Functions of the Caenorhabditis elegans regulatory myosin light chain genes mlc-1 and mlc-2

Transcriptomic Analysis of the Spatiotemporal Axis of Oogenesis and Fertilization in C. elegans

The oocyte germline of the C. elegans hermaphrodite presents a unique model to study the formation of oocytes. However, the size of the model animal and difficulties in retrieval of specific stages of the germline have obviated closer systematic studies of this process throughout the years. Here, we present a transcriptomic level analysis into the oogenesis of C. elegans hermaphrodites. We dissected a hermaphrodite gonad into seven sections corresponding to the mitotic distal region, the pachytene, the diplotene, the early diakinesis region and the 3 most proximal oocytes, and deeply sequenced the transcriptome of each of them along with that of the fertilized egg using a single-cell RNA-seq protocol. We identified specific gene expression events as well as gene splicing events in finer detail along the oocyte germline and provided novel insights into underlying mechanisms of the oogenesis process. Furthermore, through careful review of relevant research literature coupled with patterns observed in our analysis, we attempt to delineate transcripts that may serve functions in the interaction between the germline and cells of the somatic gonad. These results expand our knowledge of the transcriptomic space of the C. elegans germline and lay a foundation on which future studies of the germline can be based upon.

Transcriptomic analysis the mechanisms of anti-osteoporosis of desert-living Cistanche herb in ovariectomized rats of postmenopausal osteoporosis

Desert-living Cistanche herb (DC), as a traditional Chinese medicine for tonifying kidney yang, is often used to treat postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMOP). Total phenylethanoid glycosides are instruction ingredients for discrimination and assay according to the China pharmacopoeia for DC. This research aimed to reveal the anti-osteoporosis mechanism of total phenylethanoid glycosides of DC (PGC) by transcriptomic analysis of ovariectomized rats. Serum levels of BGP were evaluated by ELISA, the bone weight was measured, and transmission electron microscopy was used to examine the ultrastructure of osteoblasts in rats. In addition, micro-CT was used to detect the bone volume (Tb.BS/BV), bone mineral density (Tb.BMD), and bone mineral content (Tb.BMC) in trabecular bone, and the ratio of cortical bone area to total area (Ct.ar/Tt.ar), and the level of bone mineral content (Ct.BMC) in cortical bone. Differential expressed genes (DEGs) after PGC treatment were analyzed by transcriptomics. Then, a bioinformatics analysis of DEGs was carried out through GO enrichment, KEGG enrichment, and selection of the nucleus gene through the protein-protein interaction network. Through qRT-PCR analysis, the DEGs were verified. The analysis results indicated that PGC increased the secretion of osteogenic markers, and ultrastructural characterization of osteoblasts and bone morphology were improved in ovariectomized rats. A total of 269 genes were differentially expressed, including 201 genes that were downregulated and 68 genes that were upregulated between the model group and the PGC group. Bioinformation analysis results prompt the conclusion that PGC could promote the bone metabolism by muscle cell development, myofibril assembly, etc. In addition, our study also found that PGC has a good effect on osteoporosis complicated with cardiomyopathy, and it also provided evidence for the correlation between sarcopenia and osteoporosis.

DamID identifies targets of CEH-60/PBX that are associated with neuron development and muscle structure in Caenorhabditis elegans

Transcription factors govern many of the time- and tissue-specific gene expression events in living organisms. CEH-60, a homolog of the TALE transcription factor PBX in vertebrates, was recently characterized as a new regulator of intestinal lipid mobilization in Caenorhabditis elegans. Because CEH-60's orthologs and paralogs exhibit several other functions, notably in neuron and muscle development, and because ceh-60 expression is not limited to the C. elegans intestine, we sought to identify additional functions of CEH-60 through DNA adenine methyltransferase identification (DamID). DamID identifies protein-genome interaction sites through GATC-specific methylation. We here report 872 putative CEH-60 gene targets in young adult animals, and 587 in L2 larvae, many of which are associated with neuron development or muscle structure. In light of this, we investigate morphology and function of ceh-60 expressing AWC neurons, and contraction of pharyngeal muscles. We find no clear functional consequences of loss of ceh-60 in these assays, suggesting that in AWC neurons and pharyngeal muscle, CEH-60 function is likely more subtle or redundant with other factors.

Prolonged exposure of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate induces multigenerational toxic effects in Caenorhabditis elegans

The plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an emerging organic contaminant that has represented a risk for organisms present in the environment. However, there is still limited information regarding DEHP-induced multigenerational toxicity and the underlying mechanisms. In this study we investigated the multigenerational toxic effects including locomotive behaviors and reproduction upon prolonged DEHP exposure (from larval L1 to adult) and the underlying mechanisms in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The multigenerational effects were examined over 6 generations (F0-F5) with only parental C. elegans (F0) was exposed to DEHP from larval L1 to adults (72h), and the subsequent offsprings (F1-F5) were grown under DEHP-free conditions. The results showed that prolonged exposure (72h) to various concentrations of DEHP caused dose-dependent locomotive impairments and reproduction defects in C. elegans and that a concentration of 0.2mg/L DEHP was enough to cause such sublethal effects. The results showed that after prolonged exposure to DEHP in the F0 generation, abnormal locomotive behaviors such as reduced body bends and head thrashes were observed from generations F0 to F5. Additionally, prolonged exposure to DEHP (20mg/L) in F0 significantly reduced total brood size in F0, and this parental exposure was sufficient to cause multigenerational reproductive toxicity in the offspring generations (F1-F5) as well. Furthermore, the expressions of reproduction-related genes such as vit-2 and vit-6 were down-regulated by about 20% until F3, and the expression of H3Kme2 demethylase, spr-5, was downregulated in F1 by about 40%. Results from this study demonstrate that prolonged exposure to DEHP only at F0 adversely affected reproduction and locomotive behaviors in C. elegans across generations and might be associated with inadequate vitellogenin production and malfunction of H3Kme2 demethylase. This study implies that parentally prolonged exposure to DEHP caused multigenerational defects in both reproduction and locomotive behaviors raising the potential health and ecological risk.

Proteomic analysis and immunodetection of antigens from early developmental stages of Trichinella spiralis

Trichinella spiralis is an ubiquitous parasitic nematode that lives in muscle tissue of many hosts and causes trichinellosis in humans. Numerous efforts have been directed at specific detection of this infection and strategies for its control. TSL-1 and other antigens, mainly from muscle larvae (ML), have been used to induce partial protection in rodents. An improvement in protective immunity may be achieved by using antigens from other parasite stages. Further, identification of other parasite antigens may provide insights into their role in the host-parasite interaction. In this study, T. spiralis antigens from early developmental parasite stages, namely ML and pre-adult (PA) obtained at 6h, 18h and 30h post-infection, were identified by proteomic and mass spectrometry analyses. Our findings showed a differential expression of several proteins with molecular weights in the range of 13-224kDa and pI range of 4.54-9.89. Bioinformatic analyses revealed a wide diversity of functions in the identified proteins, which include structural, antioxidant, actin binding, peptidyl prolyl cis-trans isomerase, motor, hydrolase, ATP binding, magnesium and calcium binding, isomerase and translation elongation factor. This, together with the differential recognition of antigens from these parasite stages by antibodies present in intestinal fluid, in supernatants from intestinal explants, and in serum samples from mice infected with T. spiralis or re-infected with this parasite, provides information that may lead to alternatives in the design of vaccines against this parasite or for modulation of immune responses.

Two distinct myosin II populations coordinate ovulatory contraction of the myoepithelial sheath in the Caenorhabditis elegans somatic gonad

In the nematode somatic gonad, nonmuscle myosin and muscle myosin form distinct filaments and coordinate ovulatory contraction of the myoepithelial sheath. Nonmuscle myosin regulatory light chain is phosphoregulated, and its phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are critical for successful ovulation.

The myoepithelial sheath in the somatic gonad of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has nonstriated contractile actomyosin networks that produce highly coordinated contractility for ovulation of mature oocytes. Two myosin heavy chains are expressed in the myoepithelial sheath, which are also expressed in the body-wall striated muscle. The troponin/tropomyosin system is also present and essential for ovulation. Therefore, although the myoepithelial sheath has smooth muscle–like contractile apparatuses, it has a striated muscle–like regulatory mechanism through troponin/tropomyosin. Here we report that the myoepithelial sheath has a distinct myosin population containing nonmuscle myosin II isoforms, which is regulated by phosphorylation and essential for ovulation. MLC-4, a nonmuscle myosin regulatory light chain, localizes to small punctate structures and does not colocalize with large, needle-like myosin filaments containing MYO-3, a striated-muscle myosin isoform. RNA interference of MLC-4, as well as of its upstream regulators, LET-502 (Rho-associated coiled-coil forming kinase) and MEL-11 (a myosin-binding subunit of myosin phosphatase), impairs ovulation. Expression of a phosphomimetic MLC-4 mutant mimicking a constitutively active state also impairs ovulation. A striated-muscle myosin (UNC-54) appears to provide partially compensatory contractility. Thus the results indicate that the two spatially distinct myosin II populations coordinately regulate ovulatory contraction of the myoepithelial sheath.

Metabolome and proteome changes with aging in Caenorhabditis elegans

To expand the understanding of aging in the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans, global quantification of metabolite and protein levels in young and aged nematodes was performed using mass spectrometry. With age, there was a decreased abundance of proteins functioning in transcription termination, mRNA degradation, mRNA stability, protein synthesis, and proteasomal function. Furthermore, there was altered S-adenosyl methionine metabolism as well as a decreased abundance of the S-adenosyl methionine synthetase (SAMS-1) protein. Other aging-related changes included alterations in free fatty acid levels and composition, decreased levels of ribosomal proteins, decreased levels of NADP-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH1), a shift in the cellular redox state, an increase in sorbitol content, alterations in free amino acid levels, and indications of altered muscle function and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) homeostasis. There were also decreases in pyrimidine and purine metabolite levels, most markedly nitrogenous bases. Supplementing the culture medium with cytidine (a pyrimidine nucleoside) or hypoxanthine (a purine base) increased lifespan slightly, suggesting that aging-induced alterations in ribonucleotide metabolism affect lifespan. An age-related increase in body size, lipotoxicity from ectopic yolk lipoprotein accumulation, a decline in NAD(+) levels, and mitochondrial electron transport chain dysfunction may explain many of these changes. In addition, dietary restriction in aged worms resulting from sarcopenia of the pharyngeal pump likely decreases the abundance of SAMS-1, possibly leading to decreased phosphatidylcholine levels, larger lipid droplets, and ER and mitochondrial stress. The complementary use of proteomics and metabolomics yielded unique insights into the molecular processes altered with age in C. elegans.

Synergistic and antagonistic interplay between myostatin gene expression and physical activity levels on gene expression patterns in triceps Brachii muscles of C57/BL6 mice

Levels of myostatin expression and physical activity have both been associated with transcriptome dysregulation and skeletal muscle hypertrophy. The transcriptome of triceps brachii muscles from male C57/BL6 mice corresponding to two genotypes (wild-type and myostatin-reduced) under two conditions (high and low physical activity) was characterized using RNA-Seq. Synergistic and antagonistic interaction and ortholog modes of action of myostatin genotype and activity level on genes and gene pathways in this skeletal muscle were uncovered; 1,836, 238, and 399 genes exhibited significant (FDR-adjusted P-value < 0.005) activity-by-genotype interaction, genotype and activity effects, respectively. The most common differentially expressed profiles were (i) inactive myostatin-reduced relative to active and inactive wild-type, (ii) inactive myostatin-reduced and active wild-type, and (iii) inactive myostatin-reduced and inactive wild-type. Several remarkable genes and gene pathways were identified. The expression profile of nascent polypeptide-associated complex alpha subunit (Naca) supports a synergistic interaction between activity level and myostatin genotype, while Gremlin 2 (Grem2) displayed an antagonistic interaction. Comparison between activity levels revealed expression changes in genes encoding for structural proteins important for muscle function (including troponin, tropomyosin and myoglobin) and for fatty acid metabolism (some linked to diabetes and obesity, DNA-repair, stem cell renewal, and various forms of cancer). Conversely, comparison between genotype groups revealed changes in genes associated with G1-to-S-phase transition of the cell cycle of myoblasts and the expression of Grem2 proteins that modulate the cleavage of the myostatin propeptide. A number of myostatin-feedback regulated gene products that are primarily regulatory were uncovered, including microRNA impacting central functions and Piezo proteins that make cationic current-controlling mechanosensitive ion channels. These important findings extend hypotheses of myostatin and physical activity master regulation of genes and gene pathways, impacting medical practices and therapies associated with muscle atrophy in humans and companion animal species and genome-enabled selection practices applied to food-production animal species.

A proteomic view of Caenorhabditis elegans caused by short-term hypoxic stress

Background

The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is both sensitive and tolerant to hypoxic stress, particularly when the evolutionarily conserved hypoxia response pathway HIF-1/EGL-9/VHL is involved. Hypoxia-induced changes in the expression of a number of genes have been analyzed using whole genome microarrays in C. elegans, but the changes at the protein level in response to hypoxic stress still remain unclear.

Results

Here, we utilized a quantitative proteomic approach to evaluate changes in the expression patterns of proteins during the early response to hypoxia in C. elegans. Two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) was used to compare the proteomic maps of wild type C. elegans strain N2 under a 4-h hypoxia treatment (0.2% oxygen) and under normoxia (control). A subsequent analysis by MALDI-TOF-TOF-MS revealed nineteen protein spots that were differentially expressed. Nine of the protein spots were significantly upregulated, and ten were downregulated upon hypoxic stress. Three of the upregulated proteins were involved in cytoskeletal function (LEV-11, MLC-1, ACT-4), while another three upregulated (ATP-2, ATP-5, VHA-8) were ATP synthases functionally related to energy metabolism. Four ribosomal proteins (RPL-7, RPL-8, RPL-21, RPS-8) were downregulated, indicating a decrease in the level of protein translation upon hypoxic stress. The overexpression of tropomyosin (LEV-11) was further validated by Western blot. In addition, the mutant strain of lev-11(x12) also showed a hypoxia-sensitive phenotype in subsequent analyses, confirming the proteomic findings.

Conclusions

Taken together, our data suggest that altered protein expression, structural protein remodeling, and the reduction of translation might play important roles in the early response to oxygen deprivation in C. elegans, and this information will help broaden our knowledge on the mechanism of hypoxia response.

Role of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5' kinase (ppk-1) in ovulation of Caenorhabditis elegans

During Caenorhabditis elegans ovulation, the somatic gonad integrates signals from germ cells and propels a mature oocyte into the spermatheca for fertilization. Previous work suggests that phosphoinositide signaling plays important roles in C. elegans fertility. To fully understand inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) signaling in ovulation, we have examined the function of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5' kinase (PIP5K) in C. elegans. Our results show that the C. elegans PIP5K homolog, ppk-1, is essential for ovulation in C. elegans; ppk-1 is mainly expressed in somatic gonad, and depletion of ppk-1 expression causes defective ovulation, reduced gonad sheath contractility, and sterility. Increased IP(3) signaling compensates for ppk-1 (RNAi)-induced sterility, suggesting that ppk-1 is linked to IP(3) signaling. These results demonstrate that ppk-1 plays an essential role in IP(3) signaling and cytoskeleton organization in somatic gonad.

Invertebrate Muscles: Muscle Specific Genes and Proteins

This is the first of a projected series of canonic reviews covering all invertebrate muscle literature prior to 2005 and covers muscle genes and proteins except those involved in excitation-contraction coupling (e.g., the ryanodine receptor) and those forming ligand- and voltage-dependent channels. Two themes are of primary importance. The first is the evolutionary antiquity of muscle proteins. Actin, myosin, and tropomyosin (at least, the presence of other muscle proteins in these organisms has not been examined) exist in muscle-like cells in Radiata, and almost all muscle proteins are present across Bilateria, implying that the first Bilaterian had a complete, or near-complete, complement of present-day muscle proteins. The second is the extraordinary diversity of protein isoforms and genetic mechanisms for producing them. This rich diversity suggests that studying invertebrate muscle proteins and genes can be usefully applied to resolve phylogenetic relationships and to understand protein assembly coevolution. Fully achieving these goals, however, will require examination of a much broader range of species than has been heretofore performed.

The homeoproteins MAB-18 and CEH-14 insulate the dauer collagen gene col-43 from activation by the adjacent promoter of the Spermatheca gene sth-1 in Caenorhabditis elegans

Genome searches in this study indicate that the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans genome has 2582 bidirectionally oriented genes that account for more than 25% of the total genes. We analyze the transcriptional repression system for one of these predicted bidirectional promoters, which controls the expression of the spermathecal gene sth-1 and collagen gene col-43. These two genes are separated by 1.3 kb and are transcribed bidirectionally. sth-1 is expressed in spermatheca after the L4 stage and col-43 is expressed in the hypodermal cells of the L2d dauer stage. The upstream regions required for the expression of sth-1 and col-43 shared an overlapped control sequence. Two homeoproteins, MAB-18 and CEH-14, were isolated by yeast one-hybrid screening as binding proteins of the overlapped region. MAB-18 bound to two homeodomain-binding sites and interacted with CEH-14 to repress col-43 expression in spermatheca. These results indicate that the two homeoproteins interact with each other to repress col-43 expression in sth-1-expressing tissues. This is the first report of bidirectional gene regulation analysis in the C.elegans genome.

Novel transcription regulatory elements in Caenorhabditis elegans muscle genes

We report the identification of three new transcription regulatory elements that are associated with muscle gene expression in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Starting from a subset of well-characterized nematode muscle genes, we identified conserved DNA motifs in the promoter regions using computational DNA pattern-recognition algorithms. These were considered to be putative muscle transcription regulatory motifs. Using the green-fluorescent protein (GFP) as a reporter, experiments were done to determine the biological activity of these motifs in driving muscle gene expression. Prediction accuracy of muscle expression based on the presence of these three motifs was encouraging; nine of 10 previously uncharacterized genes that were predicted to have muscle expression were shown to be expressed either specifically or selectively in the muscle tissues, whereas only one of the nine that scored low for these motifs expressed in muscle. Knockouts of putative regulatory elements in the promoter of the mlc-2 and unc-89 genes show that they significantly contribute to muscle expression and act in a synergistic manner. We find that these DNA motifs are also present in the muscle promoters of C. briggsae, indicating that they are functionally conserved in the nematodes.

The Secreted Larval Acidic Proteins (SLAPs) of Onchocerca spp. are encoded by orthologues of the alt gene family of Brugia malayi and have host protective potential

Onchocerca volvulus is a tissue-dwelling, vector-borne nematode parasite of humans and the causative agent of onchocerciasis, or 'River Blindness'. Resistance to infection is associated with immune responses to the infective, third-stage (L3) larvae. The antigens of greatest interest for their vaccine potential are surface and secreted molecules. We have previously identified a family of Secreted Larval Acidic Proteins (SLAPs) from the L3 larvae of O. volvulus by biosynthetic labelling. Here, we provide further characterisation of these molecules following cloning and expression of the corresponding cDNAs. Using protein sequencing, we show that SLAPs are members of the alt gene family, first described in the lymphatic filarial parasite, Brugia malayi. Ov-ALT-1 and Ov-ALT-2 correspond with 20 and 18kDa SLAPs. Both proteins are highly acidic and related by sequence, differing chiefly in an 8-amino acid deletion from Ov-ALT-2. By immunochemistry, we confirm that Ov-ALTs are highly stage-specific, being expressed exclusively in late L2 and L3 larvae during growth in the vector. They are synthesised and stored in the glandular oesophagus. Secretion is triggered by the resumption of development in the definitive host and occurs via the pseudocoelom and cuticle. Serological responses in humans to recombinant Ov-ALT-1 indicate that the level of IgG production may be governed by the force of transmission but does not overtly reflect infection status. Immunisation of mice with recombinant Ov-ALT-1 resulted in a modest level of protection against challenge with O. volvulus L3 larvae (P = 0.036). We conclude that Ov-ALT genes, like those of other filariae, are of interest from the standpoint of parasite transmission and infectivity. They may also offer promise as components of a future sub-unit vaccine should the means to enhance protection be achieved.

Tropomyosin and troponin are required for ovarian contraction in the Caenorhabditis elegans reproductive system

Ovulation in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is coordinated by interactions between the somatic gonad and germ cells. Myoepithelial sheath cells of the proximal ovary are smooth muscle-like cells, but the regulatory mechanism of their contraction is unknown. We show that contraction of the ovarian muscle requires tropomyosin and troponin, which are generally major actin-linked regulators of contraction of striated muscle. RNA interference of tropomyosin or troponin C caused sterility by inhibiting ovarian contraction that is required for expelling mature oocytes into the spermatheca where fertilization takes place, thus causing accumulation of endomitotic oocytes in the ovary. Tropomyosin and troponin C were associated with actin filaments in the myoepithelial sheath, and the association of troponin C with actin was dependent on tropomyosin. A mutation in the actin depolymerizing factor/cofilin gene suppressed the ovulation defects by RNA interference of tropomyosin or troponin C. These results strongly suggest that tropomyosin and troponin are the actin-linked regulators for contraction of ovarian muscle in the C. elegans reproductive system.

The nonmuscle myosin regulatory light chain gene mlc-4 is required for cytokinesis, anterior-posterior polarity, and body morphology during Caenorhabditis elegans embryogenesis

Using RNA-mediated genetic interference in a phenotypic screen, we identified a conserved nonmuscle myosin II regulatory light chain gene in Caenorhabditis elegans, which we name mlc-4. Maternally supplied mlc-4 function is required for cytokinesis during both meiosis and mitosis and for establishment of anterior-posterior (a-p) asymmetries after fertilization. Reducing the function of mlc-4 or nmy-2, a nonmuscle myosin II gene, also leads to a loss of polarized cytoplasmic flow in the C. elegans zygote, supporting models in which cytoplasmic flow may be required to establish a-p differences. Germline P granule localization at the time of cytoplasmic flow is also lost in these embryos, although P granules do become localized to the posterior pole after the first mitosis. This result suggests that a mechanism other than cytoplasmic flow or mlc-4/nmy-2 activity can generate some a-p asymmetries in the C. elegans zygote. By isolating a deletion allele, we show that removing zygotic mlc-4 function results in an elongation phenotype during embryogenesis. An mlc-4/green fluorescent protein transgene is expressed in lateral rows of hypodermal cells and these cells fail to properly change shape in mlc-4 mutant animals during elongation.