Diversity of methicillin-resistant staphylococci among wild Lepus granatensis: first detection of mecA-MRSA in hares

Antimicrobial resistance in wild game mammals: a glimpse into the contamination of wild habitats in a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Wild game meat has over the years gained popularity across the globe as it is considered a food source with high protein content, low fat content, and a balanced composition of fatty acids and minerals, which are requirements for a healthy diet. Despite this popularity, there is a concern over its safety as many species of wildlife are reservoirs of zoonotic diseases including those of bacterial origin, more so antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

METHODS

This study aimed to describe the prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in mammalian wild game, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.

RESULTS

The overall pooled prevalence of antibiotic resistance was established at 59.8% while the prevalence of multidrug resistance (MDR) was 17.2%. Resistance was reported in 32 wild game species and the meta-analysis revealed the highest prevalence of antibiotic resistance in Yersinia spp. (95.5%; CI: 76.8 - 100%) followed by Enterococcus spp. (71%; CI: 44.1 - 92%), Salmonella spp. (69.9%; CI: 44.3 - 90.0%), Staphylococcus spp. (69.3%; CI: 40.3 - 92.3%), and Escherichia coli (39.5%; CI: 23.9 - 56.4%). Most notably, resistance to highest priority, critically important antimicrobials, was recorded in all genera of bacteria studied. Additionally, a significantly higher prevalence of antibiotic resistance was observed in studies conducted in remote settings than those in the vicinity of anthropogenic activities, pointing to extensive contamination of wild habitats.

CONCLUSION

This review shows the presence of antibiotic resistance and the carriage of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes by bacteria isolated from mammalian wild game species. This is a cause for concern if critical steps to prevent transmission to humans from meat and meat products are not applied in the wild game meat production chain. The extensive occurrence of antibiotic resistance in the wild calls for expansion and adaptation of future AMR surveillance plans to include areas with various anthropogenic pressures including in sylvatic habitats.

The Epidemiology of Animal-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) remains an important etiological factor of human and animal infectious diseases, causing significant economic losses not only in human healthcare but also in the large-scale farming sector. The constantly changing epidemiology of MRSA observed globally affects animal welfare and raises concerns for public health. High MRSA colonization rates in livestock raise questions about the meaning of reservoirs and possible transmission pathways, while the prevalence of MRSA colonization and infection rates among companion animals vary and might affect human health in multiple ways. We present the main findings concerning the circulation of animal-associated MRSA (AA-MRSA) in the environment and factors influencing the direction, mechanisms, and routes of its transmission. Studies have shown it that S. aureus is a multi-host bacterial pathogen; however, its adaptation mechanisms enabling it to colonize and infect both animal and human hosts are still rarely discussed. Finally, we elaborate on the most successful strategies and programs applied limiting the circulation of AA-MRSA among animals and humans. Although MRSA strains colonizing animals rarely infect humans, they undergo host-adaptive evolution enabling them to spread and persist in human populations.

Antimicrobial Resistance: Two-Component Regulatory Systems and Multidrug Efflux Pumps

The number of multidrug-resistant bacteria is rapidly spreading worldwide. Among the various mechanisms determining resistance to antimicrobial agents, multidrug efflux pumps play a noteworthy role because they export extraneous and noxious substrates from the inside to the outside environment of the bacterial cell contributing to multidrug resistance (MDR) and, consequently, to the failure of anti-infective therapies. The expression of multidrug efflux pumps can be under the control of transcriptional regulators and two-component systems (TCS). TCS are a major mechanism by which microorganisms sense and reply to external and/or intramembrane stimuli by coordinating the expression of genes involved not only in pathogenic pathways but also in antibiotic resistance. In this review, we describe the influence of TCS on multidrug efflux pump expression and activity in some Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Taking into account the strict correlation between TCS and multidrug efflux pumps, the development of drugs targeting TCS, alone or together with already discovered efflux pump inhibitors, may represent a beneficial strategy to contribute to the fight against growing antibiotic resistance.

Exploring the Biofilm Formation Capacity in S. pseudintermedius and Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci Species

The ability of biofilm formation seems to play an important role in the virulence of staphylococci. However, studies reporting biofilm formation of coagulase-negative staphylococci isolated from animals are still very scarce. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the biofilm-forming capacity of CoNS and S. pseudintermedius isolated from several animal species and to investigate the effect of conventional antimicrobials on biofilm reduction. A total of 35 S. pseudintermedius and 192 CoNS were included. Biofilm formation was accessed by the microtiter plate assay and the biofilms were stained by crystal violet. Association between biofilm formation and staphylococci species and antimicrobial resistance was also performed. Biofilm susceptibility testing was performed with tetracycline and amikacin at the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and 10 × MIC. The metabolic activity of the biofilm cells after antimicrobial treatment was accessed by the XTT assay. All isolates formed biofilm, with S. urealyticus producing the most biofilm biomass and S. pseudintermedius producing the least biomass. There was a positive association between biofilm formation and multidrug resistance as well as resistance to individual antimicrobials. Neither tetracycline nor amikacin were able to eradicate the biofilm, not even at the highest concentration used. This study provides new insights into biofilm formation and the effects of antimicrobials on CoNS species.

Biofilm Formation of Staphylococcus aureus from Pets, Livestock, and Wild Animals: Relationship with Clonal Lineages and Antimicrobial Resistance

This study aimed to compare the biofilm formation ability of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from a wide range of animals and study the association between biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance and genetic lineages. A total of 214 S. aureus strains isolated from pets, livestock, and wild animals were evaluated regarding their ability to form biofilms by the microtiter biofilm assay and their structure via confocal scanning laser microscopy. Statistical analysis was used to find an association between biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance, multidrug resistance, sequence types (STs), spa and agr-types of the isolates. The antimicrobial susceptibility of 24 h-old biofilms was assessed against minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and 10× MIC of amikacin and tetracycline, and the biomass reduction was measured. The metabolic activity of biofilms after antimicrobial treatment was evaluated by the XTT assay. All isolates were had the ability to form biofilms. Yet, significant differences in biofilm biomass production were detected among animal species. Multidrug resistance had a positive association with biofilm formation as well as methicillin-resistance. Significant differences were also detected among the clonal lineages of the isolates. Both tetracycline and amikacin were able to significantly reduce the biofilm mass. However, none of the antimicrobials were able to eradicate the biofilm at the maximum concentration used. Our results provide important information on the biofilm-forming capacity of animal-adapted S. aureus isolates, which may have potential implications for the development of new biofilm-targeted therapeutics.

Staphylococcus aureus and Methicillin-Resistant Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci in Nostrils and Buccal Mucosa of Healthy Camels Used for Recreational Purposes

Several different species of animals host staphylococci as normal microbiota. These animals can be a source of staphylococci zoonotic infections. People with routine or occupational exposure to infected/colonized animals are at risk of a potential transmission. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the presence of S. aureus and other staphylococci in camels used for recreational purposes as well as their antimicrobial resistance, virulence factors and genetic lineages. A total of 172 samples were collected from 86 healthy camels (nose and mouth) from different farms located in the Canary Islands, Spain. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed against 14 antimicrobial agents. The presence of virulence genes was studied by PCR. Multilocus sequence typing, spa typing and agr typing were performed in all S. aureus isolates. From the 86 camels tested, 42 staphylococci were isolated, of which there were 11 S. aureus, 13 S. lentus, 12 S. sciuri, 3 S. xylosus, S. epidermidis, S. hominis and S. chromogenes. Staphylococci isolates were resistant to penicillin, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin and fusidic acid. All S. aureus isolates harbored the hla, hlb and hld virulence genes. S. aureus isolates were ascribed to three sequence types (STs) and three spa types. All S. aureus isolates belonged to agr type III. Camels from Gran Canaria used in recreational purposes have a moderate prevalence of S. aureus and other coagulase-negative staphylococci. Nevertheless, S. aureus isolates are susceptible to almost all antibiotics tested.

Platanus hybrida’s Phenolic Profile, Antioxidant Power, and Antibacterial Activity against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) are a threat to public health as they frequently reveal a multidrug-resistant pattern. Researchers all over the world are on an urgent hunt for new treatments to help fight infections before antibiotics become obsolete, and some natural alternatives, such as polyphenols, have already exhibited therapeutic properties. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the phenolic profile, antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial activity against MRSA of the leaf, fruit, and stem bark extracts of Platanus hybrida. The polyphenols were extracted with a water/ethanol (20:80) mixture and the methodology included HPLC-DAD, DPPH, FRAP, and CuPRAC. To address this issue from a One Health perspective, the Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method was performed against nine MRSA strains from three different sources (livestock, wild animals, and humans). Fourteen phenolics were identified and the leaf extract showed the highest phenolic content, followed by the fruit extract. The leaf extract also showed the highest antioxidant capacity while the fruit extract had the lowest antioxidant capacity. Both leaf and fruit extracts inhibited the growth of strains from all sources, while the stem bark extract did not inhibit the growth of human strains. This work highlights the complex chemical composition and the antioxidative and antimicrobial potential of extracts derived from P. hydrida.

Multidrug-Resistant Methicillin-Resistant Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci in Healthy Poultry Slaughtered for Human Consumption

Coagulase-negative staphylococci are commensals that are known to be prevalent in most environments, and they are also an important reservoir of antimicrobial-resistant genes. Staphylococcal infections in animal husbandry are a high economic burden. Thus, we aimed to determine the prevalence and species diversity of methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci (MRCoNS) in poultry slaughtered for human consumption and to study the antimicrobial resistance of the isolates. Swab samples were recovered from 220 commercial chickens, homebred chickens and quails. Species identification was performed using MALDI-TOF. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by the disc diffusion method against 14 antimicrobials. The presence of antimicrobial-resistant genes was investigated by polymerase chain reaction. Totals of 11 (19.6%), 13 (20.3%), and 51 (51%) MRCoNS were isolated from commercial chickens, homebred chickens and quails, respectively. S. lentus was isolated from all homebred chickens, whereas 11 S. lentus and 2 S. urealyticus were isolated from commercial chickens. As for quails, the most prevalent MRCoNS were S. urealyticus. Almost all isolates had a multidrug-resistant profile and carried the mecA gene. Most isolates showed resistance to erythromycin, clindamycin, penicillin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin and fusidic acid and harbored the ermA, ermB, ermC, mphC tetK, tetL, tetM and tetO genes. This study showed a frequent occurrence of multidrug resistance in MRCoNS isolated from healthy poultry in Portugal.

Nocturnal Birds of Prey as Carriers of Staphylococcus aureus and Other Staphylococci: Diversity, Antimicrobial Resistance and Clonal Lineages

Owls are nocturnal predators that inhabit urbanized and farmlands. They are in direct contact with other animals, both livestock and small wild rodents that they mostly feed on. Staphylococci can be both commensal and pathogenic bacteria that are widespread across the various ecological niches. We aimed to isolate staphylococci from owls and to characterize their antimicrobial resistance, virulence factors and genetic lineages. Swab samples were collected from the throat and cloaca of 114 owls admitted to two rehabilitation centers in Portugal. The identification of staphylococci species was performed by MALDI-TOF. Staphylococci antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes were investigated by means of the disk diffusion method and PCR. Staphylococcus aureus isolates were characterized by MLST, agr and spa-typing. Of the tested animals, 66 isolates were recovered, including 10 different species of staphylococci, of which 25 were coagulase-positive (CoPS) and 41 were coagulase-negative (CoNS). Twenty-three S. aureus were isolated, of which one mecC-MRSA was identified. The isolates were mainly resistant to penicillin, aminoglycosides, clindamycin and tetracycline. mecC-MRSA belonged to ST1245 and spa-type t843 and the remaining S. aureus were ascribed to 12 STs and 15 spa types. A high diversity of clonal lineages was identified among the S. aureus isolated from wild owls. Owls feed mainly on small rodents often exposed to waste and anthropogenic sources, which may explain the moderate prevalence of S. aureus in these animals.

Molecular Diversity of Methicillin-Resistant and -Susceptible Staphylococcus aureus Detected in Animals: A Focus on Aquatic Animals

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) are one of the best-known opportunistic pathogens capable of causing different types of infections in animals. Furthermore, it has the ability to acquire resistance to various antibiotics very easily. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) are currently of great concern as they are the leading cause of infections in humans and animals, with a major impact on health and the economy. Several studies already demonstrate that the spread of MRSA is constantly increasing due to its ability to form reservoirs in humans, animals and the environment. In fact, several works have already identified the presence of these bacteria in animals, including domestic animals, farm animals and even wild animals. Furthermore, the incidence of various S. aureus strains in aquatic animals has also been reported by different authors, although it is still a rarely discussed topic. Some of these strains have previously been associated with humans and other animals. Strain 398 is the strain that manages to infect a wider spectrum of hosts, having been identified in several different species. Aside from this strain, many others have yet to be identified. In addition, many of these strains have virulence factors and antibiotic resistance genes that worsen the situation. The present work is a review of studies that intend to investigate the epidemiology of this agent in samples of aquatic animals from different origins, in order to better understand its distribution, prevalence and the molecular lineages associated with these species.

Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Lineages of Staphylococcus aureus from Wild Rodents: First Report of mecC-Positive Methicillin-Resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in Portugal

The frequent carriage of Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), by wild animals along with its zoonotic potential poses a public health problem. Furthermore, the repeated detection of the mecA gene homologue, mecC, in wildlife raises the question whether these animals may be a reservoir for mecC-MRSA. Thus, we aimed to isolate S. aureus and MRSA from wild rodents living in port areas and to characterize their antimicrobial resistance and genetic lineages. Mouth and rectal swab samples were recovered from 204 wild rodents. The samples were incubated in BHI broth with 6.5% of NaCl and after 24 h at 37 °C the inoculum was seeded onto Baird-Parker agar, Mannitol Salt agar and ORSAB (supplemented with 2 mg/L of oxacillin) plates. Species identification was confirmed by MALDI-TOF MS. The antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method against 14 antibiotics. The presence of virulence and resistance genes was performed by PCR. The immune evasion cluster (IEC) system was investigated in all S. aureus. All isolates were characterized by MLST, spa- and agr typing. From 204 samples, 38 S. aureus were isolated of which six MRSA were detected. Among the six MRSA isolates, three harbored the mecC gene and the other three, the mecA gene. All mecC-MRSA isolates were ascribed to sequence type (ST) 1945 (which belongs to CC130) and spa-type t1535 whereas the mecA isolates belonged to ST22 and ST36 and spa-types t747 and t018. Twenty-five S. aureus were susceptible to all antibiotics tested. S. aureus isolates were ascribed to 11 MLST and 12 spa-types. S. aureus presents a great diversity of genetic lineages in wild rodents. This is the first report of mecC-MRSA in Portugal.

Diversity and genetic lineages of environmental staphylococci: a surface water overview

Antimicrobial resistance in the environmental dimension is one of the greatest challenges and emerging threats. The presence of resistant bacteria and resistance genes in the environment, especially in aquatic systems, has been a matter of growing concern in the past decade. Monitoring the presence of antimicrobial resistance species, in this particular case, Staphylococcus spp., in natural water environments could lead to a better understanding of the epidemiology of staphylococci infections. Thus, the investigation of natural waters as a potential reservoir and vehicle for transmission of these bacteria is imperative. Only a few studies have investigated the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance and genetic lineages of staphylococci in natural waters. Those studies reported a high diversity of staphylococci species and lineages in surface waters. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus were relatively prevalent in surface waters and, as expected, often presented a multidrug-resistant profile. There was a high diversity of S. aureus lineages in surface waters. The presence of S. aureus CC8 and CC5 suggests a human origin. Among the coagulase-negative staphylococci, the most frequently found in natural waters was S. warneri and S. epidermidis. These studies are extremely important to estimate the contribution of the aquatic environment in the spread of pathogenic bacteria.

Multidrug-Resistant Proteus mirabilis isolates carrying blaOXA-1 and blaNDM-1 from wildlife in China: Increasing public health risk

The emergence of multidrug resistance (MDR) in Proteus mirabilis clinical isolates is a growing public health concern and has serious implications for wildlife. What is the role of wildlife has been become one of the hot issues in disseminating antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Here, fifty-four P.mirabilis isolates from 12 different species were identified. Among them, 25 isolates were determined to be MDR by profile of antimicrobial susceptibility, 10 MDR P.mirabilis isolates were subjected to comparative genomic analysis by whole genome sequencing (WGS). Comprehensive analysis showed that chromosome of P.mirabilis isolates mainly carries multidrug-resistance complex elements harboring resistance to carbapenems genes bla_OXA-1, bla_NDM-1 and bla_TEM-1. Class I integron is the insertion hotspot of IS26, it can be inserted into type I integron at different sites, thus forming a variety of multiple drug resistance decision sites. At the same time, Tn21, Tn7, SXT / R391 Mobile elements cause widespread spread of this drug resistance genes. In conclusion, P.mirabilis isolates from wildlife showed higher resistance to commonly used clinic drugs comparing to those from human. Therefore, wild animals carrying multidrug resistance (MDR) clinical isolates should be paid attention to by the public health. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Genetic Relatedness and Diversity of Staphylococcus aureus from Different Reservoirs: Humans and Animals of Livestock, Poultry, Zoo, and Aquaculture

The main aim of this study was the characterization of antibiotic resistance mechanisms in 82 Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated from humans and animals. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed on all S. aureus isolates accordingly, and antibiotic-resistant genes were investigated by genotypic methods. The genetic diversity of S. aureus was studied through spa, multilocus sequence typing (MLST), and agr typing methods. The majority of S. aureus from human sources were resistant to cefoxitin (and harbor the mecA gene) and fluoroquinolones, whereas only four strains of S. aureus from animal sources revealed resistance to ciprofloxacin. In the set of S. aureus isolated from humans, the most frequent spa, MLST, and agr group were t032, ST22, and I, respectively. In strains from animal origin the most common spa, MLST, and agr group found were t2383, ST398, and III/not typable, respectively. S. aureus from humans and animals were identified either in clonal complexes CC5, CC30, and CC398, suggesting that they have the same putative founder in their evolution. Considering the three CCs encompassing strains from human and animal reservoirs with different spa-types, we can hypothesize that this might reflect an adaptation to different phylogenetic lineages in those reservoirs (host species) probably associated to genetic diversification of pre-existing strains.

Livestock-Associated Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Purulent Subcutaneous Lesions of Farm Rabbits

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are one of the main pathogens associated with purulent infections. MRSA clonal complex 97 (CC97) has been identified in a wide diversity of livestock animals. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the antibiotic resistance profiles of MRSA strains isolated from purulent lesions of food-producing rabbits. Samples from purulent lesions of 66 rabbits were collected in a slaughterhouse in Portugal. Samples were seeded onto ORSAB plates with 2 mg/L of oxacillin for MRSA isolation. Susceptibility to antibiotics was tested by the disk diffusion method against 14 antimicrobial agents. The presence of resistance genes, virulence factors and the immune evasion cluster (IEC) system was studied by polymerase chain reaction. All isolates were characterized by multilocus sequence typing (MLST), agr and spa typing. From the 66 samples analyzed, 16 (24.2%) MRSA were detected. All strains were classified as multidrug-resistant as they were resistant to at least three classes of antibiotics. All isolates showed resistance to penicillin, erythromycin and clindamycin. Seven isolates were resistant to gentamicin and harbored the aac(6′)-Ie-aph (2″)-Ia gene. Resistance to tetracycline was detected in 10 isolates harboring the tet(K) gene. The IEC genes were detected in three isolates. MRSA strains belonged to CC97, CC1, CC5, CC15 or CC22. The isolates were assigned to six different spa types. In this study we found a moderate prevalence of multidrug-resistant MRSA strains in food-producing rabbits. This may represent concern for food safety and public health, since cross-contamination may occur, leading to the spread of MRSA and, eventually, the possibility of ingestion of contaminated meat.

Molecular Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus Lineages in Wild Animals in Europe: A Review

Staphylococcus aureus is an opportunist pathogen that is responsible for numerous types of infections. S. aureus is known for its ability to easily acquire antibiotic resistance determinants. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a leading cause of infections both in humans and animals and is usually associated with a multidrug-resistant profile. MRSA dissemination is increasing due to its capability of establishing new reservoirs and has been found in humans, animals and the environment. Despite the fact that the information on the incidence of MRSA in the environment and, in particular, in wild animals, is scarce, some studies have reported the presence of these strains among wildlife with no direct contact with antibiotics. This shows a possible transmission between species and, consequently, a public health concern. The aim of this review is to better understand the distribution, prevalence and molecular lineages of MRSA in European free-living animals.

Prevalence and characterisation of methicillin-resistant staphylococci from bovine bulk tank milk in England and Wales

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the prevalence and characteristics of methicillin-resistant staphylococci on dairy farms in England and Wales including zoonotic MRSA.

METHODS

Bulk tank milk was sampled from 363 dairy farms in 2015-2016 and methicillin-resistant staphylococci were isolated by salt broth enrichment and plating on MRSA Brilliance selective agar. Isolates were characterised through antimicrobial susceptibility testing and whole-genome sequencing.

RESULTS

Methicillin-resistant staphylococci were isolated from ∼5% of dairy farms and belonged to six different species, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus lentus, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus fleurettii and Staphylococcus sciuri. Whole-genome sequencing revealed a large variety of antimicrobial resistance genes and SCCmec elements were present, including mecA and mecC alleles. Potentially zoonotic methicillin-resistance S. aureus were found at a low prevalence (0.83% of sampled dairy farms). Whole-genome sequencing also provided evidence for the mobility of a primordial mec gene complex, independently of a SCCmec element, which appears to have been acquired by S. saprophyticus from S. fleurettii.

CONCLUSIONS

These data give new insight into the epidemiology of veterinary methicillin-resistant staphylococci to inform future surveillance and zoonotic risk evaluation. Our data indicate that MRSA has likely decreased in prevalence since earlier survey work in England and Wales during 2011-12 and highlights the diversity of methicillin resistance and other resistance determinants among bovine-associated staphylococci with implications for veterinary and human medicine.