Solidarity in the Grandparent-Adult Grandchild Relationship and Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms

Differential Costs of Raising Grandchildren on Older Mother-Adult Child Relations in Black and White Families

Drawing from theories of affect, role strain and stress processes, we studied the impact of raising grandchildren on older mothers' relationships with the adult offspring whose children they raised, with particular attention to how these patterns differ by race and ethnicity. We used mixed-methods data collected from 531 older mothers regarding their relationships with 1935 of their adult children as part of the Within-Family Differences Study. Multilevel regression analyses showed that raising grandchildren was associated with greater mother-adult child closeness in Black families; however, in White families, raising grandchildren was associated with greater mother-adult child conflict. Qualitative analyses revealed that these differences could be explained by the tendency of Black grandmothers to emphasize positive aspects of raising grandchildren, compared to White grandmothers, who viewed raising grandchildren as demanding and who described their exchanges with their adult children as unequal. Overall, our findings reflect racial and ethnic differences in intergenerational solidarity.

Intergenerational Transmission of Depressive Symptoms from Mothers to Adolescents: A Moderated Mediation Model

Substantial literature investigating the intergenerational transmission of depressive symptoms has primarily focused on mothers and adolescents, whereas less is known about the potential role of fathers, especially their parenting behaviors. This study aimed to address this gap by examining the mediating role of maternal parenting, and the moderating role of paternal parenting in this intergenerational transmission pathway. A total of 528 Chinese community adolescents (Mage = 12.70 ± 1.49 years; 48.7%, girls) and their mothers participated. After adolescent sex, age, maternal educational levels, and monthly household income were controlled for, both maternal warmth and rejection mediated the association between maternal and adolescent depressive symptoms. More importantly, paternal warmth buffered the adverse effect of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal rejection on adolescent depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the buffering role of paternal parenting in blocking the intergenerational transmission risk of depressive symptoms from mothers to adolescents and emphasize the need for father-focused interventions.

The association of spousal depressive symptoms and cognitive function among older adults: mediation and moderated mediation analyses

OBJECTIVES

To test whether contagious depressive symptoms mediate the association between spousal depressive symptoms (spousal-DS) and the other spouse's cognitive function, and test the moderated mediation of social activities engagement and sleep quality.

STUDY DESIGN

A total of 3,230 adults aged ≥60 and one of his/her close relatives were interviewed in 2016 in Xiamen, China.

METHODS

Cognitive function and depressive symptoms were measured by MoCA and GDS-15/CES-D-10, respectively. Social activities engagement and sleep quality were self-reported. Mediation and moderated mediation were tested by PROCESS macro with 5000 bootstrapping re-samples.

RESULT

Among all, 1,193 pairs were husband-wife with complete information and were included. The mean ages of older adults and their spouses were 68.35 ± 6.53 and 66.53 ± 7.91 years, respectively. The mean MoCA and GDS-15 scores for older adults were 22.21 ± 5.45 and 1.73 ± 2.17, respectively. The average score of CES-D-10 for spouses was 14.18 ± 4.77. Spousal-DS were associated with cognitive functions of older adults via the contagious depressive symptoms (indirect effect: -0.048, 95% confidence interval (CI): (-0.075, -0.028)). Such mediation can be buffered by attending social activities (interaction: -0.062, 95% CI: (-0.111, -0.013)) and improving sleep quality (interaction: -0.034, 95% CI: (-0.057, -0.012)).

CONCLUSION

Cognitive function of older adults was associated with his/her spouse's depressive symptoms, and the association was mediated by contagious depressive symptoms and moderated by social activities as well as sleep quality.

How Grandparents Inform Our Lives: A Mixed Methods Investigation of Intergenerational Influence on Young Adults

While it is well documented that grandchildren benefit from strong, positive relationships with grandparents, less is known about the influence of these relationships as individuals establish their lives in early adulthood. Further, how this impact varies based on grandparent type (i.e., whether grandparents take on a "traditional" non-caregiving or "custodial" caregiving role) has not been investigated, despite the growing number of youth raised, at least in part, by their grandparents. Using an explanatory sequential mixed methods design, this study explores the influence of grandparent type during childhood on life satisfaction, perceived relationship quality, and life building in early adulthood. Descriptive and comparative analyses of survey data captured in the quantitative strand (N = 94) informed the subsample that completed semi-structured interviews in the emphasized qualitative strand (N = 9). The integrated findings revealed that past and present grandparent relationships remain salient in early adulthood, though the context and substance of these relationships is often nuanced with shifts over time and across individuals. Despite the importance of context, we failed to observe significant differences in life satisfaction or perceived relationship quality by grandparent type. Taken together, the findings suggest the substance of the relationship, more so than the structure, may be impactful for individuals building their life and reflecting on their values in early adulthood. In addition to elucidating areas for continued exploration, this work highlights the need for researchers and practitioners to consider variation in family structure when designing research and developing supports to reinforce positive, mutually beneficial grandparent-grandchild relationships.

The quality of relationships with adult children and depressive symptoms among grandparents

Objectives: The present study aims to identify distinct types of relationships between grandparents and their adult children, measure the associations between these relationship types and depressive symptoms among grandparents, and determine whether these associations vary by grandparent status. Method: This study uses data from a sample of 1,196 grandparents age 51 and older from the 2014 Health and Retirement Study. Latent class analysis (LCA) is applied and identifies types of grandparent-adult children relationships. Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression models are used to estimate the association between relationship types and depressive symptoms by grandparent status.Results: LCA identified four grandparent-adult children relationship types: amicable, ambivalent, detached, and disharmonious. Custodial and co-parenting grandparents were most likely to report having an ambivalent relationship with their adult children. Among co-parenting and custodial grandparents, disharmonious relationships were associated with more depressive symptoms.Conclusion: Interventions are suggested to improve emotional relationships with adult children and dyadic family relationships among grandparent families.

Aging and Family Relationships among Aymara, Mapuche and Non-Indigenous People: Exploring How Social Support, Family Functioning, and Self-Perceived Health Are Related to Quality of Life

Family relationships play a central role in wellbeing among older adults in Chile. Based on the theory of social production functions, this study examined the relationship between perceived social support from children, partners and relatives, family functioning, self-perceived health and quality of life (QoL) among Chilean older adults. The study used a multi-ethnic sample of Chilean older adults living in rural areas in the regions of Arica and Parinacota (north) and Araucanía (south). A model was analyzed that emphasizes relationships differentiated by the source of support, family functioning and self-perceived health in the explanation of QoL. The results obtained from the structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis showed the existence of indirect relationships of social support from children, partners and other family members via family functioning, while self-perceived health was directly associated with QoL. The findings indicate that family functioning is a main variable in the contrasted model, in addition to confirming the importance of distinguishing the role of the various sources of support. Research is needed to examine in detail intergenerational relationships and other relationships with family members who are significant in the wellbeing of older adults. This research corroborates that family relationships have a specificity that needs to be addressed in gerontological social intervention, as well as continuing along the lines of strengthening or improving existing family ties (more quality) over the quantity of social relationships.

Using the intergenerational solidarity framework to understand the grandparent-grandchild relationship: a scoping review

Intergenerational interactions and exchange are major components of grandparenting, and the present study sought to examine how the intergenerational solidarity framework has been used to investigate grandparenting practices across the lifespan and in different cultures. This framework is widely used across cultures and provides a basis to discuss the future of grandparenting research, considering cultural intermingling and changes in society. Following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, we searched three databases (PsycInfo, PubMed, and Web of Science). Finally, 42 empirical studies that met the inclusion criteria were included in this scoping review. They were published between 1991 and 2020 and assessed intergenerational solidarity between grandparents and their grandchildren. Our findings show that research on grandparenting based on the intergenerational solidarity framework has increased in the last 30 years, and that this model provides a comprehensive approach to studying grandparenting across the lifespan in different cultures. The present study identified cross-cultural differences in the prevalence of the types of intergenerational solidarity. Affectual solidarity was shown to be the most studied dimension of intergenerational solidarity in North America, Europe and Israel, while normative solidarity was the most represented in Asian studies. The only Australian study investigated affectual and functional solidarity. This model is thus suitable for studying grandparenting, but further studies are needed to investigate changes in intergenerational solidarity between grandparents and their grandchildren at different stages of development and account for cultural specificities.

Grandparent-Adult Grandchild Relationships: Development of a Typology Using Latent Class Analysis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Grandparent-adult grandchild relationships may not be captured in existing grandparenting typologies, which focus on early stages of these relationships. Our study develops a typology for later stages, estimates the prevalence of grandparents in each category, and examines associations between category membership and grandparent and grandchild characteristics.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Using a sample of 289 grandparents from the latest wave of the Longitudinal Study of Generations (2005), we employed latent class analysis to examine underlying categories of grandparent-adult grandchild relationships, based on four dimensions-frequency of contact, relationship quality, grandparents' receipt of support, and geographic distance.

RESULTS

Three latent classes emerged: Geographically Distant/Low Contact (45%), Geographically Close/High Contact (42%), and Geographically Close/Low Contact (13%). While geographic distance and frequency of contact were dimensions distinguishing grandparent-adult grandchild relationships, receipt of support and relationship quality were not. Most grandparents reported close relationships but infrequent support.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

By identifying categories of grandparent-adult grandchild relationships and factors influencing membership in them, our study may aid in efforts to strengthen those characterized by weak bonds-namely, those with grandparents who are older, frailer, and poorer.

Effects of the Older Family Network Program on Improving Quality of Life Among Older Adults in Thailand

BACKGROUND

The evidence of promoting family members' health care for older adults by applying family networks and theory of planned behavior will lead to mental health and lower the quality of life among older adults in rural community in Thailand is unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to assess the effects of health promotion among older adults using an aging family network program to reduce depression and improve quality of life (QOL) among older adults.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This quasi-experimental study was enrolled on one hundred and ten older adults and their family members. Fifty-five older adult participants joined the health promoting program using family member involvement. This program trained them to change health behaviors such as eating healthy food, exercising, emotion management and disability preventive activities to reduce dementia, stroke and falls. The program was conducted in a rural community for 12 months. A comparison group program conducted usual health promoting activities by health personnel. They evaluated quality of life (QOL) using WHOQOL-OLD measurement, and 30-item geriatric depression scale before implementing interventions and after interventions at 9th and 12th months. Data were analyzed using general linear mixed model analysis.

RESULTS

After the intervention, social support and perception of health care from family members were significantly improved at the 9th month. At the 12th month, overall QOL, sensory ability, social participation, intimacy, social support, and perception of health care from family members significantly improved. Depression was also reduced at the 12th month.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrated that health promotion using family members improved QOL and reduced depression long term. Policymakers should implement programs to improve QOL among older adults. They need to improve the involvement of family members when conducting health promotion among older adults and support funding due to conduct on weekends or in the evening.

Grieving a Grandparent: The Importance of Gender and Multigenerational Relationships

Objective

This study examined adult grandchildren's experience of losing a grandparent in the context of a multigenerational family.

Background

Although the death of a grandparent in adulthood is often an expected life event, this loss may still result in grief for adult grandchildren. Furthermore, bereavement is not merely an individual experience, but a family one. Characteristics of the relationship between bereaved adult grandchildren and their bereaved middle-generation parents may influence adult grandchildren's grief responses. This includes both structural (e.g., gender of parent; coresidence with parent) and emotional (e.g., relationship quality; worry about parent) aspects of this tie.

Method

Young adult grandchildren from Wave 2 of the Family Exchanges Study (2013, N = 204) reported on their recent grandparent loss experiences (N = 216) and relationships with their middle-generation parents (N= 142).

Results

Three-level multilevel models revealed that (a) grandsons who lost a grandmother reported significantly fewer grief symptoms than all other gender combinations; (b) worry about a middle-generation parent was associated with higher grief symptoms, but; (c) this effect was significantly stronger when the middle-generation parent was a mother, and when adult grandchildren were coresident with that bereaved parent. Finally, relationship quality with the middle-generation parent was not associated with grief symptoms, irrespective of context.

Conclusion

Results highlight the intersection of emotional and structural aspects of multigenerational relationships following the death of a family member.

Relationship Between Frailty and Depression Among Community-Dwelling Older Adults: The Mediating and Moderating Role of Social Support

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Frailty is associated with depression in older adults and reduces their social support. However, the mechanism underlying such relationship remains unclear. We aim to examine whether social support acts as a mediator or moderator in the relationship between frailty and depression.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted among 1,779 community-dwelling older adults aged 60 and older. Frailty, social support, and depressive symptoms were measured by the Physical Frailty Phenotype, Social Support Rating Scale, and five-item Geriatric Depression Scale, respectively. Data were also collected on age, gender, years of schooling, monthly income, cognitive function, number of chronic diseases, physical function, and pain.

RESULTS

Linear regression models showed that subjective support and support utilization, but not objective support, mediated and moderated the relationship between frailty and depressive symptoms. The Johnson-Neyman technique determined a threshold of 30 for subjective support, but not for support utilization, beyond which the detrimental effect of frailty on depressive symptoms was offset.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Social support underlies the association of frailty with depression, and its protective role varies by type. Interventions on depression should address improving perceptions and utilization of social support among frail older adults rather than simply providing them with objective support.

The psychometric properties, confirmatory factor analysis, and cut-off value for the Fraboni scale of ageism (FSA) in a sampling of healthcare workers

PURPOSE

The Fraboni scale of ageism (FSA) is one of the scales used to determine ageism, which is the expression of prejudice toward the elderly because of their age through attitudes and behaviors. The purpose of this study is to determine the psychometric properties, factor analysis, and cut-off value for the FSA in a sampling of healthcare workers.

DESIGN AND METHODS

The sampling of this study was conducted methodologically in a descriptive and relationship-seeking type of research and comprised 814 healthcare workers employed at a university and state hospital.

FINDINGS

As a result of the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, it was found that the FSA comprised 29 items and three subdimensions, that these three factors explain approximately 30.23% of the total variance, and that the cut-off value is 78.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

This study determined that the Turkish adaptation of the FSA is a suitable tool to measure the ageism of healthcare workers.

Grandparenthood and risk of mortality: Findings from the Health and Retirement Study

Grandparenthood constitutes a significant role for older adults and may have important health implications. Our study examines the grandparenthood-mortality nexus, controlling for an array of potentially confounding variables. Longitudinal survey data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) were used, comprising twelve biennial waves from 1992 to 2014 with linked data on vital status derived from the National Death Index. The sample included 27,463 participants aged ≥51 years with at least one child. Cox proportional hazard models tested the association between grandparenthood and mortality risk with adjustment for socio-demographic variables, for social variables including characteristics of and contact with children, and for health variables, including measures of general, functional and mental health. Grandparenthood overall was unassociated with mortality risk in both women and men. However, the subpopulation of younger, partnered grandmothers with a larger number of grandchildren tended to exhibit a substantial increase in mortality risk as compared to women without grandchildren.

Narrative Gerontology in Practice: Students' Experiences With Conducting Autoethnography

This study examines the benefits of introducing autoethnographic writing as part of an ageism intervention to familiarize students with the life course. In this mixed-methods study, 186 graduate and undergraduate students conducted interviews with a grandparent or older adult and subsequently assumed the identity of the grandparent to write introductions of themselves as if they were that grandparent, using "I" statements in an online discussion forum. Most assumed grandparents were women (78.0%), and White (63.8%) with an average age of 77.3 (SD = 12.3). Emerging themes were categorized into three levels: structural, familial, and individual. The number of times a certain theme was mentioned was counted and major themes were analyzed. Findings indicated how autoethnographic reflections can promote student examination of self-awareness, cultural heritages, and personal growth. This technique is encouraging as an educational ageism intervention and warrants further adaptation and testing.

The Experiences and Support Needs of Grandparents of Children Born With Cleft Lip and/or Palate

OBJECTIVE

The birth of a child with a cleft lip and/or palate (CL/P) can have a significant emotional and social impact on parents. Yet, the impact on the wider family is rarely investigated. Grandparents are becoming increasingly involved in the care of their grandchildren and may therefore have support needs of their own. The aim of the current study was to explore the experiences and support needs of grandparents of children born with CL/P.

DESIGN

Individual semistructured telephone interviews were carried out with 12 grandparents of children born with CL/P and were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Five themes were identified (1) emotional impact of CL/P on grandparents, (2) grandparents' social experiences, (3) grandparents' involvement, (4) grandparents' information needs, and (5) grandparents' support needs. Participants experienced difficult emotions around the time of diagnosis and were concerned about the child's treatment and future experiences. Participants played a significant role in supporting the whole family, but received little information or support themselves.

CONCLUSIONS

Grandparents reported experiences comparable to published literature on parents. Clinicians and charitable organizations could consider how existing resources could be made more accessible to and/or adapted for wider family members, including grandparents.

The Arabic version of the Kogan Attitudes toward Older People Scale among Saudi nursing students: a psychometric analysis

BACKGROUND

With the steadily increasing size of its elderly popu.lation, Saudi Arabia is currently trying to meet the demands for com.petent care for older people. However, the lack of a valid and reliable measurement instrument in the Arab Peninsula hinders related studies among nursing students in this part of the globe. Given the importance of nursing students' attitudes toward working with older people, a specialized tool that can provide an accurate assessment of students' attitudes toward older adults is necessary.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the psychometric properties of the Kogan Attitudes towards Older People Arabic version (KAOP-A) among Saudi nursing students.

DESIGN

Descriptive, cross-sectional.

SETTING

Nursing department of a government university.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Using total population sampling, Saudi nursing students were surveyed using the KAOP-A. The tool was culturally adapted to the Arabic language using a forward and backward method. Content and construct validity were established accordingly. The internal consistency was established to support the reliability of the tool.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The validity and reliability of the KAOP-A.

SAMPLE SIZE

164 nursing students.

RESULTS

The KAOP-A had acceptable content and construct valid.ity. The Exploratory Factor Analysis supported a two-factor solution for the KAOP-A with an explained variance of 60.12%. The computed Cronbach's alpha for the entire scale was 0.89. The mean score of the KAOP-A scale was 121.55 (SD=26.92, range=40-204), indicating a slightly positive attitude toward aging among the students. Nursing students belonging to extended type of family and living in rural community, as well as older students and students who reported higher degree of closeness with their grandparents, exhibited more positive attitudes towards older people.

CONCLUSION

The tool can be used to accurately assess student attitudes towards older people, which can inform the creation of educational policies and interventions geared towards creating a more positive outlook on older adult care among nursing students in Saudi Arabia.

LIMITATIONS

We did not perform test and re-test reliability analysis.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

None.

What do we know about grandparents? Insights from current quantitative data and identification of future data needs

Against the background of a 'new wave' of empirical studies investigating various aspects of grandparenthood across a broad range of regional contexts, this article aims to take stock of what has been achieved so far and which lessons we can learn from this for the future. Our focus is on the measurement of grandparenthood and grandparenting in quantitative social surveys and the implications this has for the substantive questions we can ask and the answers we can get out of such data. For several broader questions-who is a grandparent and when does this transition happen; what does it mean to be a grandparent; and what are the implications of grandparenthood for families?-we review previous questionnaire items from a variety of surveys as well as studies in which they were used. We identify relevant issues related to these questions which cannot be adequately addressed with currently available data, but should be considered in new or ongoing survey projects. The answers provided by recent studies as well as the many still open questions identified here indicate excellent prospects for scholarship on grandparents in the years to come.

Support Grandparents Give to Their Adult Grandchildren

Objectives

Many grandparents are involved in young grandchildren's lives, but we know little about grandparents' support of adult grandchildren. This study assessed frequency of different types of support that grandparents provided to adult grandchildren and examined potential explanations for such support (e.g., affection, grandchildren's needs, parents' support).

Method

Grandparents in The Family Exchanges Study Wave 2 (N = 198; Mage = 80.19) reported how often they provided six types of support to a focal adult grandchild.

Results

Multiple regressions revealed that grandparents' affective ties with an adult grandchild were associated with more frequent listening, emotional support, and companionship. Grandparents also provided more frequent emotional support to adult grandchildren when parents incurred life problems, and more frequent companionship and financial support when parents were not employed. Moreover, grandparents' listening, advice, and companionship with adult grandchildren were positively associated with the parents providing these types of support to grandchildren.

Discussion

Consistent with solidarity theory, grandparents experiencing greater affective ties with their grandchildren are invested in these ties regardless of family needs. Findings also offer limited evidence for the family watchdog model in that grandparents provide more support to grandchildren when parents incur problems, even though those parents may still provide support.

Family and community support among older Chilean adults: the importance of heterogeneous social support sources for quality of life

Family and community social networks act as social resources that promote well-being at advanced ages. In this study, we analyze the association between social support received from personal social networks (social support from various family members and friends) and community social networks (social support from neighbors and the neighborhood, age, ethnic, or religious group peers and formal social support networks) and quality of life (QoL) for a sample of older Chilean persons (n = 777). The results confirm that social support from family (partner, children, and extended family) and friends, integration in the community (neighbors) and social support from informal systems (social groups) are associated with QoL. Moreover, the model including both types of support explains 25.8% of variance in QoL. The results and their possible implications are discussed.

A systematic review of grandparents' influence on grandchildren's cancer risk factors

Many lifestyle patterns are established when children are young. Research has focused on the potential role of parents as a risk factor for non communicable disease in children, but there is limited investigation of the role of other caregivers, such as grandparents. The aim of this review was to identify and synthesise evidence for any influence grandparents' care practices may have on their grandchildren's long term cancer risk factors. A systematic review was carried out with searches across four databases (MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, PsycINFO) as well as searches of reference lists and citing articles, and Google Scholar. Search terms were based on six areas of risk that family care could potentially influence-weight, diet, physical activity, tobacco, alcohol and sun exposure. All study designs were included, as were studies that provided an indication of the interaction of grandparents with their grandchildren. Studies were excluded if grandparents were primary caregivers and if children had serious health conditions. Study quality was assessed using National Institute for Health and Care Excellence checklists. Grandparent impact was categorised as beneficial, adverse, mixed or as having no impact. Due to study heterogeneity a meta-analysis was not possible. Qualitative studies underwent a thematic synthesis of their results. Results from all included studies indicated that there was a sufficient evidence base for weight, diet, physical activity and tobacco studies to draw conclusions about grandparents' influence. One study examined alcohol and no studies examined sun exposure. Evidence indicated that, overall, grandparents had an adverse impact on their grandchildren's cancer risk factors. The theoretical work in the included studies was limited. Theoretically underpinned interventions designed to reduce these risk factors must consider grandparents' role, as well as parents', and be evaluated robustly to inform the evidence base further.