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Knowledge, Beliefs and Attitudes towards the Influenza Vaccine among Future Healthcare Workers in Poland. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18042105. [PMID: 33671482 PMCID: PMC7926487 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18042105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The flu vaccine is the best treatment for avoiding the flu and its complications. The aim of the study was to evaluate the knowledge of the flu vaccine and attitude towards the influenza vaccine among medical students in four majors of study (Nursing, Midwifery, Pharmacy, and Public health) in all years of study. A total number of 1137 subjects took part in the study. Most of the vaccinated students assessed the flu vaccine positively (78.5%, 73.7%, 60.7%, and 65.1%, according to their respective majors) and reported that they did not get the flu during the period of vaccination (90.4%, 92.1%, 87.4%, and 97.7%, respectively). Therefore, 65% of the students of Pharmacy, 78% of Midwifery, and 83% of Nursing who were vaccinated once in the last three years recommended the influenza vaccination, and 100% of all students received a regular vaccination every year. The univariate and multivariate logistic regressions showed that a maximum of four factors had a significant impact on the students’ knowledge of the influenza vaccine. Knowledge about the flu vaccine was the highest among Pharmacy students and lowest among Public health students. Final-year students answered the questions better than the younger ones (p < 0.05). Their place of residence and flu vaccination status also appeared to influence their answers. Although all students demonstrated good knowledge of the flu vaccine and demonstrated positive attitudes towards the vaccine, their rate of immunization was low. Therefore, health promotion programs are needed to improve immunization coverage among medical students who are future healthcare workers.
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Nguyen DN, Le HT, Thai PK, Le XTT, Hoang MT, Vu LG, Do TTT, Do KN, Vu GV, Nguyen TH, Le TT, Tran TD, Truong DV, Do CD, Nguyen TH, Phung DT, Nghiem SH, Vu TTM, Tran BX, Latkin CA, Ho RCM, Ho CSH. Evaluating Training Need for Epidemic Control in Three Metropolitans: Implications for COVID-19 Preparedness in Vietnam. Front Public Health 2020; 8:589331. [PMID: 33224921 PMCID: PMC7674483 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.589331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Upon the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, countries worldwide face a critical shortage of human resources in the health sector. Medical students are a potential task force with the capability to support the stretched health sector. This study aims to evaluate their training need for epidemic control in order to employ them effectively. A cross-sectional study was conducted using a web-based survey from December 2019 to February 2020. There were 5,786 observations collected using the snowball sampling technique. Logistic regression was applied to identify factors associated with training participation in epidemic prevention and disaster prevention. Multiple Poisson regression model was constructed to examine factors associated with the number of times they participated in sanitation training and disaster prevention activities in the previous 12 months. Sanitation and health education communication activities had the highest proportion of participants, with 76.5 and 38.4%, followed by examining and treating diseases in the community (13.4%). Those who participated in community activities had a higher number of times to participate in epidemic sanitation training and be involved in disaster prevention. This study informed the need for training programs to prepare medical students for COVID-19 epidemic responses. The training curriculum should include both theoretical approaches and contextual approaches to achieve efficient epidemic control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diep Ngoc Nguyen
- Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam.,Faculty of Pharmacy, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam
| | - Huong Thi Le
- Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Phong Khanh Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Xuan Thi Thanh Le
- Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Men Thi Hoang
- Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam.,Faculty of Pharmacy, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam
| | - Linh Gia Vu
- Center of Excellence in Evidence-Based Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Toan Thi Thanh Do
- Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Khanh Nam Do
- Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Giap Van Vu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam.,Respiratory Center, Bach Mai Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Tu Huu Nguyen
- Vietnam Young Physicians' Association, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Thanh Tuan Le
- Vietnam National Heart Institute, Bach Mai Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Trung Dinh Tran
- Faculty of Public Health, Danang University of Medical Technology and Pharmacy, Da Nang, Vietnam
| | - Dat Van Truong
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Cuong Duy Do
- National Hospital of Tropical Diseases, Bach Mai Hospital, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Thu Ha Nguyen
- Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Dung Tri Phung
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Southport, QLD, Australia
| | - Son Hong Nghiem
- Centre for Applied Health Economics (CAHE), Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Thuc Thi Minh Vu
- Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Bach Xuan Tran
- Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Vietnam.,Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Carl A Latkin
- Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Roger C M Ho
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Institute for Health Innovation and Technology (iHealthtech), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Cyrus S H Ho
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
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Hogan V, Lenehan M, Hogan M, Natin DP. Influenza vaccine uptake and attitudes of healthcare workers in Ireland. Occup Med (Lond) 2020; 69:494-499. [PMID: 31686104 DOI: 10.1093/occmed/kqz124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza vaccination uptake by Irish healthcare workers remains sub-optimal despite local initiatives to increase it. AIMS To investigate hospital workers' attitudes to influenza vaccination and how this influenced their decisions about vaccination. METHODS A questionnaire survey of Irish hospital workers, measuring uptake of and attitudes to influenza vaccination. RESULTS There were 747 responders, of whom 361 (48%) reported having received influenza vaccination. Attitudes predicting vaccination uptake included a belief that vaccination would protect family members (P < 0.0005, CI 1.191-1.739), a perception of susceptibility to 'flu (P < 0.0005, CI 1.182-1.685), a belief that all healthcare workers should be vaccinated (P < 0.005, CI 1.153-1.783), perceived ease of getting 'flu vaccination at work (P < 0.0005, CI 1.851-2.842) and encouragement by line managers (P < 0.05, CI 1.018-1.400). Attitudes negatively associated with vaccination uptake included fear of needles (P < 0.05, CI 0.663-0.985) and a belief that vaccination would cause illness (P < 0.0005, CI 0.436-0.647). Medical staff were significantly more likely to be vaccinated. Healthcare students were least likely to be vaccinated (P < 0.0005). CONCLUSION Addressing specific barriers to influenza vaccination in healthcare workers may improve uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Hogan
- School of Health Sciences, NUI Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - M Lenehan
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Mater Misericordiae University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - M Hogan
- School of Psychology, NUI Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - D P Natin
- Mater Misericordiae University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
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Amin HS, Arafa MA, Al-Omair BM. Physicians' awareness and practice toward influenza and pneumococcal vaccines for high-risk patients. J Family Med Prim Care 2019; 8:2294-2299. [PMID: 31463245 PMCID: PMC6691468 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_343_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: The aim of the study is to assess the awareness of family medicine residents about influenza and pneumococcal vaccination for high-risk patients and to verify the most significant variables that might affect residents’ knowledge and the tools needed to enhance their practice. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted at four major hospitals in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, during the period, October through December 2017. A pretested self-administered questionnaire was handed to 180 family residents. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the study data. The Chi-square test was used to compare categorical variables data. The One-way ANOVA test was used to detect the significant difference. Results: The overall knowledge of physicians about influenza and pneumococcal vaccines was inadequate and was more toward pneumococcal vaccine, in spite their respectable knowledge about the target population. The main reasons for non- prescribing of vaccines were forgetfulness (59.4%), the availability of vaccines (33.9%), and the patients’ refusal (23.3%). The tools that might help for prescribing were the need for the presence of electronic reminder (69.4%) and the patients should follow a regular family physician (47.2%). Conclusion: Knowledge and practice of influenza and pneumococcal vaccination are inadequate. This is mainly because of forgetfulness owing to minimal guideline awareness, lack of vaccine availability, and patients’ refusal. The important recommendations to enhance vaccination practice among physicians are the implementation of electronic reminders, regular follow-up with the same physician in addition to educational programs during residency, and patient education about the importance of vaccinations as a means of disease prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hussein Saad Amin
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, College of Medicine, Chair for Medical Education Research and Development, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mostafa Ahmed Arafa
- Cancer Research Chair, Faculty of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bader Mohammed Al-Omair
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Sheldenkar A, Lim F, Yung CF, Lwin MO. Acceptance and uptake of influenza vaccines in Asia: A systematic review. Vaccine 2019; 37:4896-4905. [PMID: 31301918 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In Asia, the public health burden of influenza is significant despite the existence of efficacious influenza vaccines. Annual seasonal influenza vaccination can reduce the incidence of influenza significantly, yet influenza vaccination coverage remains low in this part of the world. As a densely populated region with varying climatic zones and a larger proportion of developing countries compared to the West, Asia is at increased risk of influenza. To provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the Asian region, the key objective of this systematic review is to examine the determinants of vaccination uptake in Asia, beyond that of existing studies that have largely been western-centric. We carried out a systematic review of peer-reviewed scientific research, examining the key determinants, acceptance and uptake of influenza vaccinations across Asia. A comprehensive search strategy was defined to capture studies that met the inclusion criteria of articles published in English, from 2008 to 2018, focusing on adult populations within Asia. A total of 83 relevant studies were appraised in this review. Analyses of the extant data confirmed that vaccination rates within Asia are low, and that most countries lack scientific research on vaccination behaviours. Studies were categorised into four different population groups: healthcare workers, high risk groups, general population and uniform groups. The motivators and deterrents for vaccine uptake varied according to population groups and characteristics. Both general populations and healthcare workers were concerned with vaccine safety and efficacy, and recommendations from health authorities were influential in vaccine uptake within the other populations. The findings suggest that further research is needed within a broader range of Asian countries to garner greater in-depth knowledge of vaccination behaviours in the region. In particular, influenza vaccination programs within Asia should focus on improving engagement more effectively, through greater relatability and transparency of data when educating the public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Sheldenkar
- Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore.
| | - Fann Lim
- Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore
| | - Chee Fu Yung
- KK Women's and Children's Hospital (KKH), Singapore; Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - May O Lwin
- Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore
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Wilson R, Scronias D, Zaytseva A, Ferry MA, Chamboredon P, Dubé E, Verger P. Seasonal influenza self-vaccination behaviours and attitudes among nurses in Southeastern France. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2019; 15:2423-2433. [PMID: 30829102 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2019.1587274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite seasonal influenza vaccination (SIV) being recommended to healthcare professionals to protect themselves and their patients, uptake is low, especially among nurses. We sought to study self-vaccination behaviours, attitudes and knowledge about SIV among nurses in Southeastern France. METHODS A cross-sectional survey with community and hospital-based hospital nurses was conducted with the same standardised questionnaire. Multi-model averaging approaches studied factors associated with the following dependent variables: self-reported SIV uptake; and considering SIV a professional responsibility. RESULTS 1539 nurses completed the questionnaire (response rate: 85%). SIV was the most frequently cited vaccine (49%) regarding nurses' unfavourable opinions towards specific vaccines. Thirty-four percent of nurses reported being vaccinated at least once during the 2015-2016 or 2016-2017 seasons. A lack of perceived personal vulnerability to influenza, a fear of adverse effects, and a preference for homeopathy constituted the main deterrents of SIV. Nurses held various misconceptions about the SIV, but 69% considered its benefits to be greater than its risks. The multi-model averaging approach showed that considering SIV as a professional responsibility was the main factor associated with SIV uptake among nurses (Nagelkerke's partial R-squared: 15%). This sense of responsibility was strongly associated with trust in various vaccine information sources. CONCLUSION Nurses had low SIV uptake rates and held various concerns and a lack of knowledge surrounding the vaccine. This is concerning considering the impact that these factors can have on nurses and patients' health, especially considering the increased role that nurses could have surrounding SIV in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose Wilson
- ORS PACA, Southeastern Health Regional Observatory , Marseille , France.,IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Aix Marseille Univ , Marseille , France
| | - Dimitri Scronias
- IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Aix Marseille Univ , Marseille , France
| | - Anna Zaytseva
- ORS PACA, Southeastern Health Regional Observatory , Marseille , France.,IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Aix Marseille Univ , Marseille , France
| | - Marie-Ange Ferry
- Conseil Inter-Régional de l'Ordre des Infirmiers (CIROI) PACA , Corse , France
| | - Patrick Chamboredon
- Conseil Inter-Régional de l'Ordre des Infirmiers (CIROI) PACA , Corse , France
| | - Eve Dubé
- Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Institut National de Santé publique du Québec , Québec , Canada
| | - Pierre Verger
- ORS PACA, Southeastern Health Regional Observatory , Marseille , France.,IRD, AP-HM, SSA, VITROME, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Aix Marseille Univ , Marseille , France
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Schmid P, Rauber D, Betsch C, Lidolt G, Denker ML. Barriers of Influenza Vaccination Intention and Behavior - A Systematic Review of Influenza Vaccine Hesitancy, 2005 - 2016. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170550. [PMID: 28125629 PMCID: PMC5268454 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 748] [Impact Index Per Article: 106.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza vaccine hesitancy is a significant threat to global efforts to reduce the burden of seasonal and pandemic influenza. Potential barriers of influenza vaccination need to be identified to inform interventions to raise awareness, influenza vaccine acceptance and uptake. OBJECTIVE This review aims to (1) identify relevant studies and extract individual barriers of seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccination for risk groups and the general public; and (2) map knowledge gaps in understanding influenza vaccine hesitancy to derive directions for further research and inform interventions in this area. METHODS Thirteen databases covering the areas of Medicine, Bioscience, Psychology, Sociology and Public Health were searched for peer-reviewed articles published between the years 2005 and 2016. Following the PRISMA approach, 470 articles were selected and analyzed for significant barriers to influenza vaccine uptake or intention. The barriers for different risk groups and flu types were clustered according to a conceptual framework based on the Theory of Planned Behavior and discussed using the 4C model of reasons for non-vaccination. RESULTS Most studies were conducted in the American and European region. Health care personnel (HCP) and the general public were the most studied populations, while parental decisions for children at high risk were under-represented. This study also identifies understudied concepts. A lack of confidence, inconvenience, calculation and complacency were identified to different extents as barriers to influenza vaccine uptake in risk groups. CONCLUSION Many different psychological, contextual, sociodemographic and physical barriers that are specific to certain risk groups were identified. While most sociodemographic and physical variables may be significantly related to influenza vaccine hesitancy, they cannot be used to explain its emergence or intensity. Psychological determinants were meaningfully related to uptake and should therefore be measured in a valid and comparable way. A compendium of measurements for future use is suggested as supporting information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Schmid
- Center for Empirical Research in Economics and Behavioral Sciences, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
- Department of Media and Communication Sciences, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Dorothee Rauber
- Center for Empirical Research in Economics and Behavioral Sciences, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
- Department of Media and Communication Sciences, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Cornelia Betsch
- Center for Empirical Research in Economics and Behavioral Sciences, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
- Department of Media and Communication Sciences, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Gianni Lidolt
- Department of Media and Communication Sciences, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Marie-Luisa Denker
- Department of Media and Communication Sciences, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
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Wang To K, Lee S, Lee SS. Intention of nurses to receiving influenza vaccination before the 2013-14 season. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2016; 11:1345-50. [PMID: 25975849 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2015.1034916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A study was conducted to determine the influenza vaccination uptake rate of nurses in Hong Kong after the pH1N1 epidemic, and examine their intention for vaccination before the next influenza season. Questionnaires in Chinese with multiple choice responses were delivered by post through 4 nurses organizations. The following were explored: intentions and reasons for vaccination in the forthcoming season; perceptions of influenza outbreak risk; attitudes toward professional obligation and vaccination policies. Cramer's V and Eta values were calculated to analyze association and effect size. Between March and May 2013, analysis was made on 1,934 (6.8%) valid questionnaires, with 620 (30.7%) having received influenza vaccination before the season of 2012-13. Some 30.7% and 42% intended to accept and decline vaccination respectively in the forthcoming season (2013-14) while 27.3% remained indecisive. Over 80% of indecisive nurses had refused vaccination in the last season. More nurses refusing (18.1%) or indecisive (9.8%) of vaccination perceived being "significantly unwell" after past vaccinations, compared to only 1% in those who intended to accept. Expert opinions and guidelines were important for making decision on vaccination in 40% of nurses. The ranking of professional responsibilities of vaccination in indecisive nurses was between those declining and accepting future vaccination. Overall, past vaccination experience, professional responsibilities and reference to guidelines were major factors affecting nurses' decision on future vaccination against influenza in Hong Kong. The results might however not be generalizable to all nurses as the analyses were restricted to those responding to the appeal from selected professional organisations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kin Wang To
- a Department of Medicine and Therapeutics; Prince of Wales Hospital; The Chinese University of Hong Kong ; Hong Kong , China
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Factors Affecting Medical Students' Uptake of the 2009 Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) Vaccine. INFLUENZA RESEARCH AND TREATMENT 2012; 2012:753164. [PMID: 23251794 PMCID: PMC3515892 DOI: 10.1155/2012/753164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Background. Pandemic influenza vaccination rate amongst healthcare workers in England 2009/2010 was suboptimal (40.3%). Targeting medical students before they enter the healthcare workforce is an attractive future option. This study assessed the H1N1 vaccine uptake rate amongst medical students and factors that influenced this. Methods. Anonymised, self-administered questionnaire at a medical school. Results. The uptake rate amongst 126 medical students offered the vaccine was 49.2% and intended uptake amongst 77 students was 63.6%. Amongst those offered the vaccine, the strongest barriers to acceptance were fear of side effects (67.9%), lack of vaccine information (50.9%), lack of perceived risk (45.3%), and inconvenience (35.8%). Having a chronic illness (OR 3.4 (95% CI 1.2-10.2)), 4th/5th year of study (OR 3.0 (95% CI 1.3-7.1)), and correct H1N1 knowledge (OR 2.6 (95% CI 1.1-6.0)) were positively associated with uptake. Non-white ethnicity was an independent negative predictor of uptake (OR 0.4 (95% CI 0.2-0.8)). Students who accepted the H1N1 vaccine were three times more likely (OR 3.1 (95% CI 1.2-7.7)) to accept future seasonal influenza vaccination. Conclusion. Efforts to increase uptake should focus on routine introduction of influenza vaccine and creating a culture of uptake during medical school years, evidence-based education on vaccination, and improving vaccine delivery.
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