A genetic analysis of suppressors of the PF10 mutation in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The MBO2/FAP58 heterodimer stabilizes assembly of inner arm dynein b and reveals axoneme asymmetries involved in ciliary waveform

Cilia generate three-dimensional waveforms required for cell motility and transport of fluid, mucus, and particles over the cell surface. This movement is driven by multiple dynein motors attached to nine outer doublet microtubules that form the axoneme. The outer and inner arm dyneins are organized into 96-nm repeats tandemly arrayed along the length of the doublets. Motility is regulated in part by projections from the two central pair microtubules that contact radial spokes located near the base of the inner dynein arms in each repeat. Although much is known about the structures and protein complexes within the axoneme, many questions remain about the regulatory mechanisms that allow the cilia to modify their waveforms in response to internal or external stimuli. Here, we used Chlamydomonas mbo (move backwards only) mutants with altered waveforms to identify at least two conserved proteins, MBO2/CCDC146 and FAP58/CCDC147, that form part of a L-shaped structure that varies between doublet microtubules. Comparative proteomics identified additional missing proteins that are altered in other motility mutants, revealing overlapping protein defects. Cryo-electron tomography and epitope tagging revealed that the L-shaped, MBO2/FAP58 structure interconnects inner dynein arms with multiple regulatory complexes, consistent with its function in modifying the ciliary waveform.

Mutation of CFAP57, a protein required for the asymmetric targeting of a subset of inner dynein arms in Chlamydomonas, causes primary ciliary dyskinesia

Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) is characterized by chronic airway disease, reduced fertility, and randomization of the left/right body axis. It is caused by defects of motile cilia and sperm flagella. We screened a cohort of affected individuals that lack an obvious axonemal defect for pathogenic variants using whole exome capture, next generation sequencing, and bioinformatic analysis assuming an autosomal recessive trait. We identified one subject with an apparently homozygous nonsense variant [(c.1762C>T), p.(Arg588*)] in the uncharacterized CFAP57 gene. Interestingly, the variant results in the skipping of exon 11 (58 amino acids), which may be due to disruption of an exonic splicing enhancer. In normal human nasal epithelial cells, CFAP57 localizes throughout the ciliary axoneme. Nasal cells from the PCD patient express a shorter, mutant version of CFAP57 and the protein is not incorporated into the axoneme. The missing 58 amino acids include portions of WD repeats that may be important for loading onto the intraflagellar transport (IFT) complexes for transport or docking onto the axoneme. A reduced beat frequency and an alteration in ciliary waveform was observed. Knockdown of CFAP57 in human tracheobronchial epithelial cells (hTECs) recapitulates these findings. Phylogenetic analysis showed that CFAP57 is highly conserved in organisms that assemble motile cilia. CFAP57 is allelic with the BOP2/IDA8/FAP57 gene identified previously in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Two independent, insertional fap57 Chlamydomonas mutant strains show reduced swimming velocity and altered waveforms. Tandem mass tag (TMT) mass spectroscopy shows that FAP57 is missing, and the "g" inner dyneins (DHC7 and DHC3) and the "d" inner dynein (DHC2) are reduced, but the FAP57 paralog FBB7 is increased. Together, our data identify a homozygous variant in CFAP57 that causes PCD that is likely due to a defect in the inner dynein arm assembly process.

Asymmetries in the cilia of Chlamydomonas

The generation of ciliary waveforms requires the spatial and temporal regulation of dyneins. This review catalogues many of the asymmetric structures and proteins in the cilia of Chlamydomonas, a unicellular alga with two cilia that are used for motility in liquid medium. These asymmetries, which have been identified through mutant analysis, cryo-EM tomography and proteomics, provide a wealth of information to use for modelling how waveforms are generated and propagated. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Unity and diversity of cilia in locomotion and transport'.

FAP57/WDR65 targets assembly of a subset of inner arm dyneins and connects to regulatory hubs in cilia

Ciliary motility depends on both the precise spatial organization of multiple dynein motors within the 96 nm axonemal repeat and the highly coordinated interactions between different dyneins and regulatory complexes located at the base of the radial spokes. Mutations in genes encoding cytoplasmic assembly factors, intraflagellar transport factors, docking proteins, dynein subunits, and associated regulatory proteins can all lead to defects in dynein assembly and ciliary motility. Significant progress has been made in the identification of dynein subunits and extrinsic factors required for preassembly of dynein complexes in the cytoplasm, but less is known about the docking factors that specify the unique binding sites for the different dynein isoforms on the surface of the doublet microtubules. We have used insertional mutagenesis to identify a new locus, IDA8/BOP2, required for targeting the assembly of a subset of inner dynein arms (IDAs) to a specific location in the 96 nm repeat. IDA8 encodes flagellar-associated polypeptide (FAP)57/WDR65, a highly conserved WD repeat, coiled coil domain protein. Using high resolution proteomic and structural approaches, we find that FAP57 forms a discrete complex. Cryo-electron tomography coupled with epitope tagging and gold labeling reveal that FAP57 forms an extended structure that interconnects multiple IDAs and regulatory complexes.

Flexural Rigidity and Shear Stiffness of Flagella Estimated from Induced Bends and Counterbends

Motile cilia and flagella are whiplike cellular organelles that bend actively to propel cells or move fluid in passages such as airways, brain ventricles, and the oviduct. Efficient motile function of cilia and flagella depends on coordinated interactions between active forces from an array of motor proteins and passive mechanical resistance from the complex cytoskeletal structure (the axoneme). However, details of this coordination, including axonemal mechanics, remain unclear. We investigated two major mechanical parameters, flexural rigidity and interdoublet shear stiffness, of the flagellar axoneme in the unicellular alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Combining experiment, theory, and finite element models, we demonstrate that the apparent flexural rigidity of the axoneme depends on both the intrinsic flexural rigidity (EI) and the elastic resistance to interdoublet sliding (shear stiffness, ks). We estimated the average intrinsic flexural rigidity and interdoublet shear stiffness of wild-type Chlamydomonas flagella in vivo, rendered immotile by vanadate, to be EI = 840 ± 280 pN⋅μm(2) and ks = 79.6 ± 10.5 pN/rad, respectively. The corresponding values for the pf3; cnk11-6 double mutant, which lacks the nexin-dynein regulatory complex (N-DRC), were EI = 1011 ± 183 pN·μm(2) and ks = 39.3 ± 6.0 pN/rad under the same conditions. Finally, in the pf13A mutant, which lacks outer dynein arms and inner dynein arm c, the estimates were EI = 777 ± 184 pN·μm(2) and ks = 43.3 ± 7.7 pN/rad. In the two mutant strains, the flexural rigidity is not significantly different from wild-type (p > 0.05), but the lack of N-DRC (in pf3; cnk11-6) or dynein arms (in pf13A) significantly reduces interdoublet shear stiffness. These differences may represent the contributions of the N-DRCs (∼40 pN/rad) and residual dynein interactions (∼35 pN/rad) to interdoublet sliding resistance in these immobilized Chlamydomonas flagella.

Conserved structural motifs in the central pair complex of eukaryotic flagella

Cilia and flagella are conserved hair-like appendages of eukaryotic cells that function as sensing and motility generating organelles. Motility is driven by thousands of axonemal dyneins that require precise regulation. One essential motility regulator is the central pair complex (CPC) and many CPC defects cause paralysis of cilia/flagella. Several human diseases, such as immotile cilia syndrome, show CPC abnormalities, but little is known about the detailed three-dimensional (3D) structure and function of the CPC. The CPC is located in the center of typical [9+2] cilia/flagella and is composed of two singlet microtubules (MTs), each with a set of associated projections that extend toward the surrounding nine doublet MTs. Using cryo-electron tomography coupled with subtomogram averaging, we visualized and compared the 3D structures of the CPC in both the green alga Chlamydomonas and the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus at the highest resolution published to date. Despite the evolutionary distance between these species, their CPCs exhibit remarkable structural conservation. We identified several new projections, including those that form the elusive sheath, and show that the bridge has a more complex architecture than previously thought. Organism-specific differences include the presence of MT inner proteins in Chlamydomonas, but not Strongylocentrotus, and different overall outlines of the highly connected projection network, which forms a round-shaped cylinder in algae, but is more oval in sea urchin. These differences could be adaptations to the mechanical requirements of the rotating CPC in Chlamydomonas, compared to the Strongylocentrotus CPC which has a fixed orientation.

Cryoelectron tomography reveals doublet-specific structures and unique interactions in the I1 dynein

Cilia and flagella are highly conserved motile and sensory organelles in eukaryotes, and defects in ciliary assembly and motility cause many ciliopathies. The two-headed I1 inner arm dynein is a critical regulator of ciliary and flagellar beating. To understand I1 architecture and function better, we analyzed the 3D structure and composition of the I1 dynein in Chlamydomonas axonemes by cryoelectron tomography and subtomogram averaging. Our data revealed several connections from the I1 dynein to neighboring structures that are likely to be important for assembly and/or regulation, including a tether linking one I1 motor domain to the doublet microtubule and doublet-specific differences potentially contributing to the asymmetrical distribution of dynein activity required for ciliary beating. We also imaged three I1 mutants and analyzed their polypeptide composition using 2D gel-based proteomics. Structural and biochemical comparisons revealed the likely location of the regulatory IC138 phosphoprotein and its associated subcomplex. Overall, our studies demonstrate that I1 dynein is connected to multiple structures within the axoneme, and therefore ideally positioned to integrate signals that regulate ciliary motility.

High prevalence of respiratory ciliary dysfunction in congenital heart disease patients with heterotaxy

BACKGROUND

Patients with congenital heart disease (CHD) and heterotaxy show high postsurgical morbidity/mortality, with some developing respiratory complications. Although this finding is often attributed to the CHD, airway clearance and left-right patterning both require motile cilia function. Thus, airway ciliary dysfunction (CD) similar to that of primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD) may contribute to increased respiratory complications in heterotaxy patients.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We assessed 43 CHD patients with heterotaxy for airway CD. Videomicrocopy was used to examine ciliary motion in nasal tissue, and nasal nitric oxide (nNO) was measured; nNO level is typically low with PCD. Eighteen patients exhibited CD characterized by abnormal ciliary motion and nNO levels below or near the PCD cutoff values. Patients with CD aged >6 years show increased respiratory symptoms similar to those seen in PCD. Sequencing of all 14 known PCD genes in 13 heterotaxy patients with CD, 12 without CD, 10 PCD disease controls, and 13 healthy controls yielded 0.769, 0.417, 1.0, and 0.077 novel variants per patient, respectively. One heterotaxy patient with CD had the PCD causing DNAI1 founder mutation. Another with hyperkinetic ciliary beat had 2 mutations in DNAH11, the only PCD gene known to cause hyperkinetic beat. Among PCD patients, 2 had known PCD causing CCDC39 and CCDC40 mutations.

CONCLUSIONS

Our studies show that CHD patients with heterotaxy have substantial risk for CD and increased respiratory disease. Heterotaxy patients with CD were enriched for mutations in PCD genes. Future studies are needed to assess the potential benefit of prescreening and prophylactically treating heterotaxy patients for CD.

Propulsive forces on the flagellum during locomotion of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The distributed propulsive forces exerted on the flagellum of the swimming alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by surrounding fluid were estimated from experimental image data. Images of uniflagellate mutant Chlamydomonas cells were obtained at 350 frames/s with 125-nm spatial resolution, and the motion of the cell body and the flagellum were analyzed in the context of low-Reynolds-number fluid mechanics. Wild-type uniflagellate cells, as well as uniflagellate cells lacking inner dynein arms (ida3) or outer dynein arms (oda2) were studied. Ida3 cells exhibit stunted flagellar waveforms, whereas oda2 cells beat with lower frequency. Image registration and sorting algorithms provided high-resolution estimates of the motion of the cell body, as well as detailed kinematics of the flagellum. The swimming cell was modeled as an ellipsoid in Stokes flow, propelled by viscous forces on the flagellum. The normal and tangential components of force on the flagellum (f(N) and f(T)) were related by resistive coefficients (C(N) and C(T)) to the corresponding components of velocity (V(N) and V(T)).The values of these coefficients were estimated by satisfying equilibrium requirements for force and torque on the cell. The estimated values of the resistive coefficients are consistent among all three genotypes and similar to theoretical predictions.

bop5 Mutations reveal new roles for the IC138 phosphoprotein in the regulation of flagellar motility and asymmetric waveforms

Mutations in the IC138 regulatory subunit of I1 dynein alter dynein motor activity and the flagellar waveform but do not affect phototaxis.

I1 dynein, or dynein f, is a highly conserved inner arm isoform that plays a key role in the regulation of flagellar motility. To understand how the IC138 IC/LC subcomplex modulates I1 activity, we characterized the molecular lesions and motility phenotypes of several bop5 alleles. bop5-3, bop5-4, and bop5-5 are null alleles, whereas bop5-6 is an intron mutation that reduces IC138 expression. I1 dynein assembles into the axoneme, but the IC138 IC/LC subcomplex is missing. bop5 strains, like other I1 mutants, swim forward with reduced swimming velocities and display an impaired reversal response during photoshock. Unlike mutants lacking the entire I1 dynein, however, bop5 strains exhibit normal phototaxis. bop5 defects are rescued by transformation with the wild-type IC138 gene. Analysis of flagellar waveforms reveals that loss of the IC138 subcomplex reduces shear amplitude, sliding velocities, and the speed of bend propagation in vivo, consistent with the reduction in microtubule sliding velocities observed in vitro. The results indicate that the IC138 IC/LC subcomplex is necessary to generate an efficient waveform for optimal motility, but it is not essential for phototaxis. These findings have significant implications for the mechanisms by which IC/LC complexes regulate dynein motor activity independent of effects on cargo binding or complex stability.

Distinct roles of 1alpha and 1beta heavy chains of the inner arm dynein I1 of Chlamydomonas flagella

We took advantage of Chlmaydomonas flagellar mutant strains lacking either the 1α or 1β motor domain in I1 dynein to distinguish the functional role of each. The 1β motor domain is an effective motor required for control of microtubule sliding, whereas the 1α motor domain may restrain microtubule sliding driven by other dyneins.

The Chlamydomonas I1 dynein is a two-headed inner dynein arm important for the regulation of flagellar bending. Here we took advantage of mutant strains lacking either the 1α or 1β motor domain to distinguish the functional role of each motor domain. Single- particle electronic microscopic analysis confirmed that both the I1α and I1β complexes are single headed with similar ringlike, motor domain structures. Despite similarity in structure, however, the I1β complex has severalfold higher ATPase activity and microtubule gliding motility compared to the I1α complex. Moreover, in vivo measurement of microtubule sliding in axonemes revealed that the loss of the 1β motor results in a more severe impairment in motility and failure in regulation of microtubule sliding by the I1 dynein phosphoregulatory mechanism. The data indicate that each I1 motor domain is distinct in function: The I1β motor domain is an effective motor required for wild-type microtubule sliding, whereas the I1α motor domain may be responsible for local restraint of microtubule sliding.

Efficient spatiotemporal analysis of the flagellar waveform of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

The 9 + 2 axoneme is a microtubule-based machine that powers the oscillatory beating of cilia and flagella. Its highly regulated movement is essential for the normal function of many organs; ciliopathies cause congenital defects, chronic respiratory tract infections and infertility. We present an efficient method to obtain a quantitative description of flagellar motion, with high spatial and temporal resolution, from high speed video recording of bright field images. This highly automated technique provides the shape, shear angle, curvature, and bend propagation speeds along the length of the flagellum, with approximately 200 temporal samples per beat. We compared the waveforms of uniflagellated wild-type and ida3 mutant cells, which lack the I1 inner dynein complex. Video images were captured at 350 fps. Rigid-body motion was eliminated by fast Fourier transform (FFT)-based registration, and the Cartesian (x-y) coordinates of points on the flagellum were identified. These x-y "point clouds" were embedded in two data dimensions using Isomap, a nonlinear dimension reduction method, and sorted by phase in the flagellar cycle. A smooth surface was fitted to the sorted point clouds, which provides high-resolution estimates of shear angle and curvature. Wild-type and ida3 cells exhibit large differences in shear amplitude, but similar maximum and minimum curvature values. In ida3 cells, the reverse bend begins earlier and travels more slowly relative to the principal bend, than in wild-type cells. The regulation of flagellar movement must involve I1 dynein in a manner consistent with these results.

A novel ankyrin-repeat protein interacts with the regulatory proteins of inner arm dynein f (I1) of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

How ciliary and flagellar motility is regulated is a challenging problem. The flagellar movement in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is in part regulated by phosphorylation of a 138 kD intermediate chain (IC138) of inner arm dynein f (also called I1). In the present study, we found that the axoneme of mutants lacking dynein f lacks a novel protein having ankyrin repeat motifs, registered as FAP120 in the flagellar proteome database. FAP120 is also missing or decreased in the axonemes of bop5, a mutant that has a mutation in the structural gene of IC138 but assembles the dynein f complex. Intriguingly, the amounts of FAP120 in the axonemes of different alleles of bop5 and several dynein f-lacking mutants roughly parallel their contents of IC138. These results suggest a weak but stoichiometric interaction between FAP120 and IC138. We propose that FAP120 functions in the regulatoryprocess as part of a protein complex involving IC138. Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 2008. (c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

IC138 defines a subdomain at the base of the I1 dynein that regulates microtubule sliding and flagellar motility

To understand the mechanisms that regulate the assembly and activity of flagellar dyneins, we focused on the I1 inner arm dynein (dynein f) and a null allele, bop5-2, defective in the gene encoding the IC138 phosphoprotein subunit. I1 dynein assembles in bop5-2 axonemes but lacks at least four subunits: IC138, IC97, LC7b, and flagellar-associated protein (FAP) 120--defining a new I1 subcomplex. Electron microscopy and image averaging revealed a defect at the base of the I1 dynein, in between radial spoke 1 and the outer dynein arms. Microtubule sliding velocities also are reduced. Transformation with wild-type IC138 restores assembly of the IC138 subcomplex and rescues microtubule sliding. These observations suggest that the IC138 subcomplex is required to coordinate I1 motor activity. To further test this hypothesis, we analyzed microtubule sliding in radial spoke and double mutant strains. The results reveal an essential role for the IC138 subcomplex in the regulation of I1 activity by the radial spoke/phosphorylation pathway.

IC97 is a novel intermediate chain of I1 dynein that interacts with tubulin and regulates interdoublet sliding

Our goal is to understand the assembly and regulation of flagellar dyneins, particularly the Chlamydomonas inner arm dynein called I1 dynein. Here, we focus on the uncharacterized I1-dynein IC IC97. The IC97 gene encodes a novel IC without notable structural domains. IC97 shares homology with the murine lung adenoma susceptibility 1 (Las1) protein--a candidate tumor suppressor gene implicated in lung tumorigenesis. Multiple, independent biochemical assays determined that IC97 interacts with both alpha- and beta-tubulin subunits within the axoneme. I1-dynein assembly mutants suggest that IC97 interacts with both the IC138 and IC140 subunits within the I1-dynein motor complex and that IC97 is part of a regulatory complex that contains IC138. Microtubule sliding assays, using axonemes containing I1 dynein but devoid of IC97, show reduced microtubule sliding velocities that are not rescued by kinase inhibitors, revealing a critical role for IC97 in I1-dynein function and control of dynein-driven motility.

Quantitative high-throughput assays for flagella-based motility in chlamydomonas using plate-well image analysis and transmission correlation spectroscopy

Cilia are motile and sensory organelles with important roles in human development, physiology, and disease. Genetic defects in cilia produce a host of disease symptoms, including polycystic kidney disease, hydrocephalus, retinal degeneration, chronic bronchiectasis, infertility, and polydactyly. Currently, there are no known drugs for pharmacological remediation of ciliary defects. Small-molecule modulators of ciliary assembly or function would provide potential lead compounds for drug discovery efforts and would immediately be invaluable tools for a chemical biology approach to studying cilia. Here the author describes 2 assays for ciliary motility that are quantitative, automatable, cost-effective, and simple to implement. Both assays exploit cell-based strategies using the model organism Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The first assay scores cilia-dependent gravitaxis by analyzing the cell distribution in wells of U-bottom microplates, using a simple and robust image analysis algorithm. The second assay measures motility directly by estimating the time required for cells to swim across a small illuminated aperture using a method equivalent to fluorescence correlation spectroscopy adapted to transmitted-light microscopy. The 2 assays have different advantages in terms of speed and sensitivity to small reductions in motility and may be most efficiently used in combination.

Genetic and phenotypic analysis of flagellar assembly mutants in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Conditional mutants for flagellar assembly (fla) provide a useful tool to study intraflagellar transport (IFT) at the molecular level, and provide a unique set of tools to analyze cilia. The analysis of IFT phenotypes of fla mutants at the permissive temperature by a quantitative image analysis approach identified four distinct phases of the IFT cycle and directly demonstrated structural and functional remodeling of IFT particles at both axonemal extremities. In addition, the genetic analysis of fla mutants reveal interesting interactions among genes involved in flagellar assembly that help to provide information about the structure and function of IFT particles and their motors. This chapter provides protocols to isolate, characterize, and identify conditional Chlamydomonas flagellar assembly mutants and their genes and to test genetic interactions among proteins encoded by these genes.

IC138 is a WD-repeat dynein intermediate chain required for light chain assembly and regulation of flagellar bending

Increased phosphorylation of dynein IC IC138 correlates with decreases in flagellar microtubule sliding and phototaxis defects. To test the hypothesis that regulation of IC138 phosphorylation controls flagellar bending, we cloned the IC138 gene. IC138 encodes a novel protein with a calculated mass of 111 kDa and is predicted to form seven WD-repeats at the C terminus. IC138 maps near the BOP5 locus, and bop5-1 contains a point mutation resulting in a truncated IC138 lacking the C terminus, including the seventh WD-repeat. bop5-1 cells display wild-type flagellar beat frequency but swim slower than wild-type cells, suggesting that bop5-1 is altered in its ability to control flagellar waveform. Swimming speed is rescued in bop5-1 transformants containing the wild-type IC138, confirming that BOP5 encodes IC138. With the exception of the roadblock-related light chain, LC7b, all the other known components of the I1 complex, including the truncated IC138, are assembled in bop5-1 axonemes. Thus, the bop5-1 motility phenotype reveals a role for IC138 and LC7b in the control of flagellar bending. IC138 is hyperphosphorylated in paralyzed flagellar mutants lacking radial spoke and central pair components, further indicating a role for the radial spokes and central pair apparatus in control of IC138 phosphorylation and regulation of flagellar waveform.

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: biological rationale for genomics

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has been the subject of genetic, biochemical, cytological, and molecular analyses for over 50 years. It is an ideal model system for the study of flagella and basal bodies as well as the study of photosynthesis and chloroplast biogenesis, cell-cell recognition and fusion, phototaxis, and secretion. It is clear that many of the genes identified in Chlamydomonas have homologs in land plants as well as animals. Thus, a genomic approach in Chlamydomonas will provide another important avenue for the understanding of important biological processes.

Reactivation at low ATP distinguishes among classes of paralyzed flagella mutants

Paralyzed flagella (pf) mutants of Chlamydomonas have been distinguished by the inability of the intact cells to move. Demembranated flagella from these mutants are also immotile when reactivated under standard conditions, with millimolar ATP concentrations. Three of these pf mutants were previously found to be motile when reactivated under 3 alternate reactivation conditions: low ATP concentration (< or =50 microM); 0.1 mM ATP combined with >0.5 mM ADP; or 0.1 mM ATP combined with non-reactivating ATP analogs anthraniloyl ATP or methylanthraniloyl ATP. We have now surveyed all pf mutants in the Chlamydomonas Culture Collection and discovered that a great majority of these mutants can move under these alternate nucleotide conditions. Only pf22 and pf23, mutants missing multiple subsets of dynein arms, did not reactivate under those conditions. This suggests that the paralysis observed in most pf mutants is the result of inhibition by physiological ATP. Except for pf12, which has an abnormally symmetric bending pattern, all other pf mutants exhibit asymmetric bending patterns similar to wild-type. Previously, motility that was restored by the presence of suppressor mutations was found to lack the normal asymmetry of wild-type flagella or the suppressor by itself. The waveform of pf mutants at alternate reactivation conditions in the absence of suppressor shows that pf mutants with radial-spoke or central-pair defects are capable of asymmetric bending similar to wild-type. A complete radial-spoke/central-pair complex is not essential for the production of asymmetric bending patterns. Furthermore, this suggests that the symmetric waveform observed previously in suppressed pf mutants is due to the interaction between the pf and suppressor mutations.

Phosphoregulation of an inner dynein arm complex in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is altered in phototactic mutant strains

To gain a further understanding of axonemal dynein regulation, mutant strains of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii that had defects in both phototactic behavior and flagellar motility were identified and characterized. ptm1, ptm2, and ptm3 mutant strains exhibited motility phenotypes that resembled those of known inner dynein arm region mutant strains, but did not have biochemical or genetic phenotypes characteristic of other inner dynein arm mutations. Three other mutant strains had defects in the f class of inner dynein arms. Dynein extracts from the pf9-4 strain were missing the entire f complex. Strains with mutations in pf9/ida1, ida2, or ida3 failed to assemble the f dynein complex and did not exhibit phototactic behavior. Fractionated dynein from mia1-1 and mia2-1 axonemes exhibited a novel f class inner dynein arm biochemical phenotype; the 138-kD f intermediate chain was present in altered phosphorylation forms. In vitro axonemal dynein activity was reduced by the mia1-1 and mia2-1 mutations. The addition of kinase inhibitor restored axonemal dynein activity concomitant with the dephosphorylation of the 138-kD f intermediate chain. Dynein extracts from uni1-1 axonemes, which specifically assemble only one of the two flagella, contained relatively high levels of the altered phosphorylation forms of the 138-kD intermediate chain. We suggest that the f dynein complex may be phosphoregulated asymmetrically between the two flagella to achieve phototactic turning.

Mutations in some Polycomb group genes of Drosophila interfere with regulation of segmentation genes

Mutations in several Polycomb (Pc) group genes cause maternal-effect or zygotic segmentation defects, suggesting that Pc group genes may regulate the segmentation genes of Drosophila. We show that individuals doubly heterozygous for mutations in polyhomeotic and six other Pc group genes show gap, pair rule, and segment polarity segmentation defects. We examined double heterozygous combinations of Pc group and segmentation mutations for enhancement of adult and embryonic segmentation defects. Posterior sex combs and polyhomeotic interact with Krüppel and enhance embryonic phenotypes of hunchback and knirps, and polyhomeotic enhances even-skipped. Surprisingly, flies carrying duplications of extra sex combs (esc), that were heterozygous for mutations of even-skipped (eve), were extremely subvital. Embryos and surviving adults of this genotype showed strong segmentation defects in even-numbered segments. Antibody studies confirm that expression of eve is suppressed by duplications of esc. However, esc duplications have no effect on other gap or pair rule genes tested. To our knowledge, this is only the second triplo-abnormal phenotype associated with Pc group genes. Duplications of nine other Pc group genes have no detectable effect on eve. Expression of engrailed (en) was abnormal in the central nervous systems of most Pc group mutants. These results support a role for Pc genes in regulation of some segmentation genes, and suggest that esc may act differently from other Pc group genes.

The bop2-1 mutation reveals radial asymmetry in the inner dynein arm region of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Strains of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with a mutant allele at the BOP2 locus swim slowly and have an abnormal flagellar waveform similar to previously identified strains with defects in the inner arm region. Double mutant strains with the bop2-1 allele and any of 17 different mutations that affect the dynein arm region swim more slowly than either parent, which suggests that the bop2-1 mutation does not affect solely the outer dynein arms, the I1 or ida4 inner dynein arms, or the dynein regulatory complex. Flagellar axonemes isolated from bop2-1 cells are missing a phosphorylated polypeptide of 152 kD. Electron microscopic analysis shows that bop2-1 axonemes are missing density in the inner dynein arm region. Surprisingly, two populations of images were observed in longitudinal sections of axonemes from the bop2-1 strain. In the 10 longitudinal axonemes examined, a portion of the dynein regulatory complex and a newly identified structure, the projection, are affected. In five of these 10 longitudinal axonemes examined, two lobes of the ida4 inner arm are also missing. By examining the cross-sectional images of wild-type and bop2-1 axonemes at each outer doublet position around the axoneme, we have determined that the bop2-1 mutation affects the assembly of inner arm region components in a doublet specific manner. Doublets 5, 6, and 8 have the most severe deficiency, doublet 9 has an intermediate phenotype, and doublets 2, 3, 4, and 7 have the least severe phenotype. The bop2-1 mutation provides the first evidence of radial asymmetry in the inner dynein arm region.

Suppressors of glp-1, a gene required for cell communication during development in Caenorhabditis elegans, define a set of interacting genes

The glp-1 gene is essential for two cell interactions that control cell fate in Caenorhabditis elegans: induction of anterior pharynx in the embryo and induction of mitotic proliferation in the germ line. To identify other genes involved in these cell interactions, we have isolated suppressors of two temperature sensitive alleles of glp-1. Each of 14 recessive suppressors rescues both embryonic and germline glp-1(ts) defects. These suppressors are extragenic and define a set of six genes designated sog, for suppressor of glp-1. Suppression of glp-1 is the only obvious phenotype associated with sog mutations. Mutations in different sog genes show allele-specific intergenic noncomplementation, suggesting that the sog gene products may interact. In addition, we have analyzed a semidominant mutation that suppresses only the glp-1 germline phenotype and has a conditional feminized phenotype of its own. None of the suppressors rescues a glp-1 null mutation and therefore they do not bypass a requirement for glp-1. Distal tip cell function remains necessary for germline proliferation in suppressed animals. These suppressor mutations identify genes that may encode other components of the glp-1 mediated cell-signaling pathway or regulate glp-1 expression.

Linkage group XIX of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has a linear map

Linkage group XIX (or the UNI linkage group) of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii has been reported to show a circular meiotic recombination map. A circular map predicts the existence of strong chiasma and chromatid interference, which would lead to an excess number of two-strand double crossovers during meiosis. We have tested this prediction in multipoint crosses. Our results are consistent with a linear linkage group that shows positive chiasma interference and no chromatid interference. Chiasma interference occurs both within arms and across the centromere. Of the original loci that contributed to the circular map, we find that two map to other linkage groups and a third cannot be retested because the mutant strain that defined it has been lost. A second reported unusual property for linkage group XIX was the increase in meiotic recombination with increases in temperature during a period that precedes the onset of meiosis. Although we observed changes in recombination frequencies in some intervals on linkage group XIX in crosses to CC-1952, and in strains heterozygous for the mutation ger1 at 16 degrees, we also show that our strains do not exhibit the previously observed patterns of temperature-sensitive recombination for two different pairs of loci on linkage group XIX. We conclude that linkage group XIX has a linear genetic map that is not significantly different from other Chlamydomonas linkage groups.

The Caenorhabditis elegans spe-6 gene is required for major sperm protein assembly and shows second site non-complementation with an unlinked deficiency

Caenorhabditis elegans spermatozoa move by crawling. Their motility requires thin cytoskeletal filaments assembled from a unique cytoskeletal protein, the major sperm protein (MSP). During normal sperm development the MSP is segregated to developing sperm by assembly into filaments that form a paracrystalline array in a transient organelle, the fibrous body-membranous organelle. Mutations in the spe-6 gene cause sterility because they lead to defective primary spermatocytes that do not form spermatids. In these mutant spermatocytes the MSP fails to assemble into fibrous body filaments. Instead, the unassembled MSP distributes throughout the cytoplasm and nucleus. Thus, the spe-6 gene product is necessary for normal MSP localization and assembly during sperm development. In addition to their MSP assembly defect, spe-6 mutant spermatocytes arrest meiosis at diakinesis although their spindle pole bodies still replicate and separate. This results in spermatocytes with four half-spindles surrounding condensed, but unsegregated, chromosomes. All four spe-6 alleles, as well as a chromosome III deficiency that deletes the spe-6 gene, fail to complement two small overlapping chromosome IV deficiencies, eDf18 and eDf19. This non-allele-specific second site non-complementation suggests a concentration-dependent interaction between the spe-6 gene product and products of the gene(s) under eDf18 and eDf19, which include a cluster of sperm-specific genes. Since MSP filament assembly is highly concentration-dependent in vitro, the non-complementation might be expected if the sperm-specific gene products under eDf18 and eDf19 were needed together with the spe-6 gene product to promote MSP assembly.

Flagella in prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes

During the past year, significant advances have been made in the understanding of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella. About 50 genes are dedicated to the assembly and operation of bacterial flagella. Recent discoveries have advanced our understanding of how these genes are regulated and how their products assemble into a functional, rotating organelle. The dynein arms of eukaryotic flagella are now also better understood. Several genes that are found in the mechanochemical macroassemblies have been cloned, and other loci have been identified, suggesting that there is even greater complexity than first expected.

Tryptophan analog resistance mutations in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Forty single gene mutations in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii were isolated based on resistance to the compound 5'-methyl anthranilic acid (5-MAA). In other organisms, 5-MAA is converted to 5'-methyltryptophan (5-MT) and 5-MT is a potent inhibitor of anthranilate synthase, which catalyzes the first committed step in tryptophan biosynthesis. The mutant strains fall into two phenotypic classes based on the rate of cell division in the absence of 5-MAA. Strains with class I mutations divide more slowly than wild-type cells. These 17 mutations map to seven loci, which are designated MAA1 to MAA7. Strains with class II mutations have generation times indistinguishable from wild-type cells, and 7 of these 23 mutations map to loci defined by class I mutations. The remainder of the class II mutations map to 9 other loci, which are designated MAA8-MAA16. The maa5-1 mutant strain excretes high levels of anthranilate and phenylalanine into the medium. In this strain, four enzymatic activities in the tryptophan biosynthetic pathway are increased at least twofold. These include the combined activities of anthranilate phosphoribosyl transferase, phosphoribosyl anthranilate isomerase, indoleglycerol phosphate synthetase and anthranilate synthase. The slow growth phenotypes of strains with class I mutations are not rescued by the addition of tryptophan, but the slow growth phenotype of the maa6-1 mutant strain is partially rescued by the addition of indole. The maa6-1 mutant strain excretes a fluorescent compound into the medium, and cell extracts have no combined anthranilate phosphoribosyl transferase, phosphoribosyl anthranilate isomerase and indoleglycerol phosphate synthetase activity. The MAA6 locus is likely to encode a tryptophan biosynthetic enzyme. None of the other class I mutations affected these enzyme activities. Based on the phenotypes of double mutant strains, epistatic relationships among the class I mutations have been determined.

Genetic interactions among Chlamydomonas reinhardtii mutations that confer resistance to anti-microtubule herbicides

We previously described two types of genetic interactions among recessive mutations in the APM1 and APM2 loci of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii that may reflect a physical association of the gene products or their involvement in a common structure/process: (1) allele-specific synthetic lethality, and (2) unlinked noncomplementation, or dominant enhancement. To further investigate these interactions, we isolated revertants in which the heat sensitivity caused by the apm2-1 mutation is lost. The heat-insensitive revertants were either fully or partially suppressed for the drug-resistance caused by the apm2-1 allele. In recombination tests the revertants behaved as if the suppressing mutation mapped within the APM2 locus; the partial suppressors of apm2-1 herbicide resistance failed to complement apm2-1, leading to the conclusion that they were likely to be intragenic pseudorevertants. The apm2-1 partial suppressor mutations reversed apm1-apm2-1 synthetic lethality in an allele-specific manner with respect both to apm1- alleles and apm2-1 suppressor mutations. Those apm1- apm2-1rev strains that regained viability also regained heat sensitivity characteristic of the original apm2-1 mutation, even though the apm2-1 suppressor strains were fully heat-insensitive. The Hs+ phenotypes of apm2-1 partial suppressors were also reversed by treatment with the microtubule-stabilizing agent deuterium oxide (D2O). In addition to the above interactions, we observed interallelic complementation and phenotypic enhancement of temperature conditionality among apm1- alleles. Evidence of a role for the products of the two genes in microtubule-based processes was obtained from studying flagellar assembly in apm1- and apm2- mutants.

Genetic interactions at the FLA10 locus: suppressors and synthetic phenotypes that affect the cell cycle and flagellar function in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Through the isolation of suppressors of temperature-sensitive flagellar assembly mutations at the FLA10 locus of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, we have identified six other genes involved in flagellar assembly. Mutations at these suppressor loci, termed SUF1-SUF6, display allele specificity with respect to which fla10- mutant alleles they suppress. An additional mutation, apm1-122, which confers resistance to the plant herbicides amiprophos-methyl and oryzalin, was also found to interact with mutations at the FLA10 locus. The apm1-122 mutation in combination with three fla10- mutant alleles results in synthetic cold-sensitive cell division defects, and in combination with an additional pseudo-wild-type fla10- allele yields a synthetic temperature-sensitive flagellar motility phenotype. Based upon the genetic interactions of these loci, we propose that the FLA10 gene product interacts with multiple components of the flagellar apparatus and plays a role both in flagellar assembly and in the cell cycle.

Molecular studies of linkage group XIX of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: evidence against a basal body location

Linkage group XIX (also known as the UNI linkage group) in the green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, exhibits a number of unusual properties that have lead to the suggestion that it represents a basal body-associated chromosome. To begin a molecular analysis of this linkage group, we have identified DNA sequences from it and used them to determine the copy number of linkage group XIX within the cell. We find that linkage group XIX is present in the same copy number per cell as nuclear linkage groups in both haploid and diploid strains. We also find that the copy number of linkage group XIX is unchanged in mutants lacking basal bodies. We conclude that there is no convincing evidence that linkage group XIX localizes to the basal bodies of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cells.

Two types of genetic interaction implicate the whirligig gene of Drosophila melanogaster in microtubule organization in the flagellar axoneme

The mutant nc4 allele of whirligig (3-54.4) of Drosophila melanogaster fails to complement mutations in an alpha-tubulin locus, alpha 1t, mutations in a beta-tubulin locus, B2t, or a mutation in the haywire locus. However, wrl fails to map to any of the known alpha- or beta-tubulin genes. The extragenic failure to complement could indicate that the wrl product participates in structural interactions with microtubule proteins. The whirligig locus appears to be haploinsufficient for male fertility. Both a deficiency of wrl and possible loss of function alleles obtained by reverting the failure to complement between wrlnc4 and B2tn are dominant male sterile in a genetic background wild type for tubulin. The dominant male sterility of the revertant alleles is suppressed if the flies are also heterozygous for B2tn, for a deficiency of alpha 1t, or for the haync2 allele. These results suggest that it is not the absolute level of wrl gene product but its level relative to tubulin or microtubule function that is important for normal spermatogenesis. The phenotype of homozygous wrl mutants suggests that the whirligig product plays a role in postmeiotic spermatid differentiation, possibly in organizing the microtubules of the sperm flagellar axoneme. Flies homozygous for either wrlnc4 or revertant alleles are viable and female fertile but male sterile. Premeiotic and meiotic stages of spermatogenesis appear normal. However, in post-meiotic stages, flagellar axonemes show loss of the accessory microtubule on the B-subfiber of outer doublet microtubules, outer triplet instead of outer doublet microtubules, and missing central pair microtubules.