC = 0.83-0.90) and inter-rater reliabilities (ICC = 0.97) in ABL measurement than CBCT (ICC = 0.56-0.78 for intra-rater and ICC = 0.69 for inter-rater reliabilities).

CONCLUSION

CBCT parameters used in orthodontic diagnosis and treatment planning in adolescents may not be a reliable tool to assess the ABL for the mandibular incisors. On the contrary, ultrasound imaging, an ionizing radiation-free, inexpensive, and portable diagnostic tool, has potential to be a reliable diagnostic tool in assessing the ABL in adolescent patients.

Multidisciplinary approach to restore esthetics and function in a young patient with three consecutive impacted teeth: a case report with 18-month follow-up

This case report describes the orthodontic treatment of an 11-year-old patient with three maxillary impacted teeth on the right side. Cone-beam computed tomography showed that these teeth were close together, with the lateral incisor in a lower position, followed by the central incisor, and the canine in a more apical position. Treatment included applying traction to these teeth. A transpalatal arch was used as an anchorage device, and surgical exposure of the lateral incisor was performed for traction with an elastic chain toward the hook welded to the 0.017 × 0.025-inch steel segmented arch. Subsequently, the central incisor was surgically exposed, elastic chains were used, along with a 0.016-inch steel arch with a box loop for correcting the tooth position. The canine spontaneously began to erupt, and a 0.017 × 0.025-inch TMA segmented arch with boot loop was used to control rotation and torque of the canine during its distalization. Once these three teeth were in the arch, treatment was finished in the usual manner. For esthetic improvement, gingivoplasty was performed in the maxillary arch. Eighteen-month follow-up showed that orthodontic treatment allowed preservation of the natural teeth, the contour of gingival support, and avoidance of prosthetic rehabilitation, reestablishing the patient's esthetics and function, with satisfactory stability.

Dental arch changes comparison between Expander with Differential Opening, Hyrax-type and Haas-type expanders: A prospective clinical study

OBJECTIVE

Compare changes in arch form after RME achieved by Expander with Differential Opening (EDO), Hyrax-type and Haas-type expanders.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Dental models were obtained from 61 patients aged 7-11 years before expansion (T1) and 6 months after the active phase when the appliances were removed (T2). The groups were formed according to the expander used: EDO (n = 18, mean age: 9.46 ± 0.82 years), Hyrax-type (n = 22, mean age: 9.62 ± 1.57 years) and Haas-type (n = 21, mean age: 9.29 ± 1.05 years). The expander`s activation protocol consisted of 7 mm, except for EDO`s anterior screw, which was 9 mm. The measurements of upper and lower intercanine distance, inter-first permanent molar, arch perimeter and length, maxillary canine and first-permanent molar inclination, and palatal depth were performed using the OrthoAnalyzer 3D software. Intergroup comparisons of T1 and between changes (T2-T1) were performed using ANOVA followed by Tukey.

RESULTS

In the upper intercanine distance EDO provided a greater increase than Haas-type. In the distance between upper fist permanent molars EDO showed higher values than Haas-type and Hyrax-type. In the lower intercanine distance and maxillary arch length, Haas-type promoted higher increase than EDO.

CONCLUSIONS

The EDO promoted greater transverse changes in anterior region than Haas-type and greater transverse changes in posterior region of the maxilla than both conventional expanders. The appliance used for RME influences dental arch changes after treatment; therefore, it is recommended to individualize the choice of expander depending on the clinical necessity of each case.

A study of transverse maxillomandibular discrepancy and dental compensation in early mixed dentition with skeletal Class III malocclusion without posterior crossbite

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate transverse maxillomandibular discrepancy and dental compensation in first molar areas in 7- to 9-year-old children with skeletal Class III malocclusion without posterior crossbite using cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT).

METHODS

The sample of this retrospective study consisted of 60 children (7 to 9 years old), who were divided into the skeletal Class III malocclusion group (study group, skeletal Class III malocclusion without posterior crossbite, N = 31) and the Class I occlusion group (control group, Class I occlusion with one or two impacted teeth, N = 30). CBCT data were obtained from the database of the Department of Radiology of Hospital of Stomatology, Shandong University. For three-dimensional reconstruction of the head, the dental arch width, basal bone width, and buccolingual inclination angle were measured using MIMICS 21.0 software. Independent-sample t tests were used to compare the two groups.

RESULTS

The mean age of the children was 8.18±0.83years. The width of the maxillary basal bone was significantly smaller in the skeletal Class III malocclusion group (59.75 ± 3.14 mm) than in the Class I occlusion group (62.39 ± 3.01 mm) (P < 0.01). The mandibular basal bone width was significantly larger in the skeletal Class III malocclusion group (60.00 ± 2.56 mm) than in the Class I occlusion group (58.19 ± 2.42 mm) (P < 0.01). The difference in the width of the maxillary and mandibular bases in the skeletal Class III malocclusion group (-0.25 ± 1.73 mm) was significantly different from that in the Class I occlusion group (4.20 ± 1.25 mm) (P < 0.01). However, there was no significant difference in the upper or lower dental arch width between the two groups (P > 0.05). The buccal inclination of the maxillary molars in the skeletal Class III malocclusion group (31.4° ± 8.9°) was significantly higher than that in the Class I occlusion group (17.64° ± 7.3°) (P < 0.01), as was the lingual inclination angle of mandibular molars (45.24° ± 8.3° vs. 37.96° ± 10.18°; P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Transverse maxillary and mandibular discrepancies in the posterior area and transverse dental compensation were found in the early mixed dentition of patients with skeletal Class III malocclusion without posterior crossbite. This suggests that even in the absence of posterior crossbite, maxillary expansion can be attempted to correct the maxillomandibular transverse discrepancy.

A split-mouth randomized controlled trial to compare the rate of canine retraction after a soft tissue procedure compared against a corticotomy procedure for accelerated tooth movement

Background and Aim

Various methods to accelerate the orthodontic tooth movement have been used, among which corticotomy is considered to be the most common one. The suggested reasoning for such acceleration was the regional acceleratory phenomenon (RAP). Since the RAP is a property of both the hard and soft tissues, we designed a soft tissue flap procedure to compare the effects with the conventional corticotomy procedure. A split-mouth study was conducted where the two procedures were assessed in a single participant.

Patients and Methods

The total sample size was calculated to be 40 with 20 participants in each group. The rate of tooth movement was the primary outcome measure, and the secondary outcomes were dentoalveolar changes, which were studied in both the conventional corticotomy and the flap-only procedure based on a cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) wherein the alveolar bone density (BD) around canines, tipping, and rotational changes in canines, premolars, and molars were assessed.

Results

Corticotomy resulted in greater canine angulation, lesser canine rotation and premolar rotation, and greater molar rotation compared with flap elevation, but these differences were statistically insignificant.

Conclusion

Though the corticotomy resulted in higher BD, the differences were statistically insignificant. There was no significant difference in the rate of space closure assessed by the two techniques compared.

Automatic detection of adenoid hypertrophy on cone-beam computed tomography based on deep learning

INTRODUCTION

This study proposed an automatic diagnosis method based on deep learning for adenoid hypertrophy detection on cone-beam computed tomography.

METHODS

The hierarchical masks self-attention U-net (HMSAU-Net) for segmentation of the upper airway and the 3-dimensional (3D)-ResNet for diagnosing adenoid hypertrophy were constructed on the basis of 87 cone-beam computed tomography samples. A self-attention encoder module was added to the SAU-Net to optimize upper airway segmentation precision. The hierarchical masks were introduced to ensure that the HMSAU-Net captured sufficient local semantic information.

RESULTS

We used Dice to evaluate the performance of HMSAU-Net and used diagnostic method indicators to test the performance of 3D-ResNet. The average Dice value of our proposed model was 0.960, which was superior to the 3DU-Net and SAU-Net models. In the diagnostic models, 3D-ResNet10 had an excellent ability to diagnose adenoid hypertrophy automatically with a mean accuracy of 0.912, a mean sensitivity of 0.976, a mean specificity of 0.867, a mean positive predictive value of 0.837, a mean negative predictive value of 0.981, and a F1 score of 0.901.

CONCLUSIONS

The value of this diagnostic system lies in that it provides a new method for the rapid and accurate early clinical diagnosis of adenoid hypertrophy in children, allows us to look at the upper airway obstruction in three-dimensional space and relieves the work pressure of imaging doctors.

A CBCT Based Assessment of Canine Eruption and Development Following Alveolar Bone Grafting in Patients Born With Unilateral Cleft lip and/or Palate

To three-dimensionally assess and visualize the eruption path and development of the maxillary canine following alveolar bone grafting in patients born with cleft lip and palate. A further objective of this analysis was to assess how the presence of the lateral incisor impacts the eruption path of the canine.

Observational follow-up study.

Stockholm Craniofacial Team, Karolinska University Hospital, Sweden.

Thirty children born with non-syndromic unilateral cleft lip with or without palate were consecutively included.

CBCT scans of the maxilla were taken six months before and six months after the alveolar bone-grafting surgery for each patient.

Canine eruption (angulation and vertical movement) and canine development (length and volume).

There was a significant difference pre- and post-operatively of the canine angulation between the cleft and non-cleft sides. The mean angulation on the cleft side was 14.7° (SD  =  11.1°) while on the non-cleft side, it was 4.9° (SD  =  9.2°). No significant differences were noted between cleft-side and non-cleft side canines in terms of amount of vertical eruption and volumetric development. Absence of the lateral incisor did not significantly contribute to either canine angulation or its vertical eruption on the cleft-side.

Higher angulation of the canine on the cleft side indicates a higher risk of future canine impaction. Presence or absence of the lateral incisor did not significantly affect canine angulation or its vertical eruption. Increased age and children born with total cleft lip and palate imply a higher risk of angulated canines on the cleft side.

Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) referrals in paediatric patients: A 24-month retrospective study in two radiological centers in Campinas, Brazil

PURPOSE

To evaluate the CBCT referrals in paediatric patients over a 24-month period.

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted in two radiological centers in Campinas, Brazil. Patients were divided into three age groups: G1: age under 10 years, G2: age between 10 and 12 years, and G3: age over 12 years. The following data were collected: patients' age and sex, localisation, reasons for referral and dental specialty responsible for the request of CBCT exams.

RESULTS

Data from 367 patients were assessed. CBCT was used more frequently in the Group 3 (58.9%). There was significant association between the region of the exam and age group (P < 0.05), with a higher percentage of exams in the maxilla for the age over 12 years (35.6%) than that of up to 10 years (50.9%) and between 10 and 12 years (51.1%). Alterations were observed in 79.3% of the exams and 47.4% showed impacted teeth with significant association with the increase in age group (P < 0.05). Of the total number of exams, (55.3%) were requested in Orthodontics followed by Oral Surgery (30.0%) and Paediatric Dentistry (9.5%).

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that CBCT exams were indicated frequently for the age over 12 years. The presence of impacted teeth represented the main reason for referrals and Orthodontics was the dental specialty that indicated CBCT with higher frequency.

Root resorption in Class II malocclusion treatment with and without maxillary premolar extractions

INTRODUCTION

Class II malocclusion treatment efficiency with maxillary premolar extractions has been reported. However, no study evaluated the root resorption associated with this protocol. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the degree of root resorption of the maxillary incisors in Class II malocclusion treatment with and without maxillary premolar extractions.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 56 patients with complete Class II malocclusion, divided into 2 groups. Group 1 comprised 28 patients (10 female, 18 male) treated with maxillary first premolar extractions, and group 2 was composed of 28 patients (16 female, 12 male) treated without extractions. The groups were matched regarding initial age, treatment time, crowding, initial malocclusion severity, finishing quality, initial overjet, and overbite. Periapical radiographs of the maxillary incisors were used to assess the degree of root resorption using a scoring system. In addition, treatment changes involving maxillary incisors were evaluated in lateral headfilms. Intergroup comparisons were performed with t, Mann-Whitney U, and chi-square tests (P <0.05).

RESULTS

Overjet, overbite, inclination, vertical positional changes, and vertical and horizontal apical displacements of maxillary incisors were similar between groups. There was no statistically significant difference between groups regarding root resorption of maxillary incisors. Root resorption degree ranged from mild to moderate in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Treating complete Class II malocclusion with 2 maxillary premolar extractions resulted in a similar root resorption as treating without maxillary premolar extractions. An individualized evaluation of root resorption predisposing factors should be performed for each patient.

Immediate skeletal effects of rapid maxillary expansion at midpalatal suture opening with Differential, Hyrax and Haas expanders

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to test the null hypothesis that there is no difference at the midpalatal suture opening after rapid maxillary expansion (RME) using Expander with Differential Opening (EDO), Hyrax-type and Haas-type expanders.

METHODS

Occlusal radiographs of 52 patients (19 males and 33 females; average age= 9.46?1.20 years) treated with RME were divided into three groups, according to the expander used: EDO (n=17), Hyrax-type (n=21) and Haas-type (n=14). The evaluated variables were: A) Distance between the maxillary central incisors at the incisal edge; B) Distance between the alveolar ridges at the midpalatal suture; C) Suture opening at 10-mm distance from the crest to posterior, at the midpalatal suture; D) Suture opening at 20-mm distance from the crest to posterior, at the midpalatal suture; and E) Suture opening at 30-mm distance from the crest to posterior, at the midpalatal suture. To assess the normality of variables, the Shapiro-Wilk test was performed. For intergroup comparison, ANOVA with a significance level of 5% was used.

RESULTS

At the region A, Hyrax-type (4.66 mm) and EDO (4.87 mm) groups presented larger openings than the Haas-type group (3.43 mm). In regions B and C, EDO showed a statistically significant greater opening than the Haas-type group. In region D, a smaller opening of the midpalatal suture was observed in the Haas-type group, compared to the Hyrax-type and EDO groups.

CONCLUSIONS

EDO and Hyrax-type produced greater immediate skeletal effects, compared with Haas-type, but these differences were about 1 mm and might not be clinically significant.

Are asthma and allergy associated with increased root resorption following orthodontic treatment? A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to systematically investigate the available evidence from human studies regarding the association of asthma and/or allergy with EARR.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Unrestricted searches in 6 databases and manual searching were performed up to May 2022. We looked for data on EARR after orthodontic treatment in patients with/without asthma or allergy. Relevant data were extracted, and the risk of bias was assessed. An exploratory synthesis was carried out using the random effects model, and the overall quality of the evidence was assessed with the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation.

RESULTS

From the initially retrieved records, nine studies met the inclusion criteria (three cohort and six case-control). Overall, increased EARR was observed in the individuals with allergies in their medical history (Standardised Mean Difference [SMD]: 0.42, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 0.19 to 0.64). No difference in EARR development was observed among individuals with or without a medical history of asthma (SMD: 0.20, 95% CI: -0.06 to 0.46). The quality of available evidence, excluding studies at high risk, was rated as moderate for the exposure to allergy, and low for the exposure to asthma.

CONCLUSION

Increased EARR was noted in individuals with allergies compared to the control group, while no difference was observed for individuals with asthma. Until more data become available, good practice would suggest that it is important to identify patients with asthma or allergy and consider the possible implications.

Cone beam computed tomography indications for interdisciplinary therapy planning of impacted canines

OBJECTIVE

To investigate how cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) affects the therapeutic planning of impacted maxillary canines.

STUDY DESIGN

A total of 132 impacted canines from 89 pediatric patients were collected from 3 specialist clinics in Stockholm, Sweden. An interdisciplinary therapy planning team consisting of 5 dental specialists evaluated each case and chose their preferred treatment alternative, initially without and later with CBCT images, to decide whether CBCT was justified for therapy planning. Predefined variables measurable using only 2-dimensional (2D) assessments were analyzed using stepwise logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

The CBCT was considered indicated in 47% of the cases. Additional information from CBCT led to a treatment decision change in 9.8%. Significant 2D predictors for CBCT justification were horizontal canine angulation compared with vertical angulation (odds ratio [OR] = 10.9), extraction strategy involvement (OR = 6.7), and buccally positioned canines compared with palatal (OR = 5.3), central (OR = 25.0), and distal or uncertain positions (OR = 7.7).

CONCLUSIONS

The benefit-risk assessment of CBCT for impacted canines may be reinforced by performing and applying justification decisions for CBCT acquisition at the therapeutic thinking level. If preliminary treatment planning motivates further in-depth investigation of either root status or tooth location, a CBCT is indicated.

Effectiveness of cone-beam computed tomography-generated cephalograms using artificial intelligence cephalometric analysis

Lateral cephalograms and related analysis constitute representative methods for orthodontic treatment. However, since conventional cephalometric radiographs display a three-dimensional structure on a two-dimensional plane, inaccuracies may be produced when quantitative evaluation is required. Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) has minimal image distortion, and important parts can be observed without overlapping. It provides a high-resolution three-dimensional image at a relatively low dose and cost, but still shows a higher dose than a lateral cephalogram. It is especially true for children who are more susceptible to radiation doses and often have difficult diagnoses. A conventional lateral cephalometric radiograph can be obtained by reconstructing the Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine data obtained from CBCT. This study evaluated the applicability and consistency of lateral cephalograms generated by CBCT using an artificial intelligence analysis program. Group I comprised conventional lateral cephalometric radiographs, group II comprised lateral cephalometric radiographs generated from CBCT using OnDemand 3D, and group III comprised lateral cephalometric radiographs generated from CBCT using Invivo5. All measurements in the three groups showed non-significant results. Therefore, a CBCT scan and artificial intelligence programs are efficient means when performing orthodontic analysis on pediatric or orthodontic patients for orthodontic diagnosis and planning.

Computer-Aided System of the Mandibular Cortical Bone Porosity Assessment on Digital Panoramic Radiographs

OBJECTIVES

 The loss of bone mineral density (BMD) in various sites of the body, including the mandible, is the main sign of osteoporosis. Thus, the computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) system was developed for bone density assessment and patients were classified into normal, osteopenia, and osteoporosis groups using a digital panoramic radiograph.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

 Data of dental panoramic radiographs and corresponding BMD assessments from 123 postmenopausal women were collected. For the proposed CAD system test, regions of interest (ROI) that were located below the left and right mental foramen on dental panoramic radiographs were determined. The width and texture of the mandibular cortical bone in each ROI were used to classify the data into normal, osteopenia, and osteoporosis classes. The width of the mandibular cortical was measured using the polynomial fitting method. The texture feature of the cortical bone is obtained by calculating the average value of the grayscale intensity of cortical bone. The classification result was obtained by using a multiclass support vector machine.

RESULTS

 The experimental results using 10-fold cross-validation showed that the proposed system achieved an average accuracy of 86.50% for osteoporosis classification on dental panoramic radiographs. The average misclassification error and relative foreground area error of the segmentation process were 5.21 and 12.98%, respectively. From the analysis of the cortical width measurement process, highest average mandibular cortical width (MCW) was found in the normal patient category compared with the other classes.

CONCLUSION

 This research showed that the proposed computer-aided system can be used for osteoporosis and osteopenia assessment by measuring the MCW and texture on dental panoramic radiographs with the average system accuracy of 89.52%.

Midpalatal Suture CBCT Image Quantitive Characteristics Analysis Based on Machine Learning Algorithm Construction and Optimization

Background: Midpalatal suture maturation and ossification status is the basis for appraising maxillary transverse developmental status. Methods: We established a midpalatal suture cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) normalized database of the growth population, including 1006 CBCT files from 690 participants younger than 24 years old. The midpalatal suture region of interest (ROI) labeling was completed by two experienced clinical experts. The CBCT image fusion algorithm and image texture feature analysis algorithm were constructed and optimized. The age range prediction convolutional neural network (CNN) was conducted and tested. Results: The midpalatal suture fusion images contain complete semantic information for appraising midpalatal suture maturation and ossification status during the fast growth and development period. Correlation and homogeneity are the two texture features with the strongest relevance to chronological age. The overall performance of the age range prediction CNN model is satisfactory, especially in the 4 to 10 years range and the 17 to 23 years range, while for the 13 to 14 years range, the model performance is compromised. Conclusions: The image fusion algorithm can help show the overall perspective of the midpalatal suture in one fused image effectively. Furthermore, clinical decisions for maxillary transverse deficiency should be appraised by midpalatal suture image features directly rather than by age, especially in the 13 to 14 years range.

Three-dimensional evaluation of hyoid bone position in nasal and mouth breathing subjects with skeletal Class I, and Class II

BACKGROUND

This retrospective study investigated the effect of breathing pattern, skeletal class (Class I, Class II), and age on the hyoid bone position (HBP) in normodivergent subjects.

METHODS

A total of 126 subjects (61 males, 65 females) aged 7-9 years and 10-12 years were scanned using cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT). All participants were classified according to the anteroposterior skeletal pattern into (Class I, Class II). Each skeletal group was further divided according to the breathing mode into mouth breathers (MB) and nasal breathers (NB). The HBP was measured accordingly. Independent sample t-test and Mann Whitney U test were used to detect significant differences between the groups, and binary logistic regression was used to identify MB predictive indicators.

RESULTS

The breathing mode and skeletal class affected the vertical HBP in subjects with 7-9 years, while they affected the anteroposterior HBP in subjects with 10-12 years. Regarding the age effect, hyoid bone was located more anteriorly in the older NB subjects, and hyoid bone was more inferiorly in the older age group. A regression equation of the significant variables was formulated, C3-Me (P: 001, OR: 2.27), and H-EB (P: 0.046, OR: 1.16) were positively correlated with occurrence of MB.

CONCLUSION

There were significantly different HBPs among subjects with different anteroposterior skeletal classes, breathing modes, and age cohorts. Moreover, C3-Me, and H-EB were significant predictors and correlated with increased likelihood of being MB subject.

The Influence of New Bioactive Materials on Pulp–Dentin Complex Regeneration in the Assessment of Cone Bone Computed Tomography (CBCT) and Computed Micro-Tomography (Micro-CT) from a Present and Future Perspective—A Systematic Review

The present paper is the first article providing a systematic literature review on the visualization of tertiary dentin influenced by modern bioactive materials in CBCT and micro-CT. Six database searches of studies on tertiary dentin visualization using CBCT produced 622 records in total, and the search of the studies on tertiary dentin using micro-CT produced 502 records in total. The results were thoroughly selected considering the inclusion criteria, and five research papers using CBCT and nine research papers using micro-CT for visualization of tertiary dentin were eventually qualified for the analysis. All the non-randomized and randomized studies presented good and high levels of quality evidence, respectively. Among the bioactive materials used, the most frequently analysed were: MTA, Biodentine dentin matrix hydrogel, Pro Root MTA, and EndoSequence root repair material. The highest thickness of the tertiary dentin was achieved after the use of MTA material in both imaging techniques. The remaining parameters had different results, taking into account the CBCT and micro-CT analysis. The possibilities of the qualitative and quantitative assessment of the particular parameters of tertiary dentin using CBCT and micro-CT techniques were presented and analysed. CBCT and micro-CT analyses can be useful in the assessment of tertiary dentin formed beneath the bioactive material applied during vital pulp treatment. The research argues that the presented results differ depending on the material applied to the pulp, the study duration (4–6 weeks), difference in teeth, species (rats, human), as well as the applied technique and differences in computer software used for the analysis.

TMJ contrast enhancement in CBCT images using a new algorithm

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is considered the gold standard to reliably diagnose inflammation in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) of patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). However, even MRI imaging is dependent on the familiarity of the radiologist with the normal appearance of the TMJ; therefore, new approaches are needed. Our purpose here is to improve imaging quality of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) as a tool to help in the diagnosis of JIA in the TMJ. We have designed and applied a filter (the Stacking Enhancement Filter) over a stock of CBCT images from the TMJs of two patients with JIA. We then made a visual comparison of the results with archival images from MRI of the same patients, to show that the filter substantially improves the visual quality of the image. The work on the image contrast and the increase of the difference of appearance between tissues of different densities (all the anatomical structures that are present within the joint) leads to an improvement of the resulting images of the TMJ without the use of a chemical contrast agent. We conclude that CBCT could be used as a filter tool for the analysis of the TMJs affected by arthritis. Our image processing technique yields images that possible improve the range of use of CBCT.

Application of Three-Dimensional Digital Technology in Orthodontics: The State of the Art

Three-dimensional technologies are one of the most recent and relevant advancements in the field of Dentistry. These systems, including intraoral scans, 3D imaging exams (CAT scan, CBCT and MRI), CAD/CAM 3D printing devices and 3D computer software, have enabled clinicians to greatly improve patient care along with reducing treatment planning time. The present descriptive study aims to explore possible applications of 3D technologies during the diagnosis, treatment plan, case monitoring and result assessment in orthodontics. The overall upgrade provided by these technologies can improve the clinicians’ workflow and effectiveness by simplifying conventional techniques considered to be especially arduous.

Precision of orthodontic cephalometric measurements on ultra low dose-low dose CBCT reconstructed cephalograms

OBJECTIVES

To analyze differences in variation of orthodontic diagnostic measurements on lateral cephalograms reconstructed from ultra low dose-low dose (ULD-LD) cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) scans (RLC) as compared to variation of measurements on standard lateral cephalograms (SLC), and to determine if it is justifiable to replace a traditional orthodontic image set for an ULD-LD CBCT with a reconstructed lateral cephalogram.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

ULD-LD CBCT images and SLCs were made of forty-three dry human skulls. From the ULD-LD CBCT dataset, a lateral cephalogram was reconstructed (RLC). Cephalometric landmarks (13 skeletal and 7 dental) were identified on both SLC and RLC twice in two sessions by two calibrated observers. Thirteen cephalometric variables were calculated. Variations of measurements, expressed as standard deviations of the 4 measurements on SLC and RLC, were analyzed using a paired sample t-test. Differences in the number of observations deviating ≥ 2.0 mm or degrees from the grand mean between SLC and RLC were analyzed using a McNemar test.

RESULTS

Mean SDs for 7 out of 13 variables were significantly smaller for SLCs than those for RLCs, but differences were small. For 9 out of 13 variables, there was no significant difference between SLC and RLC for the number of measurements outside the range of 2 mm or degrees.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the lower radiation dose and the small differences in variation in cephalometric measurements on reconstructed LC compared to standard dose LC, ULD-LD CBCT with reconstructed LC should be considered for orthodontic diagnostic purposes.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

ULD-LD CBCT with reconstructed LC should be considered for orthodontic purposes.

Radiographic features in 2D imaging as predictors for justified CBCT examinations of canine-induced root resorption

OBJECTIVES

This retrospective observational study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of two-dimensional radiographs on canine-induced root resorption (CIRR) in lateral incisors and identify predictors of CIRR in patients with impacted maxillary canines (IMC).

METHODS

Ninety-nine patients aged 9-17 years, with 156 IMCs, were included in the study. All had CBCT-volumes and two-dimensional radiographs consisting of at least one panoramic radiograph. Two radiologists jointly viewed all cases twice. First, radiographic features related to the IMC and possible CIRR were recorded from two-dimensional radiographs. Then, CIRR was determined from CBCT and according to position and extension classified as mild, moderate and severe.

RESULTS

CIRRs was detected in 80% of lateral incisors (mild: 45%; moderate: 44%; severe: 11%). The sensitivity was generally low at mild and moderate cut-offs (29 and 29%), and somewhat higher for severe (50%). Corresponding specificities were 48%, 63% and 68%. Canine cusp-tip superimposing the lateral incisor's middle third and root/crown ratio >1 was positively associated with mild CIRR, with an odds ratio (OR) of 3.8 and 6.7, respectively. In addition, the root development stage was positively associated with moderate/severe CIRR when the canine root was nearly or fully developed (OR = 3.1).

CONCLUSIONS

The diagnostic accuracy of two-dimensional radiographs was inadequate for detecting CIRR amongst patients referred for CBCT examinations. Based on our results, none of the suggested two-dimensional radiographic features could predict moderate/severe CIRR except for root development stage. IMC in a later stage of root development seems to be associated with a higher risk of moderate/severe CIRR.

The effectiveness of miniscrews in the three-dimensional control of a palatal impacted canine: "Canine Only" approach. Case report

Treatment time and mechanics required to solve palatally impacted canines are usually challenging. Different biomechanics and protocol approaches are available, and among these, the use of skeletal anchorage as reactive unit can be noteworthy. The purpose of this article is to show a treatment of a palatally impacted canine by the means of a double miniscrew and cantilever system only. Two miniscrews with bracket heads were applied in a 16 years old patient; different cantilevers were used to solve the impaction and bring the canine in the right position. Results: the impacted canine was successfully moved into proper position with good three-dimensional control. Both miniscrews worked successfully as anchorage for the entire treatment. The palatally impacted canine was successfully treated utilizing two miniscrews and cantilever approach.

Orthodontists' criteria for prescribing cone-beam computed tomography-a multi-country survey

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to describe and compare CBCT imaging prescription in clinical practice among orthodontists from five countries in Europe and America. Additionally, it investigated factors associated with the prescribing and the use of guidelines for CBCT imaging.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was carried out using an online questionnaire sent to all registered orthodontists in Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Romania, and the United States of America (USA). The data were analyzed by descriptive statistics, bivariate tests, and Poisson regression.

RESULTS

The final sample consisted of 1284 participants. CBCT was prescribed by 84.4% of the participants for selected cases (84.9%), mainly for impacted teeth (92.4%), presurgical planning (54.1%), and root resorption (51.9%). High cost was most frequently the limiting factor for CBCT prescription (55.4%). Only 45.2% of those who were using CBCT imaging reported adhering to guidelines. CBCT imaging prescription was associated with the orthodontists' countries (p < .009, except for Belgium, p = .068), while the use of guidelines was associated with the respondents' country and additional training on CBCT imaging (p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Orthodontists refer patients for CBCT for selected indications (impacted teeth, root resorption, presurgical planning, dentofacial deformities, as suggested by the international guidelines, and also for upper airway and temporomandibular joint evaluation). Many do not adhere to specific guidelines. There are substantial variations between the countries about the orthodontists' referral for CBCT and guideline usage, irrespective of gender. CBCT prescription may be limited by financial barriers, adhering to specific guidelines and prior CBCT training.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

CBCT prescription among orthodontists must be based on prescription criteria and current guidelines. It is advised to improve CBCT education and training to enhance CBCT selection, referral, analysis, and interpretation in orthodontic practice.

Dental cone beam CT: An updated review

Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) is a diverse 3D x-ray imaging technique that has gained significant popularity in dental radiology in the last two decades. CBCT overcomes the limitations of traditional two-dimensional dental imaging and enables accurate depiction of multiplanar details of maxillofacial bony structures and surrounding soft tissues. In this review article, we provide an updated status on dental CBCT imaging and summarise the technical features of currently used CBCT scanner models, extending to recent developments in scanner technology, clinical aspects, and regulatory perspectives on dose optimisation, dosimetry, and diagnostic reference levels. We also consider the outlook of potential techniques along with issues that should be resolved in providing clinically more effective CBCT examinations that are optimised for the benefit of the patient.