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Tiilikainen E, Aartsen M, Kraav SL. Early-life circumstances and late life loneliness trajectories among Finnish older adults. BMC Geriatr 2024; 24:459. [PMID: 38789957 PMCID: PMC11127366 DOI: 10.1186/s12877-024-04967-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Later life loneliness has become a significant public health concern worldwide. Research has focused on the prevalence, risk factors and consequences of loneliness in different age groups. This study aimed to advance the understanding of the impact of early-life circumstances on later life loneliness by examining the associations between adversities in childhood and youth and loneliness trajectories in Finnish older adults. METHODS The data were derived from the 10-year follow-up survey study Good Aging in the Lahti Region (n = 1552, mean age 64.89 years). The baseline study was conducted in 2002 with a regionally and locally stratified random sample of older persons living in the Lahti Region located in southern Finland. The follow-up surveys were carried out in 2005, 2008 and 2012. Loneliness was measured using a single question at the three follow-ups. Childhood conditions were retrospectively assessed at baseline with questions regarding the death of parents, household affection, relocation, and fear of a family member. Latent class growth analysis with time invariant covariates was used to identify loneliness trajectories and to examine the associations between loneliness trajectories and adverse circumstances in childhood and youth. RESULTS The results identified three distinct loneliness trajectories: low, moderate, and severe, including 36%, 50% and 14%, respectively, of the study population. The non-significant slopes of the three trajectories indicate that trajectories were stable during the seven years of follow-up. Being afraid of a family member, having a cold childhood, and death of a father or mother in childhood or youth significantly increased the odds of having a severe loneliness trajectory as compared to low loneliness trajectory. None of the early-life circumstances differentiated between severe and moderate levels of loneliness. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that some adverse early-life circumstances increase the odds of an unfavorable loneliness trajectory in later life. The results highlight the need to recognize the role of diverse life-course adversities in loneliness research and interventions. The study also underscores the importance of identifying individuals who are at risk of long-term and severe loneliness and providing them with appropriate support to decrease and/or prevent the negative health consequences of loneliness in old age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Tiilikainen
- Department of Social Sciences, University of Finland, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Marja Aartsen
- NOVA - Norwegian Social Research, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| | - Siiri-Liisi Kraav
- Department of Social Sciences, University of Finland, Helsinki, Finland
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McKenna-Plumley PE, Turner RN, Yang K, Groarke JM. Experiences of Loneliness Across the Lifespan: A Systematic Review and Thematic Synthesis of Qualitative Studies. Int J Qual Stud Health Well-being 2023; 18:2223868. [PMID: 37327403 DOI: 10.1080/17482631.2023.2223868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Loneliness is a fundamentally subjective experience that is common at various life stages. Studies have qualitatively explored loneliness, but a comprehensive overview is lacking. This research therefore provides a fine-grained review of studies on loneliness experiences across the lifespan. METHODS A systematic review and thematic synthesis were performed on studies that qualitatively investigated experiences of loneliness in people of any age from non-clinical populations. Sensitivity analysis assessed the impact of lower-quality studies and specific age groups on the findings. RESULTS Twenty-nine studies of 1,321 participants aged between 7 and 103 were included. Fifteen descriptive themes and three overarching analytical themes were developed: (1) Loneliness is both psychological and contextual, (2) Loneliness centres on feelings of meaningful connection and painful disconnection, and (3) Loneliness can exist in a general, pervasive sense or can relate to specific other people or relationship types. Some features were particularly pertinent to children, younger adults, and older adults, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Loneliness involves a primarily aversive psychological experience of perceived disconnection which is linked to physical, personal, and socio-political contexts and can be pervasive or relate to specific relationships or relationship types. An awareness of context, life stage, and personal experiences is essential to understand loneliness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phoebe E McKenna-Plumley
- Centre for Improving Health-Related Quality of Life, School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - Rhiannon N Turner
- Centre for Identity and Intergroup Relations, School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
| | - Keming Yang
- Department of Sociology, Durham University, Durham, UK
| | - Jenny M Groarke
- Centre for Improving Health-Related Quality of Life, School of Psychology, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
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Cluley V, Burton JO, Quann N, Hull KL, Eborall H. Biographical dialectics: The ongoing and creative problem solving required to negotiate the biographical disruption of chronic illness. Soc Sci Med 2023; 325:115900. [PMID: 37084703 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
Abstract
Here we propose the term 'biographical dialectics' as a sister term to 'biographical disruption' to capture the ongoing problem solving that characterises the lives of many people living with life limiting chronic illnesses. The paper is based on the experiences of 35 adults with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in receipt of haemodialysis. Photovoice and semi-structured interviews showed that ESKD and the use of haemodialysis was widely agreed to be biographically disruptive. In talking about and showing disruption through photographs the participants' ongoing problem solving was universal across their diverse experiences. 'Biographical disruption' and Hegalian dialectical logic, are drawn on to make sense of these actions and to further understand the personal and disruptive experience of chronic illness. Based on this, 'biographical dialectics' captures the work that is required to account for and manage the enduring and biographical impact of chronic illness that follows the initial disruption of diagnosis and continues as life progresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Cluley
- School of Sociology and Social Policy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, UK.
| | - James O Burton
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK; John Walls Renal Unit, Leicester General Hospital, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester, UK
| | - Niamh Quann
- Leicester Clinical Trials Unit, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK; John Walls Renal Unit, Leicester General Hospital, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester, UK
| | - Katherine L Hull
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK; John Walls Renal Unit, Leicester General Hospital, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Leicester, UK
| | - Helen Eborall
- Usher Institute, College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, UK
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Newmyer L, Verdery AM, Wang H, Margolis R. Population Aging, Demographic Metabolism, and the Rising Tide of Late Middle Age to Older Adult Loneliness around the World. POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT REVIEW 2022; 48:829-862. [PMID: 37649654 PMCID: PMC10465113 DOI: 10.1111/padr.12506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
This study examines how population aging will shape a crucial aspect of mental health and social well-being - loneliness. Drawing on theories of demographic metabolism, United Nations' population estimates and projections, and survey data covering approximately 50% of the world's population aged 50 and above living in 27 countries, we estimate the role of population aging in shaping cross-national differences in loneliness from 1990 to 2050. We use survey data to estimate the prevalence of late middle age and older adult loneliness by age and sex, and then apply these rates to the evolving age and sex distributions of the populations. Our results highlight massive increases in loneliness at ages 50 and above with a tripling of the number of lonely adults in these age groups in our sample countries from 104.9 million in 1990 to 333.5 million in 2050, increasing variability across countries in the share of their populations composed of lonely adults 50 and above, and the feminization of global later life loneliness with an increasing share of lonely adults in these age ranges being women. These results illustrate the power of demographic modeling to advance understandings of national profiles of mental health and social well-being.
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Willis P, Vickery A. Loneliness, coping practices and masculinities in later life: Findings from a study of older men living alone in England. HEALTH & SOCIAL CARE IN THE COMMUNITY 2022; 30:e2874-e2883. [PMID: 35083799 PMCID: PMC9542843 DOI: 10.1111/hsc.13732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
While much attention has been given to loneliness as a public health and societal problem less consideration has been given to men's experiences, particularly in later life, and there is a limited evidence based on what works with supporting older men to counteract the impact of loneliness on their mental and social wellbeing. In this paper, we focus on the experiences of older men living alone in the community. Between 2017-2018 72 men residing in England (65-95 years) took part in the study and shared their accounts of experiencing and addressing loneliness on an everyday basis. We generated qualitative data through semi-structured interviews. Interview data were analysed thematically using the framework analysis approach. We present and discuss findings on the difficulties older men experience in responding to and discussing loneliness and the range of coping practices men applied within their home environments. Three core themes are presented: 1. Maintaining silence around loneliness and distress; 2. Getting on with it versus feeling stuck in loneliness and, 3. Temporary remedies and distractions from loneliness from within the home. Across men's accounts, 'the home' is constructed as a space of biographical connections with others as well as a restrictive environment of separation from others. In relation to help-seeking and efforts to break silence surrounding loneliness, the findings speak to the ways in which masculinities and social expectations attached to male roles complicate older men's varying attempts at help-seeking and underpin some of their everyday methods of coping with loneliness. The findings reiterate the importance of targeted individual support for older men, particularly for those feeling frozen in loneliness. Facilitators of group-based support for older men need to recognise the different and potentially conflicting positions older male service users may adopt in relation to help-seeking that are configured around masculine ideals but in diverging ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Willis
- Associate Professor in Social Work and Social GerontologySchool for Policy StudiesUniversity of BristolBristolUK
| | - Alex Vickery
- Senior Research AssociateSchool for Policy StudiesUniversity of BristolBristolUK
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Lay-Yee R, Milne BJ, Wright-St Clair VA, Broad J, Wilkinson T, Connolly M, Teh R, Hayman K, Muru-Lanning M, Kerse N. Prevalence of loneliness and its association with general and health-related measures of subjective well-being in a longitudinal bicultural cohort of older adults in advanced age living in New Zealand: LiLACS NZ. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2022; 77:1904-1915. [PMID: 35767846 PMCID: PMC9535776 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbac087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There is evidence that loneliness is detrimental to the subjective well-being of older adults. However, little is known on this topic for the cohort of those in advanced age (80 years or over) which today is the fastest growing age group in the New Zealand population. We examined the relationships between loneliness and selected subjective well-being outcomes over five years. METHODS We used a regional, bicultural sample of those in advanced age from 2010 to 2015 (LiLACS NZ). The first wave enrolled 937 people (92% of whom were living in the community): 421 Māori (Indigenous New Zealanders aged 80-90 years) and 516 non-Māori aged 85 years. We applied standard regression techniques to baseline data and mixed effects models to longitudinal data, while adjusting for socio-demographic factors. RESULTS For both Māori and non-Māori, strong negative associations between loneliness and subjective well-being were found at baseline. In longitudinal analyses, we found that loneliness was negatively associated with life satisfaction as well as with mental health-related quality of life. DISCUSSION Our findings of adverse impacts on subjective well-being corroborate other evidence, highlighting loneliness as a prime candidate for intervention - appropriate to cultural context - to improve well-being for adults in advanced age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy Lay-Yee
- Centre of Methods and Policy Application in the Social Sciences (COMPASS), School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, University of Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Barry J Milne
- Centre of Methods and Policy Application in the Social Sciences (COMPASS), School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, University of Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Statistics, Faculty of Science, University of Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Joanna Broad
- Freemasons Department of Geriatric Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Tim Wilkinson
- Department of Medicine, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Martin Connolly
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ruth Teh
- Department of General Practice & Primary Health Care, School of Population Health, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Karen Hayman
- Department of General Practice & Primary Health Care, School of Population Health, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Ngaire Kerse
- Department of General Practice & Primary Health Care, School of Population Health, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, New Zealand
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Managing disruption at a distance: Unequal experiences of people living with long-term conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Soc Sci Med 2022; 302:114963. [PMID: 35500314 PMCID: PMC8990438 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic and 'lockdown' restrictions have affected people's health and wellbeing globally. Those who are clinically vulnerable to COVID-19 mortality due to living with long term conditions (LTCs) are at greater risk of negative impacts on their health and wellbeing, and of disruption in management of their LTCs. This study explores how people with LTCs managed their health and wellbeing under social distancing restrictions and self-isolation during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, and examines why some people were more able to manage than others. Interviews were conducted between May and July 2020 with people (n = 44) living in North East England, who had one or more LTCs and were recruited via a social prescribing intervention. Data were analysed using a social constructivist thematic analysis. We present our analysis of the possibilities afforded to people to manage the impacts of lockdown on their health and wellbeing. We find that while some people deployed a range of capitals and/or etched out 'tactics' to make life 'habitable', others experienced 'zones of impossibility' requiring that they rely on contingent events or formal support. Our analysis highlights inequalities amongst people with LTCs, particularly regarding access to and deployment of important resources for health and wellbeing under COVID-19 social distancing restrictions, including outdoor space or greenspace, exercise and social connection. The study is novel in showing the mechanisms for coping with a significant period of disruption in the life-course whilst highlighting that although resilience was common in people with LTCs, this was sometimes at detrimental costs to themselves.
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Gründahl M, Weiß M, Maier L, Hewig J, Deckert J, Hein G. Construction and Validation of a Scale to Measure Loneliness and Isolation During Social Distancing and Its Effect on Mental Health. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:798596. [PMID: 35449561 PMCID: PMC9017747 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.798596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A variety of factors contribute to the degree to which a person feels lonely and socially isolated. These factors may be particularly relevant in contexts requiring social distancing, e.g., during the COVID-19 pandemic or in states of immunodeficiency. We present the Loneliness and Isolation during Social Distancing (LISD) Scale. Extending existing measures, the LISD scale measures both state and trait aspects of loneliness and isolation, including indicators of social connectedness and support. In addition, it reliably predicts individual differences in anxiety and depression. Data were collected online from two independent samples in a social distancing context (the COVID-19 pandemic). Factorial validation was based on exploratory factor analysis (EFA; Sample 1, N = 244) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; Sample 2, N = 304). Multiple regression analyses were used to assess how the LISD scale predicts state anxiety and depression. The LISD scale showed satisfactory fit in both samples. Its two state factors indicate being lonely and isolated as well as connected and supported, while its three trait factors reflect general loneliness and isolation, sociability and sense of belonging, and social closeness and support. Our results imply strong predictive power of the LISD scale for state anxiety and depression, explaining 33 and 51% of variance, respectively. Anxiety and depression scores were particularly predicted by low dispositional sociability and sense of belonging and by currently being more lonely and isolated. In turn, being lonely and isolated was related to being less connected and supported (state) as well as having lower social closeness and support in general (trait). We provide a novel scale which distinguishes between acute and general dimensions of loneliness and social isolation while also predicting mental health. The LISD scale could be a valuable and economic addition to the assessment of mental health factors impacted by social distancing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marthe Gründahl
- Translational Social Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Martin Weiß
- Translational Social Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lisa Maier
- Translational Social Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Hewig
- Institute of Psychology, Department of Psychology I: Differential Psychology, Personality Psychology and Psychological Diagnostics, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Deckert
- Translational Social Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Grit Hein
- Translational Social Neuroscience Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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Valasaki M. Young onset Parkinson's disease: Biographical disruption as a repetitive process. SOCIOLOGY OF HEALTH & ILLNESS 2022; 44:798-814. [PMID: 35196408 DOI: 10.1111/1467-9566.13451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Young Onset Parkinson's Disease (YOPD) is a complex condition which raises issues of interpretation and understanding of individuals' biographies. While interviewing seventeen people with YOPD from Greece, the issue of biographical disruption emerged. Parkinson's is a neurodegenerative disorder divided in five stages and has no permanent cure; based on this knowledge, individuals reconstruct their past and see their future. Under this perspective, unlike other chronic illnesses, in the case of Parkinson's disease interviewees have designated dimensions of disruption that are experienced due to continuous degeneration and while narrating their stories they designated disruptions even before diagnosis. In this article, biographical disruption is understood as a repetitive process and the latter is perceived as a continuous process caused by neurodegeneration; it never stops and is constructed through multiple dimensions: (a) bodily, (b) daily, (c) in stages and (d) biographical. These dimensions are interrelated and construct, both theoretically and analytically, the concept of disruption in daily life with a neurodegenerative disorder. Through the concept of repetitiveness, the complexity of living with PD is understood and also the need for deconstructing expected social roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Valasaki
- Department of Sociology, University of Crete, Rethimno, Greece
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Risk factors for loneliness among older people in a Nordic regional context – a longitudinal study. AGEING & SOCIETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1017/s0144686x21001707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of loneliness among older people and to identify risk factors for loneliness in a Nordic regional context over a six-year period. Longitudinal data from the Gerontological Regional Database (GERDA) study of 4,269 older adults living in northern Sweden and western Finland, aged 65, 70, 75 and 80 at baseline in 2010, were analysed. Logistic regressions were used to analyse socio-demographic, social and health-related risk factors at baseline and changes in these for experiences of loneliness at follow-up. The results showed that most older adults (85%) did not experience loneliness at baseline or at follow-up in our study region. However, 3 per cent of the sample reported loneliness in both study years, indicating enduring and chronic loneliness. Analyses revealed that being widowed and becoming a widow/er as well as poor self-rated health at baseline and the onset of depression were risk factors for loneliness. Finally, the risk of loneliness was higher in older people living in Sweden. Further work is needed to explore changes and stability in loneliness as well as to increase our understanding of between-country differences in loneliness.
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Trzcionka A, Zalewska I, Tanasiewicz M. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis for the Comparison of Polish and Foreign Dentistry Students' Concerns during the Covid-19 Pandemic. Healthcare (Basel) 2021; 9:healthcare9060765. [PMID: 34205465 PMCID: PMC8235797 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare9060765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: At the beginning of 2020, the worldwide infection of coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) changed many aspects of human lives. The controlled lockdown was not only an obligatory lifestyle change to communities across the globe, but it was also an emotional struggle. The aim of the presented study was to identify and compare the main difficulties that final-year students (both Polish and foreigners) of Dentistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Zabrze Medical University of Silesia had to cope with during the first wave of the pandemic. Application of the biographical method in the form of essays written was done. Authors discussed the following issues: possible losses and benefits subjectively felt by individuals due to the COVID-19 pandemic, adaptation to online type of studying, students’ opinions regarding change of habits, and psychological impact of the lockdown. Students’ responses varied between groups in the aspect of what they considered as the biggest struggle of the pandemic time period. Adaptation to e-learning was easier for the group of foreign students. The Polish group considered it as a serious stress factor. Foreigners were much more worried about not being able to help their families in comparison to Polish students. Polish students’ fear was related to the fear of virus transmission to their older relatives. Both groups were aware of how serious the situation was and of the possible impact of lack of practical classes on their future internships. As benefits of that situation, both groups listed development of new hobbies and increased sport activities. The Polish group emphasized improvement of interpersonal bonds during the lockdown in their families. The main conclusion proved an awareness of the seriousness of the situation in which students of medical, especially dental faculties found themselves. Concerns were related to the form of further studies and the possibility of taking up employment after graduation. Polish students declared more intense concerns about e-learning and remote study than foreign-language students who were more familiar with this form of communication. A particularly valuable form of teaching for students may be increased numbers of online consultations, since even though they cannot replace practical classes, they may still be helpful in explaining doubts and simply “being there”. Encouraging young people to discover constructive benefits of the pandemic can also be one of a task-oriented strategies of help.
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