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Barathi VA, Ho CEH, Tong L. Molecular Basis of Transglutaminase-2 and Muscarinic Cholinergic Receptors in Experimental Myopia: A Target for Myopia Treatment. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1045. [PMID: 37509081 PMCID: PMC10377462 DOI: 10.3390/biom13071045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Myopia, a prevalent refractive error disorder worldwide, is characterized by the elongation of the eye, leading to visual abnormalities. Understanding the genetic factors involved in myopia is crucial for developing therapeutic and preventive measures. Unfortunately, only a limited number of genes with well-defined functionality have been associated with myopia. In this study, we found that the homozygous TGM2-deleted gene in mice protected against the development of myopia by slowing down the elongation of the eye. The effectiveness of gene knockdown was confirmed by achieving a 60 percent reduction in TGM-2 transcript levels through the use of TGM-2-specific small interfering RNA (siRNA) in human scleral fibroblasts (SFs). Furthermore, treating normal mouse SFs with various transglutaminase inhibitors led to the down-regulation of TGM-2 expression, with the most significant reduction observed with specific TGM-2 inhibitors. Additionally, the study found that the pharmacological blockade of muscarinic receptors also slowed the progression of myopia in mice, and this effect was accompanied by a decrease in TGM-2 enzyme expression. Specifically, mice with homozygous mAChR5, mAChR1, and/or mAChR4 and knockout mice exhibited higher levels of TGM-2 mRNA compared to mice with homozygous mAChR2 and three knockout mice (fold changes of 5.8, 2.9, 2.4, -2.2, and -4.7, respectively; p < 0.05). These findings strongly suggest that both TGM-2 and muscarinic receptors play central roles in the development of myopia, and blocking these factors could potentially be useful in interfering with the progression of this condition. In conclusion, targeting TGM-2 may have a beneficial effect regarding myopia, and this may also be at least partially be the mechanism of anti-muscarinic drugs in myopia. Further studies should investigate the interaction between TGM-2 and muscarinic receptors, as well as the changes in other extracellular matrix genes associated with growth during the development of myopia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veluchamy Amutha Barathi
- Translational Preclinical Model Platform, Singapore Eye Research Institute, 20 College Road, Singapore 169856, Singapore
- Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, National University Hospital System, 10 Medical Dr, Singapore 117597, Singapore
- Eye-Academic Clinical Program, DUKE-National University of Singapore Gr Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Candice E H Ho
- Translational Preclinical Model Platform, Singapore Eye Research Institute, 20 College Road, Singapore 169856, Singapore
| | - Louis Tong
- Eye-Academic Clinical Program, DUKE-National University of Singapore Gr Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore 169857, Singapore
- Corneal and External Eye Disease, Singapore National Eye Centre, 11 Third Hospital Avenue, Singapore 168751, Singapore
- Ocular Surface Research Group, Singapore Eye Research Institute, 20 College Road, Singapore 169856, Singapore
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Hong AY, Lee SJ, Lee KB, Shin JW, Jeong EM, Kim IG. Double-Stranded RNA Enhances Matrix Metalloproteinase-1 and -13 Expressions through TLR3-Dependent Activation of Transglutaminase 2 in Dermal Fibroblasts. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052709. [PMID: 35269849 PMCID: PMC8911030 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
UV-irradiation induces the secretion of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) derived from damaged noncoding RNAs in keratinocytes, which enhance the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) in non-irradiated dermal fibroblasts, leading to dysregulation of extracellular matrix homeostasis. However, the signaling pathway responsible for dsRNA-induced MMP expression has not been fully understood. Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is an enzyme that modifies substrate proteins by incorporating polyamine or crosslinking of proteins, thereby regulating their functions. In this study, we showed that TG2 mediates dsRNA-induced MMP-1 expression through NF-κB activation. Treatment of poly(I:C), a synthetic dsRNA analogue binding to toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3), generates ROS, which in turn activates TG2 in dermal fibroblast. Subsequently, TG2 activity enhances translocation of p65 into the nucleus, where it augments transcription of MMP. We confirmed these results by assessing the level of MMP expression in Tlr3−/−, TG2-knockdowned and Tgm2−/− dermal fibroblasts after poly(I:C)-treatment. Moreover, treatment with quercetin showed dose-dependent suppression of poly(I:C)-induced MMP expression. Furthermore, ex vivo cultured skin from Tgm2−/− mice exhibited a significantly reduced level of MMP mRNA compared with those from wild-type mice. Our results indicate that TG2 is a critical regulator in dsRNA-induced MMP expression, providing a new target and molecular basis for antioxidant therapy in preventing collagen degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ah-Young Hong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea; (A.-Y.H.); (S.-J.L.); (K.B.L.); (J.-W.S.)
| | - Seok-Jin Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea; (A.-Y.H.); (S.-J.L.); (K.B.L.); (J.-W.S.)
| | - Ki Baek Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea; (A.-Y.H.); (S.-J.L.); (K.B.L.); (J.-W.S.)
- Laboratory for Cellular Response to Oxidative Stress, Cell2in, Inc., Seoul 03127, Korea
| | - Ji-Woong Shin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea; (A.-Y.H.); (S.-J.L.); (K.B.L.); (J.-W.S.)
| | - Eui Man Jeong
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Korea;
| | - In-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea; (A.-Y.H.); (S.-J.L.); (K.B.L.); (J.-W.S.)
- Laboratory for Cellular Response to Oxidative Stress, Cell2in, Inc., Seoul 03127, Korea
- Department of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
- Correspondence:
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Lee SJ, Lee KB, Hong AY, Son YH, Lee DH, Jeong EM, Kim IG. Transglutaminase 2 mediates UVB-induced matrix metalloproteinase-1 expression by inhibiting nuclear p65 degradation in dermal fibroblasts. Exp Dermatol 2021; 31:743-752. [PMID: 34882846 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play a key role in tissue remodelling by cleaving extracellular matrix (ECM) components. In the skin, UV irradiation increases expression of MMPs that causes dysregulation of ECM homeostasis in dermis, leading to acceleration of skin aging. However, the mediator(s) that links UV irradiation to the upregulation of MMPs have not been fully defined. Previously, we showed that UVB irradiation activated transglutaminase 2 (TG2) in keratinocytes, eliciting an inflammatory response by activating NF-κB signalling. In this study, we reported the role of TG2 in mediating the UVB-induced expression of MMP-1. In human dermal fibroblasts, UVB irradiation enhanced the expression and activity of TG2, which in turn promotes the expression of MMP-1. Analyses of MMP-1 promoter showed that activation of the NF-κB signalling pathway, rather than AP-1, was responsible for the TG2-mediated upregulation of MMP-1. Moreover, Western blot analysis revealed that TG2 increased the activity of NF-κB by inhibiting degradation of p65 in the nucleus. Furthermore, ex vivo skin from TG2-knockout mice exhibited significantly reduced levels of MMP-1 compared to that from wild-type mice. These results indicate that TG2 functions as a mediator for the UVB-induced expression of MMP-1 in dermal fibroblasts, providing a new target for preventing skin photodamage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seok-Jin Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ki Baek Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ah-Young Hong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young Hoon Son
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Dong Hun Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Eui Man Jeong
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jeju National University, Jeju, Korea
| | - In-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Department of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Basukala O, Sarabia-Vega V, Banks L. Human papillomavirus oncoproteins and post-translational modifications: generating multifunctional hubs for overriding cellular homeostasis. Biol Chem 2021; 401:585-599. [PMID: 31913845 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2019-0408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are major human carcinogens, causing around 5% of all human cancers, with cervical cancer being the most important. These tumors are all driven by the two HPV oncoproteins E6 and E7. Whilst their mechanisms of action are becoming increasingly clear through their abilities to target essential cellular tumor suppressor and growth control pathways, the roles that post-translational modifications (PTMs) of E6 and E7 play in the regulation of these activities remain unclear. Here, we discuss the direct consequences of some of the most common PTMs of E6 and E7, and how this impacts upon the multi-functionality of these viral proteins, and thereby contribute to the viral life cycle and to the induction of malignancy. Furthermore, it is becoming increasingly clear that these modifications, may, in some cases, offer novel routes for therapeutic intervention in HPV-induced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Om Basukala
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, I-34149Trieste, Italy
| | - Vanessa Sarabia-Vega
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, I-34149Trieste, Italy
| | - Lawrence Banks
- International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, AREA Science Park, Padriciano 99, I-34149Trieste, Italy
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Kim HJ, Lee JH, Cho SY, Jeon JH, Kim IG. Transglutaminase 2 mediates transcriptional regulation through BAF250a polyamination. Genes Genomics 2021; 43:333-342. [PMID: 33555506 DOI: 10.1007/s13258-021-01055-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) mediates protein modifications by crosslinking or by incorporating polyamine in response to oxidative or DNA-damaging stress, thereby regulating apoptosis, extracellular matrix formation, and inflammation. The regulation of transcriptional activity by TG2-mediated histone serotonylation or by Sp1 crosslinking may also contribute to cellular stress responses. OBJECTIVE In this study, we attempted to identify TG2-interacting proteins to better understand the role of TG2 in transcriptional regulation. METHODS Using a yeast two-hybrid assay to screen a HeLa cell cDNA library, we found that TG2 bound BAF250a, a core subunit of the cBAF chromatin remodeling complex, through an interaction between the TG2 barrel 1 and BAF250a C-terminal domains. RESULTS TG2 was pulled down with a GST-BAF250a C-term fusion protein. Moreover, TG2 and BAF250a were co-fractionated using P11 chromatography, and co-immunoprecipitated. A transamidation reaction showed that TG2 mediated incorporation of polyamine into BAF250a. In glucocorticoid response-element reporter-expressing cells, TG2 overexpression increased the luciferase reporter activity in a transamidation-dependent manner. In addition, a comparison of genome-wide gene expression between wild-type and TG2-deficient primary hepatocytes in response to dexamethasone treatment showed that TG2 further enhanced or suppressed the expression of dexamethasone-regulated genes that were identified by a gene ontology enrichment analysis. CONCLUSION Thus, our results indicate that TG2 regulates transcriptional activity through BAF250a polyamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyo-Jun Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 103 Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul, 03080, Korea
| | - Jin-Haeng Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 103 Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul, 03080, Korea
| | - Sung-Yup Cho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 103 Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul, 03080, Korea
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ju-Hong Jeon
- Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - In-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 103 Daehak-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul, 03080, Korea.
- Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.
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Scarth JA, Patterson MR, Morgan EL, Macdonald A. The human papillomavirus oncoproteins: a review of the host pathways targeted on the road to transformation. J Gen Virol 2021; 102:001540. [PMID: 33427604 PMCID: PMC8148304 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Persistent infection with high-risk human papillomaviruses (HR-HPVs) is the causal factor in over 99 % of cervical cancer cases, and a significant proportion of oropharyngeal and anogenital cancers. The key drivers of HPV-mediated transformation are the oncoproteins E5, E6 and E7. Together, they act to prolong cell-cycle progression, delay differentiation and inhibit apoptosis in the host keratinocyte cell in order to generate an environment permissive for viral replication. The oncoproteins also have key roles in mediating evasion of the host immune response, enabling infection to persist. Moreover, prolonged infection within the cellular environment established by the HR-HPV oncoproteins can lead to the acquisition of host genetic mutations, eventually culminating in transformation to malignancy. In this review, we outline the many ways in which the HR-HPV oncoproteins manipulate the host cellular environment, focusing on how these activities can contribute to carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A. Scarth
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Molly R. Patterson
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Ethan L. Morgan
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
- Present address: Tumour Biology Section, Head and Neck Surgery Branch, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Andrew Macdonald
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
- Astbury Centre for Structural Molecular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS2 9JT, UK
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Kim HJ, Lee JH, Lee KB, Shin JW, Kwon MA, Lee S, Jeong EM, Cho SY, Kim IG. Transglutaminase 2 crosslinks the glutathione S-transferase tag, impeding protein-protein interactions of the fused protein. Exp Mol Med 2021; 53:115-124. [PMID: 33441971 PMCID: PMC8080825 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-020-00549-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferase (GST) from Schistosoma japonicum has been widely used as a tag for affinity purification and pulldown of fusion proteins to detect protein-protein interactions. However, the reliability of this technique is undermined by the formation of GST-fused protein aggregates after incubation with cell lysates. It remains unknown why this aggregation occurs. Here, we demonstrate that the GST tag is a substrate of transglutaminase 2 (TG2), which is a calcium-dependent enzyme that polyaminates or crosslinks substrate proteins. Mutation analysis identified four glutamine residues in the GST tag as polyamination sites. TG2-mediated modification of the GST tag caused aggregate formation but did not affect its glutathione binding affinity. When incubated with cell lysates, GST tag aggregation was dependent on cellular TG2 expression levels. A GST mutant in which four glutamine residues were replaced with asparagine (GST4QN) exhibited a glutathione binding affinity similar to that of wild-type GST and could be purified by glutathione affinity chromatography. Moreover, the use of GST4QN as a tag reduced fused p53 aggregation and enhanced the induction of p21 transcription and apoptosis in cells treated with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). These results indicated that TG2 interferes with the protein-protein interactions of GST-fused proteins by crosslinking the GST tag; therefore, a GST4QN tag could improve the reproducibility and reliability of GST pulldown experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyo-Jun Kim
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jin-Haeng Lee
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ki Baek Lee
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ji-Woong Shin
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Mee-ae Kwon
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Soojin Lee
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Eui Man Jeong
- grid.411277.60000 0001 0725 5207Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jeju National University, Jeju Special Self-Governing Province, Korea
| | - Sung-Yup Cho
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea ,grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - In-Gyu Kim
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea ,grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea ,grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Keratinocyte transglutaminase 2 promotes CCR6 + γδT-cell recruitment by upregulating CCL20 in psoriatic inflammation. Cell Death Dis 2020; 11:301. [PMID: 32355189 PMCID: PMC7193648 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-020-2495-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Keratinocyte-derived cytokines and chemokines amplify psoriatic inflammation by recruiting IL-17-producing CCR6+ γδT-cells and neutrophils. The expression of these cytokines and chemokines mainly depends on NF-κB activity; however, the pathway that activates NF-κB in response to triggering factors is poorly defined. Here, we show that transglutaminase 2 (TG2), previously reported to elicit a TH17 response by increasing IL-6 expression in a mouse model of lung fibrosis, mediates the upregulation of cytokines and chemokines by activating NF-κB in imiquimod (IMQ)-treated keratinocytes. TG2-deficient mice exhibited reduced psoriatic inflammation in skin treated with IMQ but showed systemic immune responses similar to wild-type mice. Experiments in bone marrow (BM) chimeric mice revealed that TG2 is responsible for promoting psoriatic inflammation in non-BM-derived cells. In keratinocytes, IMQ treatment activated TG2, which in turn activated NF-κB signaling, leading to the upregulation of IL-6, CCL20, and CXCL8 and increased leukocyte migration, in vitro. Consequently, TG2-deficient mice showed markedly decreased CCR6+ γδT-cell and neutrophil infiltration in IMQ-treated skin. Moreover, TG2 levels were higher in psoriatic skin than in normal skin and correlated with IL-6, CXCL8, and CCL20 levels. Therefore, these results indicate that keratinocyte TG2 acts as a critical mediator in the amplification of psoriatic inflammation.
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Cho SY, Lee S, Yeom J, Kim HJ, Lee JH, Shin JW, Kwon MA, Lee KB, Jeong EM, Ahn HS, Shin DM, Kim K, Kim IG. Transglutaminase 2 mediates hypoxia-induced selective mRNA translation via polyamination of 4EBPs. Life Sci Alliance 2020; 3:3/3/e201900565. [PMID: 32075852 PMCID: PMC7032569 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.201900565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This study highlights the role of transglutaminase 2 in selective mRNA translation of hypoxic cancer cells by polyamination-dependent modulation of 4EBPs, providing a target for cancer treatment. Hypoxia selectively enhances mRNA translation despite suppressed mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 activity, contributing to gene expression reprogramming that promotes metastasis and survival of cancer cells. Little is known about how this paradoxical control of translation occurs. Here, we report a new pathway that links hypoxia to selective mRNA translation. Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a hypoxia-inducible factor 1–inducible enzyme that alters the activity of substrate proteins by polyamination or crosslinking. Under hypoxic conditions, TG2 polyaminated eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E)-bound eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding proteins (4EBPs) at conserved glutamine residues. 4EBP1 polyamination enhances binding affinity for Raptor, thereby increasing phosphorylation of 4EBP1 and cap-dependent translation. Proteomic analyses of newly synthesized proteins in hypoxic cells revealed that TG2 activity preferentially enhanced the translation of a subset of mRNA containing G/C-rich 5′UTRs but not upstream ORF or terminal oligopyrimidine motifs. These results indicate that TG2 is a critical regulator in hypoxia-induced selective mRNA translation and provide a promising molecular target for the treatment of cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Yup Cho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea .,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Cancer Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seungun Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jeonghun Yeom
- Department of Convergence Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyo-Jun Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jin-Haeng Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ji-Woong Shin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Mee-Ae Kwon
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ki Baek Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Eui Man Jeong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hee Sung Ahn
- Department of Convergence Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Dong-Myung Shin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kyunggon Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea .,Department of Convergence Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - In-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea .,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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10
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Sirikharin R, Utairungsee T, Srisala J, Roytrakul S, Thitamadee S, Sritunyalucksana K. Cell surface transglutaminase required for nodavirus entry into freshwater prawn hemocytes. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 89:108-116. [PMID: 30928665 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To identify molecules involved in Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV) entry into hemocytes of the giant freshwater prawn M. rosenbergii, biotinylated prawn hemocyte membrane proteins were prepared, purified and separated by SDS-PAGE. The proteins were blotted on the nitrocellulose membrane before incubation with the MrNV capsid protein (MrNV-CP) by a VOPBA technique. Subsequent mass spectrometry and analysis of immune-reactive bands represent putative binding partners including transglutaminase (TG), actin, α2-macroglobulin, α1-tubulin, F1-ATP synthase β-subunit and a currently uncharacterized protein. The sequence of TG has been characterized and found 5 amino acids differences to a previously reported MrTG (ADX99580), mainly at its N-terminal part and thus, we named it MrTGII (KM008611). Recombinant MrTGII was prepared to produce a polyclonal antibody against it, which was successfully revealed the presence of MrTGII (100 kDa) in prawn hemocyte lysates. Using the pentylamine-biotin incorporation assay, an acyl transfer reaction was observed when hemocyte lysates were added to solutions containing MrNV-CP, suggesting that hemocyte MrTG could use MrNV-CP as the substrate. The expression levels of MrTGII were changed during the course of MrNV infection. By using immunostaining technique, location of MrTGII on the hemocyte surface was confirmed. Specific interaction between MrTGII with MrNV-CP in a dose-dependent manner was confirmed by in vitro ELISA assay. The highest binding activity of MrNV-CP was found with the N-terminal portion of the protein. In vitro neutralization using anti-MrTGII antibody resulted in inhibition of MrNV attachment to the hemocyte surface, accompanied by a dramatic reduction in viral replication. This is the first time that crustacean TG has been shown to be involved in viral entry, in addition to its roles in blood clotting and haematopoiesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ratchanok Sirikharin
- Aquatic Animal Health Research Team, Integrative Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Yothi Office, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Center of Excellence for Shrimp Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Tanatchaporn Utairungsee
- Aquatic Animal Health Research Team, Integrative Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Yothi Office, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Center of Excellence for Shrimp Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Jiraporn Srisala
- Aquatic Animal Health Research Team, Integrative Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Yothi Office, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Sittiruk Roytrakul
- Proteomics Research Laboratory, Genomic Institute, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), Thailand Science Park, Klong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
| | - Siripong Thitamadee
- Center of Excellence for Shrimp Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand; Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Kallaya Sritunyalucksana
- Aquatic Animal Health Research Team, Integrative Aquaculture Biotechnology Research Group, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Yothi Office, Rama VI Rd., Bangkok, 10400, Thailand.
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11
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Börnigen D, Ren B, Pickard R, Li J, Ozer E, Hartmann EM, Xiao W, Tickle T, Rider J, Gevers D, Franzosa EA, Davey ME, Gillison ML, Huttenhower C. Alterations in oral bacterial communities are associated with risk factors for oral and oropharyngeal cancer. Sci Rep 2017; 7:17686. [PMID: 29247187 PMCID: PMC5732161 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17795-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral squamous cell carcinomas are a major cause of morbidity and mortality, and tobacco usage, alcohol consumption, and poor oral hygiene are established risk factors. To date, no large-scale case-control studies have considered the effects of these risk factors on the composition of the oral microbiome, nor microbial community associations with oral cancer. We compared the composition, diversity, and function of the oral microbiomes of 121 oral cancer patients to 242 age- and gender-matched controls using a metagenomic multivariate analysis pipeline. Significant shifts in composition and function of the oral microbiome were observed with poor oral hygiene, tobacco smoking, and oral cancer. Specifically, we observed dramatically altered community composition and function after tooth loss, with smaller alterations in current tobacco smokers, increased production of antioxidants in individuals with periodontitis, and significantly decreased glutamate metabolism metal transport in oral cancer patients. Although the alterations in the oral microbiome of oral cancer patients were significant, they were of substantially lower effect size relative to microbiome shifts after tooth loss. Alterations following tooth loss, itself a major risk factor for oral cancer, are likely a result of severe ecological disruption due to habitat loss but may also contribute to the development of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Börnigen
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02115, USA.,University Heart Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Clinic for General and Interventional Cardiology, Hamburg, Germany.,German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Hamburg/Lübeck/Kiel Partner Site, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Boyu Ren
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Robert Pickard
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, 43202, USA
| | - Jingfeng Li
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, 43202, USA
| | - Enver Ozer
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, 43202, USA
| | - Erica M Hartmann
- Biology and the Built Environment Center and Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, 97403, USA.,Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Weihong Xiao
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, 43202, USA
| | - Timothy Tickle
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jennifer Rider
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Dirk Gevers
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Eric A Franzosa
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Mary Ellen Davey
- Department of Oral Biology, College of Dentistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA
| | - Maura L Gillison
- The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, OH, 43202, USA.
| | - Curtis Huttenhower
- Department of Biostatistics, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, 02115, USA.
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12
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Lee SJ, Lee KB, Son YH, Shin J, Lee JH, Kim HJ, Hong AY, Bae HW, Kwon MA, Lee WJ, Kim JH, Lee DH, Jeong EM, Kim IG. Transglutaminase 2 mediates UV-induced skin inflammation by enhancing inflammatory cytokine production. Cell Death Dis 2017; 8:e3148. [PMID: 29072680 PMCID: PMC5680918 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2017.550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
UV irradiation elicits acute inflammation in the skin by increasing proinflammatory cytokine production in keratinocytes. However, the downstream protein target(s) that link UV radiation to the activation of signaling pathways responsible for cytokine expression have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we report a novel role of transglutaminase 2 (TG2), a member of the TG enzyme family whose activities are critical for cornified envelope formation, in mediating UV-induced inflammation. Our results showed that TG2-deficient mice exhibited reduced inflammatory responses to UV irradiation, including reduced erythema, edema, dilation of blood vessels, inflammatory cell infiltration, and levels of inflammatory cytokines. Using primary mouse keratinocytes and HaCaT cells, we found that UV irradiation-induced cytokine production by activating TG2, but not by upregulating TG2 expression, and that ER calcium release triggered by the UV-induced activation of phospholipase C was required for TG2 activation. Moreover, TG2 activity enhanced p65 phosphorylation, leading to an increase in NF-κB transcriptional activity. These results indicate that TG2 is a critical mediator of cytokine expression in the UV-induced inflammatory response of keratinocytes, and suggest that TG2 inhibition might be useful for preventing UV-related skin disorders, such as photoaging and skin cancer caused by chronic UV exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seok-Jin Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Baek Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Hoon Son
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiwoong Shin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Haeng Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo-Jun Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ah-Young Hong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Won Bae
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Mee-Ae Kwon
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Jong Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Hee Kim
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Cheongju University College of Health Science, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hun Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eui Man Jeong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Institute of Human-Environment Interface Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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13
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Uncovering protein polyamination by the spermine-specific antiserum and mass spectrometric analysis. Amino Acids 2014; 47:469-81. [PMID: 25471600 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-014-1879-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The polyamines spermidine and spermine, and their precursor putrescine, have been shown to play an important role in cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Because of their polycationic property, polyamines are traditionally thought to be involved in DNA replication, gene expression, and protein translation. However, polyamines can also be covalently conjugated to proteins by transglutaminase 2 (TG2). This modification leads to an increase in positive charge in the polyamine-incorporated region which significantly alters the structure of proteins. It is anticipated that protein polyamine conjugation may affect the protein-protein interaction, protein localization, and protein function of the TG2 substrates. In order to investigate the roles of polyamine modification, we synthesized a spermine-conjugated antigen and generated an antiserum against spermine. In vitro TG2-catalyzed spermine incorporation assays were carried out to show that actin, tubulins, heat shock protein 70 and five types of histone proteins were modified with spermine, and modification sites were also identified by liquid chromatography and linear ion trap-orbitrap hybrid mass spectrometry. Subsequent mass spectrometry-based shotgun proteomic analysis also identified 254 polyaminated sites in 233 proteins from the HeLa cell lysate catalyzed by human TG2 with spermine, thus allowing, for the first time, a global appraisal of site-specific protein polyamination. Global analysis of mouse tissues showed that this modification really exists in vivo. Importantly, we have demonstrated that there is a new histone modification, polyamination, in cells. However, the functional significance of histone polyamination demands further investigations.
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14
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Billing AM, Kessler JR, Revets D, Sausy A, Schmitz S, Barra C, Muller CP. Proteome profiling of virus-host interactions of wild type and attenuated measles virus strains. J Proteomics 2014; 108:325-36. [PMID: 24914991 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2011] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Quantitative gel-based proteomics (2D DIGE coupled to MALDI-TOF/TOF MS) has been used to investigate the effects of different measles virus (MV) strains on the host cell proteome. A549/hSLAM cells were infected either with wild type MV strains, an attenuated vaccine or a multiple passaged Vero cell adapted strain. By including interferon beta treatment as a control it was possible to distinguish between the classical antiviral response and changes induced specifically by the different strains. Of 38 differentially expressed proteins in total (p-value ≤0.05, fold change ≥2), 18 proteins were uniquely modulated following MV infection with up to 9 proteins specific per individual strain. Interestingly, wt strains displayed distinct protein patterns particularly during the late phase of infection. Proteins were grouped into cytoskeleton, metabolism, transcription/translation, immune response and mitochondrial proteins. Bioinformatics analysis revealed mostly changes in proteins regulating cell death and apoptosis. Surprisingly, wt strains affected the cytokeratin system much stronger than the vaccine strain. To our knowledge, this is the first study on the MV-host proteome addressing interstrain differences. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE In the present study we investigated the host cell proteome upon measles virus (MV) infection. The novelty about this study is the side-by side comparison of different strains from the same virus, which has not been done at the proteome level for any other virus including MV. We used different virus strains including a vaccine strain, wild type isolates derived from MV-infected patients as well as a Vero cell adapted strain, which serves as an intermediate between vaccine and wild type strain. We observed differences between vaccine and wild type strains as well as common features between different wild type strains. Perhaps one of the most surprising findings was that differences did not only occur between wild type and vaccine or Vero cell adapted strains but also between different wild type strains. In fact our study suggests that besides the cytokeratin and the IFN system wild type viruses seem to differ as much among each other than from vaccine strains. Thus our results are suggestive of complex and diverse virus-host interactions which differ considerably between different wild type strains. Our data indicate that interstrain differences are prominent and have so far been neglected by proteomics studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja M Billing
- Institute of Immunology, Centre de Recherche Public de la Santé/Laboratoire National de Santé, 20A rue Auguste Lumière, L-1950 Luxembourg, Luxembourg
| | - Julia R Kessler
- Institute of Immunology, Centre de Recherche Public de la Santé/Laboratoire National de Santé, 20A rue Auguste Lumière, L-1950 Luxembourg, Luxembourg
| | - Dominique Revets
- Institute of Immunology, Centre de Recherche Public de la Santé/Laboratoire National de Santé, 20A rue Auguste Lumière, L-1950 Luxembourg, Luxembourg
| | - Aurélie Sausy
- Institute of Immunology, Centre de Recherche Public de la Santé/Laboratoire National de Santé, 20A rue Auguste Lumière, L-1950 Luxembourg, Luxembourg
| | - Stephanie Schmitz
- Institute of Immunology, Centre de Recherche Public de la Santé/Laboratoire National de Santé, 20A rue Auguste Lumière, L-1950 Luxembourg, Luxembourg
| | - Claire Barra
- Institute of Immunology, Centre de Recherche Public de la Santé/Laboratoire National de Santé, 20A rue Auguste Lumière, L-1950 Luxembourg, Luxembourg
| | - Claude P Muller
- Institute of Immunology, Centre de Recherche Public de la Santé/Laboratoire National de Santé, 20A rue Auguste Lumière, L-1950 Luxembourg, Luxembourg.
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15
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Detyrosinated Glu-tubulin is a substrate for cellular Factor XIIIA transglutaminase in differentiating osteoblasts. Amino Acids 2014; 46:1513-26. [DOI: 10.1007/s00726-014-1719-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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16
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Min SK, Min SI, Jeong EM, Cho SY, Ha J, Kim SJ, Kim IG. Intimal hyperplasia in loop-injured carotid arteries is attenuated in transglutaminase 2-null mice. J Korean Med Sci 2014; 29:363-9. [PMID: 24616585 PMCID: PMC3945131 DOI: 10.3346/jkms.2014.29.3.363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2013] [Accepted: 12/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Arterial restenosis frequently develops after open or endovascular surgery due to intimal hyperplasia. Since tissue transglutaminase (TG2) is known to involve in fibrosis, wound healing, and extracellular matrix remodeling, we examined the role of TG2 in the process of intimal hyperplasia using TG2-null mice. The neointimal formation was compared between TG2-null and wild-type (C57BL/6) mice by two different injury models; carotid ligation and carotid loop injury. In ligation model, there was no difference in intimal thickness between two groups. In loop injury model, intimal hyperplasia developed in both groups and the intimal/medial area ratio was significantly reduced in TG2-null mice (P = 0.007). TG2 was intensely stained in neointimal cells in 2 weeks. In situ activity of TG2 in the injured arteries steadily increased until 4 weeks compared to uninjured arteries. Taken together, intimal hyperplasia was significantly reduced in TG2-null mice, indicating that TG2 has an important role in the development of intimal hyperplasia. This suggests that TG2 may be a novel target to prevent the arterial restenosis after vascular surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Kee Min
- Department of Surgery, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang-Il Min
- Department of Surgery, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Eui Man Jeong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sung-Yup Cho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jongwon Ha
- Department of Surgery, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Joon Kim
- Department of Surgery, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - In-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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17
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Lee JH, Jeong J, Jeong EM, Cho SY, Kang JW, Lim J, Heo J, Kang H, Kim IG, Shin DM. Endoplasmic reticulum stress activates transglutaminase 2 leading to protein aggregation. Int J Mol Med 2014; 33:849-55. [PMID: 24481335 PMCID: PMC3976127 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2014.1640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Aberrant activation of transglutaminase 2 (TGase2) contributes to a variety of protein conformational disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases and age-related cataracts. The accumulation of improperly folded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR), which promotes either repair or degradation of the damaged proteins. Inadequate UPR results in protein aggregation that may contribute to the development of age-related degenerative diseases. TGase2 is a calcium-dependent enzyme that irreversibly modifies proteins by forming cross-linked protein aggregates. Intracellular TGase2 is activated by oxidative stress which generates large quantities of unfolded proteins. However, the relationship between TGase2 activity and UPR has not yet been established. In the present study, we demonstrated that ER stress activated TGase2 in various cell types. TGase2 activation was dependent on the ER stress-induced increase in the intracellular calcium ion concentration but not on the TGase2 protein expression level. Enzyme substrate analysis revealed that TGase2-mediated protein modification promoted protein aggregation concurrently with decreasing water solubility. Moreover, treatment with KCC009, a TGase2 inhibitor, abrogated ER stress-induced TGase2 activation and subsequent protein aggregation. However, TGase2 activation had no effect on ER stress-induced cell death. These results demonstrate that the accumulation of misfolded proteins activates TGase2, which further accelerates the formation of protein aggregates. Therefore, we suggest that inhibition of TGase2 may be a novel strategy by which to prevent the protein aggregation in age-related degenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Haeng Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaeho Jeong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eui Man Jeong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Yup Cho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Wook Kang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jisun Lim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinbeom Heo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunsook Kang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Gyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Myung Shin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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18
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Icilin inhibits E2F1-mediated cell cycle regulatory programs in prostate cancer. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 441:1005-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 11/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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19
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Assi J, Srivastava G, Matta A, Chang MC, Walfish PG, Ralhan R. Transglutaminase 2 overexpression in tumor stroma identifies invasive ductal carcinomas of breast at high risk of recurrence. PLoS One 2013; 8:e74437. [PMID: 24058567 PMCID: PMC3772876 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Molecular markers for predicting breast cancer patients at high risk of recurrence are urgently needed for more effective disease management. The impact of alterations in extracellular matrix components on tumor aggressiveness is under intense investigation. Overexpression of Transglutaminase 2 (TG2), a multifunctional enzyme, in cancer cells impacts epithelial mesenchymal transition, growth, invasion and interactions with tumor microenvironment. The objective of our study is to determine the clinical relevance of stromal TG2 overexpression and explore its potential to identify breast cancers at high risk of recurrence. Methods This retrospective study is based on immunohistochemical analysis of TG2 expression in normal breast tissues (n = 40) and breast cancers (n = 253) with clinical, pathological and follow-up data available for up to 12 years. TG2 expression was correlated with clinical and pathological parameters as well as disease free survival (DFS) of breast cancer patients. Results Stromal TG2 overexpression was observed in 114/253 (45.0%) breast cancer tissues as compared to breast normal tissues. Among invasive ductal carcinomas (IDC) of the breast, 97/168 (57.7%) showed strong TG2 expression in tumor stroma. Importantly, IDC patients showing stromal TG2 accumulation had significantly reduced DFS (mean DFS = 110 months) in comparison with patients showing low expression (mean DFS = 130 months) in Kaplan-Meier survival analysis (p<0.001). In Cox multivariate regression analysis, stromal TG2 accumulation was an independent risk factor for recurrence (p = 0.006, Hazard’s ratio, H.R. = 3.79). Notably, these breast cancer patients also showed immunostaining of N-epsilon gamma-glutamyl lysine amino residues in tumor stroma demonstrating the transamidating activity of TG2. Conclusions Accumulation of TG2 in tumor stroma is an independent risk factor for identifying breast cancer patients at high risk of recurrence. TG2 overexpression in tumor stroma may serve as a predictor of poor prognosis for IDC of the breast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasmeet Assi
- Alex and Simona Shnaider Laboratory in Molecular Oncology, Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Joseph and Wolf Lebovic Health Complex, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gunjan Srivastava
- Alex and Simona Shnaider Laboratory in Molecular Oncology, Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Joseph and Wolf Lebovic Health Complex, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ajay Matta
- Alex and Simona Shnaider Laboratory in Molecular Oncology, Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Joseph and Wolf Lebovic Health Complex, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Martin C. Chang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paul G. Walfish
- Alex and Simona Shnaider Laboratory in Molecular Oncology, Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Joseph and Wolf Lebovic Health Complex, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Joseph and Mildred Sonshine Family Centre for Head and Neck Diseases, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Endocrine Division, Mount Sinai Hospital and University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail: (PGW); (RR)
| | - Ranju Ralhan
- Alex and Simona Shnaider Laboratory in Molecular Oncology, Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Joseph and Wolf Lebovic Health Complex, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Joseph and Mildred Sonshine Family Centre for Head and Neck Diseases, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail: (PGW); (RR)
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20
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Deasey S, Nurminsky D, Shanmugasundaram S, Lima F, Nurminskaya M. Transglutaminase 2 as a novel activator of LRP6/β-catenin signaling. Cell Signal 2013; 25:2646-51. [PMID: 23993960 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2013.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2013] [Accepted: 08/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The β-catenin signaling axis is critical for normal embryonic development and tissue homeostasis in adults. We have previously shown that extracellular enzyme transglutaminase 2 (TG2) activates β-catenin signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). In this study, we provide several lines of evidence that TG2 functions as an activating ligand of the LRP5/6 receptors. Specifically, we show that TG2 synergizes with LRP6 in the activation of β-catenin-dependent gene expression in Cos-7 cells. Interfering with the LRP5/6 receptors attenuates TG2-induced activation of β-catenin in Cos-7 cells. Further, we show that TG2 binds directly to the extracellular domain of LRP6, which is also able to act as a substrate for TG2-mediated protein cross-linking. Furthermore, inhibitors of TG2 protein cross-linking quench the observed TG2-induced β-catenin activation, implicating protein cross-linking as a novel regulatory mechanism for this pathway. Together, our findings identify and characterize a new activating ligand of the LRP5/6 receptors and uncover a novel activity of TG2 as an agonist of β-catenin signaling, contributing to the understanding of diverse developmental events and pathological conditions in which transglutaminase and β-catenin signaling are implicated.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Deasey
- Dept. of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, United States
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21
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Transglutaminase is a therapeutic target for oxidative stress, excitotoxicity and stroke: a new epigenetic kid on the CNS block. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2013; 33:809-18. [PMID: 23571278 PMCID: PMC3677119 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2013.53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Transglutaminases (TGs) are multifunctional, calcium-dependent enzymes that have been recently implicated in stroke pathophysiology. Classically, these enzymes are thought to participate in cell injury and death in chronic neurodegenerative conditions via their ability to catalyze covalent, nondegradable crosslinks between proteins or to incorporate polyamines into protein substrates. Accumulating lines of inquiry indicate that specific TG isoforms can shuttle into the nucleus when they sense pathologic changes in calcium or oxidative stress, bind to chromatin and thereby transduce these changes into transcriptional repression of genes involved in metabolic or oxidant adaptation. Here, we review the evidence that supports principally a role for one isoform of this family, TG2, in cell injury and death associated with hemorrhagic or ischemic stroke. We also outline an evolving model in which TG2 is a critical mediator between pathologic signaling and epigenetic modifications that lead to gene repression. Accordingly, the salutary effects of TG inhibitors in stroke may derive from their ability to restore homeostasis by removing inappropriate deactivation of adaptive genetic programs by oxidative stress or extrasynaptic glutamate receptor signaling.
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Abstract
E7 is an accessory protein that is not encoded by all papillomaviruses. The E7 amino terminus contains two regions of similarity to conserved regions 1 and 2 of the adenovirus E1A protein, which are also conserved in the simian vacuolating virus 40 large tumor antigen. The E7 carboxyl terminus consists of a zinc-binding motif, which is related to similar motifs in E6 proteins. E7 proteins play a central role in the human papillomavirus life cycle, reprogramming the cellular environment to be conducive to viral replication. E7 proteins encoded by the cancer-associated alpha human papillomaviruses have potent transforming activities, which together with E6, are necessary but not sufficient to render their host squamous epithelial cell tumorigenic. This article strives to provide a comprehensive summary of the published research studies on human papillomavirus E7 proteins.
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23
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Király R, Demény M, Fésüs L. Protein transamidation by transglutaminase 2 in cells: a disputed Ca2+-dependent action of a multifunctional protein. FEBS J 2011; 278:4717-39. [PMID: 21902809 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2011.08345.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is the first described cellular member of an enzyme family catalyzing Ca(2+)-dependent transamidation of proteins. During the last two decades its additional enzymatic (GTP binding and hydrolysis, protein disulfide isomerase, protein kinase) and non-enzymatic (multiple interactions in protein scaffolds) activities, which do not require Ca(2+) , have been recognized. It became a prevailing view that TG2 is silent as a transamidase, except in extreme stress conditions, in the intracellular environment characterized by low Ca(2+) and high GTP concentrations. To counter this presumption a critical review of the experimental evidence supporting the role of this enzymatic activity in cellular processes is provided. It includes the structural basis of TG2 regulation through non-canonical Ca(2+) binding sites, mechanisms making it sensitive to low Ca(2+) concentrations, techniques developed for the detection of protein transamidation in cells and examples of basic cellular phenomena as well as pathological conditions influenced by this irreversible post-translational protein modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Róbert Király
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Apoptosis and Genomics Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
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Role and predictive strength of transglutaminase type 2 expression in premalignant lesions of the cervix. Mod Pathol 2011; 24:855-65. [PMID: 21441900 DOI: 10.1038/modpathol.2011.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The demonstration that type 2 transglutaminase (TG2) can incorporate polyamine into the E7 oncoprotein of human papillomavirus (HPV) type 18 has led to the hypothesis that TG2 can have a role in the host cellular response to HPV infection. The aim of this study was to investigate whether HPV-related pathology, in infected human cervical epithelium, was associated with modulation of TG2 expression. Normal controls and HPV-infected cervical biopsies were analyzed for the expression of TG2, and the findings were compared with lesion grade. The correlation between TG2 expression and p16, a marker for HPV-induced dysplasia, and the retinoblastoma protein (Rb), a target of the E7 protein of HPV, was also investigated. Results obtained showed that TG2 was absent in normal squamous mucosa, whereas it was present in 100% CIN I lesions. Low-grade lesions showed significantly higher TG2 expression than high-grade lesions (P<0.0001). In 94% of CIN I more than 50% of the cells were positive for TG2, with a strong staining intensity (+3), whereas a decreased staining intensity and a low number of positive cells were found in CIN II/III. In CIN I cases, both nuclear and cytoplasmic staining were found in cells exhibiting classical morphological features of HPV infection. In addition, during progression from low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions to severe dysplasia, TG2 expression was inversely correlated with p16 (Pearson: -0.930), whereas a positive correlation was observed between the expression of TG2 and pRb (Pearson: 0.997). TG2 is expressed in HPV infection as an early phenomenon, not restricted to high-risk genotypes. TG2 upregulation is probably part of host cell reaction against HPV-induced tissue modification. It may act as a cellular antioxidant defense factor, playing an important role in counteracting oxidative damage in neoplastic disease.
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Cho SY, Jeon JH, Kim CW, Shin DM, Jang GY, Jeong EM, Lee SE, Song KY, Kim IG. Monoclonal antibodies to human transglutaminase 4. Hybridoma (Larchmt) 2010; 29:263-7. [PMID: 20569004 DOI: 10.1089/hyb.2009.0112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 4 (TG4) is a member of the enzyme family that catalyzes the calcium-dependent post-translational modification of proteins via cross-linking, polyamination, or deamidation. TG4 exhibits prostate-specific expression pattern and plays a crucial role in the formation of the copulatory plug in rodents. However, the physiological function(s) of human TG4 remains speculative. Human TG4 has been postulated to participate in the maturation process of sperm by modifying its cell surface, which results in suppression of sperm antigenicity in the female genital tract. To better understand the pathophysiological role of TG4 in prostate tissue, we generated monoclonal antibodies (MAb) against human TG4 in mice by repeated injections with the recombinant human TG4. Western blot analysis demonstrated that the selected MAbs react specifically with TG4, but not with other isoenzymes of the TG family. Immunocytochemical and immunohistochemical analyses showed that specific staining is observed with the cells overexpressing TG4 and with the paraffin-embedded prostate tissue specimens obtained from the benign prostate hyperplasia and prostate cancer patients, respectively. Our results indicate that these MAbs are suitable for detecting TG4 in the cultured cells or prostate tissues for investigating the biological functions of human TG4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Yup Cho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology/Aging and Apoptosis Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Cho SY, Choi K, Jeon JH, Kim CW, Shin DM, Lee JB, Lee SE, Kim CS, Park JS, Jeong EM, Jang GY, Song KY, Kim IG. Differential alternative splicing of human transglutaminase 4 in benign prostate hyperplasia and prostate cancer. Exp Mol Med 2010; 42:310-8. [PMID: 20177144 DOI: 10.3858/emm.2010.42.4.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Transglutaminase 4 is a member of enzyme family that catalyzes calcium-dependent posttranslational modification of proteins. Although transglutaminase 4 has been shown to have prostate-restricted expression pattern, little is known about the biological function of transglutaminase 4 in human. To gain insight into its role in prostate, we analyzed the expression status of human transglutaminase 4 in benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer (PCa). Unexpectedly, RT-PCR and nucleotide sequence analysis showed four alternative splicing variants of transglutaminase 4: transglutaminase 4-L, -M (-M1 and -M2) and -S. The difference between transglutaminase 4-M1 and -M2 is attributed to splicing sites, but not nucleotide size. The deduced amino acid sequences showed that transglutaminase 4-L, -M1 and -M2 have correct open reading frames, whereas transglutaminase 4-S has a truncated reading frame. RT-PCR analysis of clinical samples revealed that transglutaminase 4-M and -S were detected in all tested prostate tissue (80 BPH and 48 PCa). Interestingly, transglutaminase 4-L was found in 56% of BPH (45 out of 80) and only in 15% of PCa (7 out of 48). However, transglutaminase 4-L expression did not correlate with serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level, prostate volumes or PSA densities. These results will provide a clue to future investigation aiming at delineating physiological and pathological roles of human transglutaminase 4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Yup Cho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Aging and Apoptosis Research Center (AARC), Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110-799, Korea
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Kim Y, Eom S, Kim K, Lee YS, Choe J, Hahn JH, Lee H, Kim YM, Ha KS, Ro JY, Jeoung D. Transglutaminase II interacts with rac1, regulates production of reactive oxygen species, expression of snail, secretion of Th2 cytokines and mediates in vitro and in vivo allergic inflammation. Mol Immunol 2009; 47:1010-22. [PMID: 20004474 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2009.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 11/13/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase II (TGase II) is a protein cross-linking enzyme with diverse biological functions. Here we report the role of TGase II in allergic inflammation. Antigen stimulation induced expression and activity of TGase II by activation of NF-kappaB in rat basophilic leukemia (RBL2H3) cells. This induction of TGase II was dependent on FcepsilonRI and EGFR. Interaction between TGase II and rac1 was induced following antigen stimulation. TGase II was responsible for the increased production of reactive oxygen species, expression of prostaglandin E2 synthase (PGE2 synthase) and was responsible for increased secretion of prostaglandin E2. ChIP assay showed that TGase II, through interaction with NF-kappaB, was responsible for the induction of histone deacetylase-3 (HDAC3) and snail by direct binding to promoter sequences. HDAC3 and snail induced by TGase II, exerted transcriptional repression on E-cadherin. Snail exerted negative effect on expression of MMP-2, and secretion of Th2 cytokines. Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) inhibited secretion of Th2 cytokines. In vivo induction of TGase II was observed in Balb/c mouse model of IgE antibody-induced passive cutaneous anaphylaxis. Chemical inhibition of TGase II exerted negative effect on IgE-dependent passive cutaneous anaphylaxis. Chemical inhibition of TGase II by cystamine exerted negative effect on Balb/c mouse model of phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-induced atopic dermatitis. These results suggest novel role of TGase II in allergic inflammation and TGase II can be developed as target for the development of allergy therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngmi Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Republic of Korea
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Tissue transglutaminase 2 as a biomarker of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and its relationship to p16INK4A and nuclear factor kappaB expression. Virchows Arch 2009; 456:45-51. [PMID: 19937343 DOI: 10.1007/s00428-009-0860-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2009] [Revised: 10/29/2009] [Accepted: 11/03/2009] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a recently identified molecule with multifunctional physiological roles. This is the first report of the expression of TG2 in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and invasive squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). For comparison, the expression of p16, a known surrogate biomarker of HPV infection, was evaluated. The expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappaB), a molecule crucial to inflammation and neoplasia, was also determined to explore its possible linkage with TG2 expression. Twenty cases each with normal cervical histology, CIN1, CIN2, CIN3, and invasive SCC were analyzed for TG2, p16, and NF-kappaB expression by immunohistochemistry. Intergroup differences were analyzed by Friedman ANOVA. Cytoplasmic as well as nuclear TG2 expression was observed in the epithelial cells. As compared to normal controls, CIN1 showed markedly increased cytoplasmic TG2 expression (p = 0.006). In CIN2/3, additional nuclear TG2 expression was seen (p = 0.009 and 0.031, respectively). Marked extracellular stromal upregulation of TG2 was noted in CIN3/SCC versus normal controls (p = 0.054; p = 0.003). There was no relationship of TG2 with either p16 of NF-kappaB expression. Combining TG2 immunoreactivity with p16 increased the immunolabeling of dysplasia from 35% to 100% in CIN1, 45% to 60% in CIN2, and 60% to 85% in CIN3. TG2 serves as an additional biomarker for all grades of cervical dysplasia, especially for low-grade dysplasia.
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Transglutaminase 2 suppresses apoptosis by modulating caspase 3 and NF-kappaB activity in hypoxic tumor cells. Oncogene 2009; 29:356-67. [PMID: 19838207 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2009.342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) correlates with poor clinical outcomes and confers resistance to the apoptosis of the tumor cells that are exposed to hypoxia. Presently, the mechanism underlying this phenomenon is poorly understood. In this study we provide evidence that transglutaminase 2 (TG2), an enzyme that catalyses protein crosslinking reactions, is a transcriptional target of HIF-1 to enhance the survival of hypoxic cells. We found that hypoxia induces TG2 expression through an HIF-1 dependent pathway and concurrently activates intracellular TG2. The hypoxic cells overexpressing TG2 showed resistance to apoptosis. Conversely, the hypoxic cells treated with either TG2 inhibitor or small interfering RNA (siRNA) became sensitive to apoptosis. Activation of TG2 in response to hypoxic stress inhibited caspase-3 activity by forming crosslinked multimer, resulting in insoluble aggregates. TG2 also activates nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB pathway after hypoxic stress, and thereby induces the expression of cellular inhibitor of apoptosis 2. The anti-apoptotic role of TG2 was further confirmed in vivo using xenografts in athymic mice. Our results indicate that TG2 is an anti-apoptotic mediator of HIF-1 through modulating both apoptosis and survival pathways and may confer a selective growth advantage to tumor cells. These findings suggest that the inhibition of TG2 may offer a novel strategy for anticancer therapy.
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Kwon MH, Jung JW, Jung SH, Park JY, Kim YM, Ha KS. Quantitative and rapid analysis of transglutaminase activity using protein arrays in mammalian cells. Mol Cells 2009; 27:337-43. [PMID: 19326081 DOI: 10.1007/s10059-009-0043-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2008] [Revised: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed a novel on-chip activity assay using protein arrays for quantitative and rapid analysis of transglutami-nase activity in mammalian cells. Transglutaminases are a family of Ca2+-dependent enzymes involved in cell regulation as well as human diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders, inflammatory diseases and tumor progression. We fabricated the protein arrays by immobilizing N,N'-dimethylcasein (a substrate) on the amine surface of the arrays. We initiated transamidating reaction on the protein arrays and determined the transglutaminase activity by analyzing the fluorescence intensity of biotinylated casein. The on-chip transglutaminase activity assay was proved to be much more sensitive than the [3H]putrescine-incorporation assay. We successfully applied the on-chip assay to a rapid and quantitative analysis of the transgluta-minase activity in all-trans retinoic acid-treated NIH 3T3 and SH-SY5Y cells. In addition, the on-chip transglutaminase activity assay was sufficiently sensitive to determine the transglutaminase activity in eleven mammalian cell lines. Thus, this novel on-chip transglutaminase activity assay was confirmed to be a sensitive and high-throughput approach to investigating the roles of transglutaminase in cellular signaling, and, moreover, it is likely to have a strong potential for monitoring human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Hye Kwon
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry and Vascular System Research Center, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea
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Jeong EM, Kim CW, Cho SY, Jang GY, Shin DM, Jeon JH, Kim IG. Degradation of transglutaminase 2 by calcium-mediated ubiquitination responding to high oxidative stress. FEBS Lett 2009; 583:648-54. [PMID: 19183553 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2009.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2008] [Revised: 01/07/2009] [Accepted: 01/19/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a calcium-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the transamidation reaction. There is conflicting evidence on the role of TG2 in apoptosis. In this report, we show that TG2 increases in response to low level of oxidative stress, whereas TG2 diminishes under high stress conditions. Monitoring TG2 expression, activity and calcium concentration in cells treated with A23187 revealed that the initial rise of calcium activates TG2 but subsequent calcium-overload induces the degradation of TG2 via calcium-mediated polyubiquitination. These results indicate that the role of TG2 in apoptosis depends on the level of calcium influx triggered by oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eui Man Jeong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology/Aging and Apoptosis Research Center (AARC), Seoul National University College of Medicine, 28 Yongon Dong, Chongno Gu, Seoul 110-799, Republic of Korea
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Identification of new amine acceptor protein substrate candidates of transglutaminase in rat liver extract: use of 5-(biotinamido) pentylamine as a probe. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2008; 72:1056-62. [PMID: 18391459 DOI: 10.1271/bbb.70796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminases (TGs) are a family of enzymes that catalyze Ca(2+)-dependent post-translational modification of proteins by introducing protein-protein crosslinks (between specific glutamine and lysine residues), amine incorporation, and site-specific deamidation. In this study, new amine acceptor protein substrates of TG were isolated from rat liver extract and identified using 5-(biotinamido) pentylamine, a biotinylated primary amine substrate, as a probe. TG protein substrate candidates labeled with biotin by endogenous TG activity were isolated and recovered by avidin column chromatography. Proteins with molecular masses of 40, 42, and 45 kDa were the main components of the labeled proteins. Determination of their partial amino acid sequences and immunoblotting analyses were done to identify them. The 45-kDa protein was identical with betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase (EC 2.2.2.5), which was identified in our previous study. The 40- and 42-kDa proteins were identified as arginase-I (EC 3.5.3.1) and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (EC 3.1.3.11) respectively. TG catalyzed incorporation of 5-(biotinamido) pentylamine into both arginase-I and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase purified from rat liver was confirmed in vitro. These results suggest that these two enzymes are the new protein substrate candidates of TG and that they can be modified post-translationally by cellular TG.
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Shin DM, Jeon JH, Kim CW, Cho SY, Lee HJ, Jang GY, Jeong EM, Lee DS, Kang JH, Melino G, Park SC, Kim IG. TGFbeta mediates activation of transglutaminase 2 in response to oxidative stress that leads to protein aggregation. FASEB J 2008; 22:2498-507. [PMID: 18353867 DOI: 10.1096/fj.07-095455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TGase2) is a ubiquitously expressed enzyme that catalyzes irreversible post-translational modification of protein, forming cross-linked protein aggregates. We previously reported that intracellular TGase2 is activated by oxidative stress. To elucidate the functional role of TGase2 activation in cells under the oxidatively stressed condition, we identified the mediator that activates TGase2. In this study, we showed that low levels of oxidative stress trigger the release of TGFbeta, which subsequently activates TGase2 through the nuclear translocation of Smad3. Analysis of substrate proteins reveals that TGase2-mediated protein modification results in a decrease of protein solubility and a collapse of intermediate filament network, which leads to aggregation of proteins. We confirm these results using lens tissues from TGase2-deficient mice. Among several antioxidants tried, only N-acetylcysteine effectively inhibits TGFbeta-mediated activation of TGase2. These results indicate that TGFbeta mediates oxidative stress-induced protein aggregation through activation of TGase2 and suggest that the formation of protein aggregation may not be a passive process of self-assembly of oxidatively damaged proteins but may be an active cellular response to oxidative stress. Therefore, TGFbeta-TGase2 pathway may have implications for both the pathogenesis of age-related degenerative diseases and the development of pharmaceutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Myung Shin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology/AARC, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 28 Yongon Dong, Chongno Gu, Seoul 110-799, Korea
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Deamidated gliadin peptides are efficient antigens in diagnostic tests for celiac disease, and results correlate better with transglutaminase 2-based assays than those with native gliadin. We investigated whether deamidated gliadin antigens are structurally similar to transglutaminase 2 or could mimic transglutaminase epitopes. PATIENTS AND METHODS Serum samples from 74 celiac and 65 control patients, and 13 different transglutaminase 2-specific monoclonal mouse antibodies were investigated for their binding to commercially available deamidated gliadin peptides using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, competition studies, and molecular modelling. RESULTS The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with deamidated gliadin peptides had 100% sensitivity and 98.5% specificity in patients. Deamidated gliadin epitopes also were recognized by 3 transglutaminase-specific monoclonal antibodies, and antibodies affinity-purified with deamidated gliadin peptides from celiac patient sera reacted with transglutaminase but did not show endomysial binding. The binding of the monoclonal antibodies to deamidated gliadin was inhibited dose dependently by full-length recombinant human transglutaminase, its fragments containing the binding sites of these monoclonal antibodies, or by celiac patient antibodies. Deamidated gliadin peptides decreased the binding of transglutaminase-specific monoclonal antibodies to transglutaminase. Three different cross-reacting transglutaminase epitopes were found, of which 2 are located in the C-terminal domain and 1 is conformational. The binding of celiac serum samples to deamidated gliadin peptides could not be abolished by transglutaminase or by any of the transglutaminase-specific monoclonals, indicating that celiac sera also contain additional antibodies to gliadin epitopes different from transglutaminase. CONCLUSIONS Certain deamidated gliadin-derived peptides and transglutaminase 2 epitopes have similar 3-dimensional appearance. This homology may contribute to the induction of transglutaminase autoantibodies by molecular mimicry.
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Shin DM, Kang J, Ha J, Kang HS, Park SC, Kim IG, Kim SJ. Cystamine prevents ischemia–reperfusion injury by inhibiting polyamination of RhoA. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 365:509-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2007] [Accepted: 11/03/2007] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Del Duca S, Betti L, Trebbi G, Serafini-Fracassini D, Torrigiani P. Transglutaminase activity changes during the hypersensitive reaction, a typical defense response of tobacco NN plants to TMV. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2007; 131:241-50. [PMID: 18251895 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2007.00950.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of glutamyl polyamines (PAs) and changes in activity and levels of transglutaminase (TGase, EC 2.3.2.13), the enzyme responsible for their synthesis, are reported during the progression of the hypersensitive reaction (HR) of resistant NN tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. Samsun) to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Mature leaves of tobacco were collected over 0-72 h after inoculation with TMV or phosphate buffer (mock). In vivo synthesis of polyamine glutamyl derivatives (glutamyl PAs), catalyzed by TGase activity, was evaluated after supplying labeled putrescine (Pu, a physiological substrate of TGase) to leaves. Results show that, starting from 24 h, mono-(gamma-glutamyl)-Pu and bis-(gamma-glutamyl)-Sd were recovered in TMV-inoculated samples but not in mock-inoculated ones; 2 days later, in the former, the amount of glutamyl derivatives further increased. An in vitro radiometric assay showed that, in TMV-inoculated leaves, TGase activity increased from 24 h onwards relative to mock controls. An immunoblot analysis with AtPng1p polyclonal antibody detected a 72-kDa protein whose amount increased at 72 h in TMV-inoculated leaves and in the lesion-enriched areas. A biotin-labeled cadaverine incorporation assay showed that TGase activity occurred in S1 (containing soluble proteins), S2 (proteins released by both cell walls and membranes) and S3 (membrane intrinsic proteins) fractions. In S3 fraction, where changes were the most relevant, TGase activity was enhanced in both mock-inoculated and TMV-inoculated samples, but the stimulation persisted only in the latter case. These data are discussed in the light of a possible role of TGase activity and glutamyl PAs in the defense against a viral plant pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Del Duca
- Dipartimento di Biologia evoluzionistica sperimentale, Università di Bologna, Via Irnerio 42, 40126 Bologna, Italy
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Wada F, Hasegawa H, Nakamura A, Sugimura Y, Kawai Y, Sasaki N, Shibata H, Maki M, Hitomi K. Identification of substrates for transglutaminase in Physarum polycephalum, an acellular slime mold, upon cellular mechanical damage. FEBS J 2007; 274:2766-77. [PMID: 17459100 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2007.05810.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminases are Ca(2+)-dependent enzymes that post-translationally modify proteins by crosslinking or polyamination at specific polypeptide-bound glutamine residues. Physarum polycephalum, an acellular slime mold, is the evolutionarily lowest organism expressing a transglutimase whose primary structure is similar to that of mammalian transglutimases. We observed transglutimase reaction products at injured sites in Physarum macroplasmodia upon mechanical damage. With use of a biotin-labeled primary amine, three major proteins constituting possible transglutimase substrates were affinity-purified from the damaged slime mold. The purified proteins were Physarum actin, a 40 kDa Ca(2+)-binding protein with four EF-hand motifs (CBP40), and a novel 33 kDa protein highly homologous to the eukaryotic adenine nucleotide translocator, which is expressed in mitochondria. Immunochemical analysis of extracts from the damaged macroplasmodia indicated that CBP40 is partly dimerized, whereas the other proteins migrated as monomers on SDS/PAGE. Of the three proteins, CBP40 accumulated most significantly around injured areas, as observed by immunofluoresence. These results suggested that transglutimase reactions function in the response to mechanical injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumitaka Wada
- Department of Applied Molecular Biosciences, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Chikusa, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
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Kang TH, Lee JH, Song CK, Han HD, Shin BC, Pai SI, Hung CF, Trimble C, Lim JS, Kim TW, Wu TC. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate enhances CD8+ T cell-mediated antitumor immunity induced by DNA vaccination. Cancer Res 2007; 67:802-11. [PMID: 17234792 PMCID: PMC3181129 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-06-2638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy and chemotherapy are generally effective against small tumors in animal models of cancer. However, these treatment regimens are generally ineffective against large, bulky tumors. We have found that a multimodality treatment regimen using DNA vaccination in combination with chemotherapeutic agent epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a compound found in green tea, is effective in inhibiting large tumor growth. EGCG was found to induce tumor cellular apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. The combination of EGCG and DNA vaccination led to an enhanced tumor-specific T-cell immune response and enhanced antitumor effects, resulting in a higher cure rate than either immunotherapy or EGCG alone. In addition, combined DNA vaccination and oral EGCG treatment provided long-term antitumor protection in cured mice. Cured animals rejected a challenge of E7-expressing tumors, such as TC-1 and B16E7, but not a challenge of B16 7 weeks after the combined treatment, showing antigen-specific immune responses. These results suggest that multimodality treatment strategies, such as combining immunotherapy with a tumor-killing cancer drug, may be a more effective anticancer strategy than single-modality treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Heung Kang
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Korea University, Gyeonggi-Do, South Korea
| | - Jin Hyup Lee
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Chung Kil Song
- Department of Advanced Materials, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Hee Dong Han
- Department of Advanced Materials, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Byung Cheol Shin
- Department of Advanced Materials, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Sara I. Pai
- Department of Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Chien-Fu Hung
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Cornelia Trimble
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Jong-Seok Lim
- Research Center for Women’s Diseases, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Tae Woo Kim
- Laboratory of Infection and Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, Korea University, Gyeonggi-Do, South Korea
- Research Center for Women’s Diseases, Sookmyung Women’s University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - T-C. Wu
- Department of Pathology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, Maryland
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Suh GY, Ham HS, Lee SH, Choi JC, Koh WJ, Kim SY, Lee J, Han J, Kim HP, Choi AMK, Kwon OJ. A Peptide with anti-transglutaminase activity decreases lipopolysaccharide-induced lung inflammation in mice. Exp Lung Res 2006; 32:43-53. [PMID: 16809220 DOI: 10.1080/01902140600691514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Octapeptide R2 (KVLDGQDP), which has anti-transglutaminas (TGase) activity, decreases inflammation in allergic conjunctivitis model in guinea pigs. The authors examined the effect of R2 on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung injury in BALB/c mice. R2 inhalation significantly decreased neutrophil count and cytokine mRNA expression in the lungs of LPS (25 mg/kg)-treated mice (P < .05). It also showed a tendency for decreased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-immunoreactive protein in lung homogenates and significantly decreased TNF-alpha-immunoreactive protein in the serum of LPS-injected mice (P < .05). These results indicate that TGase may be a new therapeutic target in LPS-induced lung inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gee Young Suh
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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40
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Shin DM, Jeon JH, Kim CW, Cho SY, Kwon JC, Lee HJ, Choi KH, Park SC, Kim IG. Cell type-specific activation of intracellular transglutaminase 2 by oxidative stress or ultraviolet irradiation: implications of transglutaminase 2 in age-related cataractogenesis. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:15032-9. [PMID: 14752105 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m308734200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Transglutaminase (TGase) 2 is a ubiquitously expressed enzyme that modifies proteins by cross-linking or polyamination. An aberrant activity of TGase 2 has implicated its possible roles in a variety of diseases including age-related cataracts. However, the molecular mechanism by which TGase 2 is activated has not been elucidated. In this report, we showed that oxidative stress or UV irradiation elevates in situ TGase 2 activity. Neither the expression level nor the in vitro activity of TGase 2 appeared to correlate with the observed elevation of in situ TGase 2 activity. Screening a number of cell lines revealed that the level of TGase 2 activation depends on the cell type and also the environmental stress, suggesting that unrecognized cellular factor(s) may specifically regulate in situ TGase 2 activity. Concomitantly, we observed that human lens epithelial cells (HLE-B3) exhibited about 3-fold increase in in situ TGase 2 activity in response to the stresses. The activated TGase 2 catalyzed the formation of water-insoluble dimers or polymers of alphaB-crystallin, betaB(2)-crystallin, and vimentin in HLE-B3 cells, providing evidence that TGase 2 may play a role in cataractogenesis. Thus, our findings indicate that in situ TGase 2 activity must be evaluated instead of in vitro activity to study the regulation mechanism and function of TGase 2 in biological and pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Myung Shin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Aging and Apoptosis Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110-799, Korea
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