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Fare CM, Rothstein JD. Nuclear pore dysfunction and disease: a complex opportunity. Nucleus 2024; 15:2314297. [PMID: 38383349 PMCID: PMC10883112 DOI: 10.1080/19491034.2024.2314297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The separation of genetic material from bulk cytoplasm has enabled the evolution of increasingly complex organisms, allowing for the development of sophisticated forms of life. However, this complexity has created new categories of dysfunction, including those related to the movement of material between cellular compartments. In eukaryotic cells, nucleocytoplasmic trafficking is a fundamental biological process, and cumulative disruptions to nuclear integrity and nucleocytoplasmic transport are detrimental to cell survival. This is particularly true in post-mitotic neurons, where nuclear pore injury and errors to nucleocytoplasmic trafficking are strongly associated with neurodegenerative disease. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of nuclear pore biology in physiological and pathological contexts and discuss potential therapeutic approaches for addressing nuclear pore injury and dysfunctional nucleocytoplasmic transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte M Fare
- Department of Neurology and Brain Science Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Rothstein
- Department of Neurology and Brain Science Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
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2
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Uzelac Z, Schwäble B, Dorst J, Rosenbohm A, Wollinsky K, Wurster CD, Steinbreier JS, Ludolph AC. Pattern of pareses in 5q-spinal muscular atrophy. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2024; 17:17562864241263420. [PMID: 39206217 PMCID: PMC11350530 DOI: 10.1177/17562864241263420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Background This prospective study investigates the pattern of pareses in 5q-associated spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) to identify disease-specific characteristics and potential differences from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinobulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA). Detailed knowledge about pareses patterns in SMA facilitates differential diagnosis and supports therapeutic monitoring. Methods Between January 2021, and June 2021, 66 SMA patients (59.1% male, aged 33.6 ± 15.2 years) were included in the study. Most patients had SMA type II (n = 28) or SMA type III (n = 28), seven patients had SMA type I, and three patients had SMA type IV. We analyzed the pattern of pareses using the UK Medical Research Council (MRC) scoring system. Results In both, upper and lower limbs muscle weakness was less pronounced in distal (upper limbs: MRC median 3.0 (interquartile range 1.5-3.5); lower limbs: 1.5 (0.5-3.0)) compared to proximal muscle groups (upper limbs: 2.0 (1.5-2.6); p < 0.001; lower limbs: 0.5 (0.5-1.5); p < 0.001). Thenar muscles were stronger than other small hand muscles (3.0 (2.0-3.5) vs 3.0 (1.5-3.5); p = 0.004). Muscles had more strength in upper (2.3 (1.5-3.1)) compared to lower limbs (1.1 (0.5-2.3); p < 0.001) and in flexors compared to extensors. Conclusion We identified a specific pattern of muscle paresis in SMA which is different from the pattern of paresis in ALS and SBMA. As a rule of thumb, the pattern of pareses is similar, but not identical to ALS in distal, but different in proximal muscle groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeljko Uzelac
- Department of Neurology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Johannes Dorst
- Department of Neurology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Research Site Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Kurt Wollinsky
- Department of Anesthesiology, RKU—University and Rehabilitation Clinics, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Claudia D. Wurster
- Department of Neurology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Research Site Ulm, Ulm, Germany
- Institute of Human Genetics, Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Albert C. Ludolph
- Department of Neurology, Ulm University, Oberer Eselsberg 45, 89091 Ulm, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Research Site Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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3
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McPheron MA, Felker MV. Clinical perspectives: Treating spinal muscular atrophy. Mol Ther 2024; 32:2489-2504. [PMID: 38894541 PMCID: PMC11405177 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2024.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy is a rare and progressive neuromuscular disease that, without treatment, leads to progressive weakness and often death. A plethora of studies have led to the approval of three high-cost and effective treatments since 2016. These treatments, nusinersen, onasemnogene abeparvovec, and risdiplam, have not been directly compared and have varying challenges in administration. In this review, we discuss the evidence supporting the use of these medications, the process of treatment selection, monitoring after treatment, the limited data comparing treatments, as well as future directions for investigation and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly A McPheron
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Marcia V Felker
- Department of Neurology, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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4
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Harkins AL, Ambegaokar PP, Keeler AM. Immune responses to central nervous system directed adeno-associated virus gene therapy: Does direct CNS delivery make a difference? Neurotherapeutics 2024; 21:e00435. [PMID: 39180957 PMCID: PMC11386282 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurot.2024.e00435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Adeno-associated virus (AAV) mediated gene therapy is a leading gene delivery platform with potential to transform the landscape of treatment for neurological disorders. While AAV is deemed non-immunogenic compared to other viral vectors, adverse immune reactions have been observed in the clinic, raising concerns. As the central nervous system (CNS) has a tightly regulated immune system, characterized by a degree of tolerance, it has been considered a unique target for AAV gene therapy. AAV vectors have shown promising results for the treatment of several CNS disorders including Spinal Muscular Atrophy, Giant Axonal Neuropathy, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Tay Sachs Disease, Parkinson's Disease, and others, demonstrating safety and success. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of Zolgensma and European Medicines Agency (EMA) approval of Upstaza, for Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) and Aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency (AADC) respectively, represent this success, all while highlighting significant differences in immune responses to AAV, particularly with regards to therapeutic administration route. AAV therapies like Upstaza that are injected directly into the immune-specialized brain have been characterized by mild immune response profiles and minor adverse events, whereas therapies like Zolgensma that are injected systemically demonstrate more robust immune stimulation and off-target toxicities. Despite these contrasting parallels, these therapeutics and others in the clinic have demonstrated clinical benefit for patients, warranting further exploration of immune responses to CNS-directed AAV clinical trials. Thus, in this review, we discuss effects of different routes of AAV administration on eliciting local and peripheral immune responses specifically observed in CNS-targeted trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley L Harkins
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Morningside Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States; Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States; Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States
| | - Prajakta P Ambegaokar
- Graduate Program in Translational Science, Morningside Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States; Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States
| | - Allison M Keeler
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Morningside Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States; Graduate Program in Translational Science, Morningside Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States; NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States; Department of Pediatrics, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States; Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, United States.
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5
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Baylot V, Le TK, Taïeb D, Rocchi P, Colleaux L. Between hope and reality: treatment of genetic diseases through nucleic acid-based drugs. Commun Biol 2024; 7:489. [PMID: 38653753 PMCID: PMC11039704 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-06121-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Rare diseases (RD) affect a small number of people compared to the general population and are mostly genetic in origin. The first clinical signs often appear at birth or in childhood, and patients endure high levels of pain and progressive loss of autonomy frequently associated with short life expectancy. Until recently, the low prevalence of RD and the gatekeeping delay in their diagnosis have long hampered research. The era of nucleic acid (NA)-based therapies has revolutionized the landscape of RD treatment and new hopes arise with the perspectives of disease-modifying drugs development as some NA-based therapies are now entering the clinical stage. Herein, we review NA-based drugs that were approved and are currently under investigation for the treatment of RD. We also discuss the recent structural improvements of NA-based therapeutics and delivery system, which overcome the main limitations in their market expansion and the current approaches that are developed to address the endosomal escape issue. We finally open the discussion on the ethical and societal issues that raise this new technology in terms of regulatory approval and sustainability of production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginie Baylot
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CINAM, ERL INSERM U 1326, CERIMED, Marseille, France.
| | - Thi Khanh Le
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CINAM, ERL INSERM U 1326, CERIMED, Marseille, France
| | - David Taïeb
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CINAM, ERL INSERM U 1326, CERIMED, Marseille, France
| | - Palma Rocchi
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CINAM, ERL INSERM U 1326, CERIMED, Marseille, France.
| | - Laurence Colleaux
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CINAM, ERL INSERM U 1326, CERIMED, Marseille, France
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6
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Xie Q, Chen X, Ma H, Zhu Y, Ma Y, Jalinous L, Cox GF, Weaver F, Yang J, Kennedy Z, Gruntman A, Du A, Su Q, He R, Tai PW, Gao G, Xie J. Improved gene therapy for spinal muscular atrophy in mice using codon-optimized hSMN1 transgene and hSMN1 gene-derived promotor. EMBO Mol Med 2024; 16:945-965. [PMID: 38413838 PMCID: PMC11018631 DOI: 10.1038/s44321-024-00037-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Physiological regulation of transgene expression is a major challenge in gene therapy. Onasemnogene abeparvovec (Zolgensma®) is an approved adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector gene therapy for infants with spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), however, adverse events have been observed in both animals and patients following treatment. The construct contains a native human survival motor neuron 1 (hSMN1) transgene driven by a strong, cytomegalovirus enhancer/chicken β-actin (CMVen/CB) promoter providing high, ubiquitous tissue expression of SMN. We developed a second-generation AAV9 gene therapy expressing a codon-optimized hSMN1 transgene driven by a promoter derived from the native hSMN1 gene. This vector restored SMN expression close to physiological levels in the central nervous system and major systemic organs of a severe SMA mouse model. In a head-to-head comparison between the second-generation vector and a benchmark vector, identical in design to onasemnogene abeparvovec, the 2nd-generation vector showed better safety and improved efficacy in SMA mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Xie
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Xiupeng Chen
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Hong Ma
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Viral Vector Core, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | | | - Yijie Ma
- CANbridge Pharmaceuticals, Burlington, MA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Jun Yang
- CANbridge Pharmaceuticals, Burlington, MA, USA
| | | | - Alisha Gruntman
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Pediatrics, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Ailing Du
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Qin Su
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Viral Vector Core, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Ran He
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Viral Vector Core, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Phillip Wl Tai
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Li Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases Research, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Guangping Gao
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Li Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases Research, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
| | - Jun Xie
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Viral Vector Core, UMass Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
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7
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Rashid S, Dimitriadi M. Autophagy in spinal muscular atrophy: from pathogenic mechanisms to therapeutic approaches. Front Cell Neurosci 2024; 17:1307636. [PMID: 38259504 PMCID: PMC10801191 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1307636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a devastating neuromuscular disorder caused by the depletion of the ubiquitously expressed survival motor neuron (SMN) protein. While the genetic cause of SMA has been well documented, the exact mechanism(s) by which SMN depletion results in disease progression remain elusive. A wide body of evidence has highlighted the involvement and dysregulation of autophagy in SMA. Autophagy is a highly conserved lysosomal degradation process which is necessary for cellular homeostasis; defects in the autophagic machinery have been linked with a wide range of neurodegenerative disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. The pathway is particularly known to prevent neurodegeneration and has been suggested to act as a neuroprotective factor, thus presenting an attractive target for novel therapies for SMA patients. In this review, (a) we provide for the first time a comprehensive summary of the perturbations in the autophagic networks that characterize SMA development, (b) highlight the autophagic regulators which may play a key role in SMA pathogenesis and (c) propose decreased autophagic flux as the causative agent underlying the autophagic dysregulation observed in these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Dimitriadi
- School of Life and Medical Science, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
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8
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Waddington SN, Peranteau WH, Rahim AA, Boyle AK, Kurian MA, Gissen P, Chan JKY, David AL. Fetal gene therapy. J Inherit Metab Dis 2024; 47:192-210. [PMID: 37470194 PMCID: PMC10799196 DOI: 10.1002/jimd.12659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Fetal gene therapy was first proposed toward the end of the 1990s when the field of gene therapy was, to quote the Gartner hype cycle, at its "peak of inflated expectations." Gene therapy was still an immature field but over the ensuing decade, it matured and is now a clinical and market reality. The trajectory of treatment for several genetic diseases is toward earlier intervention. The ability, capacity, and the will to diagnose genetic disease early-in utero-improves day by day. A confluence of clinical trials now signposts a trajectory toward fetal gene therapy. In this review, we recount the history of fetal gene therapy in the context of the broader field, discuss advances in fetal surgery and diagnosis, and explore the full ambit of preclinical gene therapy for inherited metabolic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon N Waddington
- EGA Institute for Women's Health, University College London, London, UK
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Wits/SAMRC Antiviral Gene Therapy Research Unit, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - William H Peranteau
- The Center for Fetal Research, Division of General, Thoracic, and Fetal Surgery, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Ahad A Rahim
- UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, UK
| | - Ashley K Boyle
- EGA Institute for Women's Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Manju A Kurian
- Developmental Neurosciences, Zayed Centre for Research into Rare Disease in Children, GOS-Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, UK
- Department of Neurology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Paul Gissen
- Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, UK
- Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- National Institute of Health Research Great Ormond Street Biomedical Research Centre, London, UK
| | - Jerry K Y Chan
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, KK Women's and Children's Hospital, Singapore, Singapore
- Academic Clinical Program in Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
- Experimental Fetal Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Anna L David
- EGA Institute for Women's Health, University College London, London, UK
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Yoshida K, Tsunekawa Y, Kurihara K, Watanabe K, Makino-Manabe Y, Wada M, Tanaka T, Ide T, Okada T. Engineering a highly durable adeno-associated virus receptor for analytical applications. Mol Ther Methods Clin Dev 2023; 31:101157. [PMID: 38152699 PMCID: PMC10751509 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2023.101157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is a major viral vector used in gene therapy. There are multiple AAV serotypes, and many engineered AAV serotypes are developed to alter their tissue tropisms with capsid modification. The universal AAV receptor (AAVR) is an essential receptor for multiple AAV serotypes. Since most AAV serotypes used in gene therapy infect cells via interaction with AAVR, the quantification of the vector-binding ability of AAV to AAVR could be an important quality check for therapeutic AAV vectors. To enable a steady evaluation of the AAV-AAVR interaction, we created an engineered AAVR through mutagenesis. Engineered AAVR showed high durability against acid while retaining its AAV-binding activity. An affinity chromatography column with the engineered AAVR was also developed. This column enabled repeated binding and acid dissociation measurements of AAVR with various AAV serotypes. Our data showed that the binding affinities of AAV2 to AAVR were diverse among serotypes, providing insight into the relationship with the infection efficiency of AAV vectors. Thus, this affinity column can be used in process development for quality checks, quantitating capsid titers, and affinity purification of AAV vectors. Furthermore, this column may serve as a useful tool in novel AAV vector capsid engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kouhei Yoshida
- Division of Molecular and Medical Genetics, Center for Gene and Cell Therapy, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1, Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
- Tosoh Corporation, Life Science Research Laboratory, 2743-1, Hayakawa, Ayase, Kanagawa 252-1123, Japan
| | - Yuji Tsunekawa
- Division of Molecular and Medical Genetics, Center for Gene and Cell Therapy, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1, Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
| | - Kento Kurihara
- Tosoh Corporation, Life Science Research Laboratory, 2743-1, Hayakawa, Ayase, Kanagawa 252-1123, Japan
| | - Kazuya Watanabe
- Tosoh Corporation, Life Science Research Laboratory, 2743-1, Hayakawa, Ayase, Kanagawa 252-1123, Japan
| | - Yuriko Makino-Manabe
- Tosoh Corporation, Life Science Research Laboratory, 2743-1, Hayakawa, Ayase, Kanagawa 252-1123, Japan
| | - Mikako Wada
- Division of Molecular and Medical Genetics, Center for Gene and Cell Therapy, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1, Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
| | - Toru Tanaka
- Tosoh Corporation, Life Science Research Laboratory, 2743-1, Hayakawa, Ayase, Kanagawa 252-1123, Japan
| | - Teruhiko Ide
- Tosoh Corporation, Life Science Research Laboratory, 2743-1, Hayakawa, Ayase, Kanagawa 252-1123, Japan
| | - Takashi Okada
- Division of Molecular and Medical Genetics, Center for Gene and Cell Therapy, The Institute of Medical Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1, Shirokanedai, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan
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Nafchi NAM, Chilcott EM, Brown S, Fuller HR, Bowerman M, Yáñez-Muñoz RJ. Enhanced expression of the human Survival motor neuron 1 gene from a codon-optimised cDNA transgene in vitro and in vivo. Gene Ther 2023; 30:812-825. [PMID: 37322133 DOI: 10.1038/s41434-023-00406-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neuromuscular disease particularly characterised by degeneration of ventral motor neurons. Survival motor neuron (SMN) 1 gene mutations cause SMA, and gene addition strategies to replace the faulty SMN1 copy are a therapeutic option. We have developed a novel, codon-optimised hSMN1 transgene and produced integration-proficient and integration-deficient lentiviral vectors with cytomegalovirus (CMV), human synapsin (hSYN) or human phosphoglycerate kinase (hPGK) promoters to determine the optimal expression cassette configuration. Integrating, CMV-driven and codon-optimised hSMN1 lentiviral vectors resulted in the highest production of functional SMN protein in vitro. Integration-deficient lentiviral vectors also led to significant expression of the optimised transgene and are expected to be safer than integrating vectors. Lentiviral delivery in culture led to activation of the DNA damage response, in particular elevating levels of phosphorylated ataxia telangiectasia mutated (pATM) and γH2AX, but the optimised hSMN1 transgene showed some protective effects. Neonatal delivery of adeno-associated viral vector (AAV9) vector encoding the optimised transgene to the Smn2B/- mouse model of SMA resulted in a significant increase of SMN protein levels in liver and spinal cord. This work shows the potential of a novel codon-optimised hSMN1 transgene as a therapeutic strategy for SMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neda A M Nafchi
- AGCTlab.org, Centre of Gene and Cell Therapy, Centre for Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences and the Environment, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK
| | - Ellie M Chilcott
- AGCTlab.org, Centre of Gene and Cell Therapy, Centre for Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences and the Environment, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK
| | - Sharon Brown
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
- Wolfson Centre for Inherited Neuromuscular Disease, TORCH Building, RJAH Orthopaedic Hospital, Oswestry, SY10 7AG, UK
| | - Heidi R Fuller
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
- Wolfson Centre for Inherited Neuromuscular Disease, TORCH Building, RJAH Orthopaedic Hospital, Oswestry, SY10 7AG, UK
| | - Melissa Bowerman
- Wolfson Centre for Inherited Neuromuscular Disease, TORCH Building, RJAH Orthopaedic Hospital, Oswestry, SY10 7AG, UK
- School of Medicine, Keele University, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Rafael J Yáñez-Muñoz
- AGCTlab.org, Centre of Gene and Cell Therapy, Centre for Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences and the Environment, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK.
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Audic F. Gene therapy in spinal muscular atrophy. Arch Pediatr 2023; 30:8S12-8S17. [PMID: 38043977 DOI: 10.1016/s0929-693x(23)00222-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
Infantile SMA is a neuromuscular disease caused by the motor neuron degeneration, depending on the age of appearance of clinical signs and the evolution of the disease, three types of decreasing severity have been defined. SMA is caused by mutations or deletions of the SMN1 gene and disease. Various therapies aimed at increasing SMN protein levels have been developed. Gene therapy is part of the therapeutic arsenal now available for the treatment of SMA under certain conditions. It uses the scAAV9 vector carrying a functional copy of SMN1 to restore SMN protein expression at the cellular level. Because the adeno-associated virus genome is maintained as it is an episome, a single intravenous administration is sufficient to producing a long-lasting therapeutic effect. The effectiveness of gene replacement therapy in patients with SMA has been demonstrated in various studies. It is now clear that treatment as early as possible provides better clinical results. However, this treatment must be carried out in a suitable medical environment, with close monitoring initially due to potentially serious side effects. In France, this treatment has been available since 2019. A national committee of experts involved in the treatment of pediatric SMA patients has established that pediatric patients with SMA decide on the indications for disease-modifying therapies (DMT) in children. The French Spinal Muscular Atrophy Registry (SMA France Registry) was established in January 2020. The registry includes all patients with genetically confirmed SMN1-related SMA. All patients treated with GT are systematically included in the registry. As of July 21, 2023: 72 patients with SMA have been treated with GT in France since June 2019. The arrival of new treatments reveals new clinical phenotypes of SMA which constitute a new management challenge. Treatment as early as possible is also a very important factor for a favorable outcome and calls for presymptomatic screening. However, the arrival of these new treatments, extremely expensive raises other socio-economic questions. © 2023 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS on behalf of French Society of Pediatrics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédérique Audic
- Centre de Référence des Maladies Neuromusculaires de l'enfant PACARARE, Service de Neuropédiatrie, Hôpital Timone Enfants, 264 rue Saint Pierre, 14 13385 Marseille Cedex 5, France.
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12
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Crisafulli S, Boccanegra B, Vitturi G, Trifirò G, De Luca A. Pharmacological Therapies of Spinal Muscular Atrophy: A Narrative Review of Preclinical, Clinical-Experimental, and Real-World Evidence. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1446. [PMID: 37891814 PMCID: PMC10605203 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13101446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a rare neuromuscular disease, with an estimated incidence of about 1 in 10,000 live births. To date, three orphan drugs have been approved for the treatment of SMA: nusinersen, onasemnogene abeparvovec, and risdiplam. The aim of this narrative review was to provide an overview of the pre- and post-marketing evidence on the pharmacological treatments approved for the treatment of SMA by identifying preclinical and clinical studies registered in clinicaltrials.gov and in the EU PAS register from their inception until the 4 January 2023. The preclinical evidence on the drugs approved for SMA allowed a significant acceleration in the experimental phase of these drugs. However, since these drugs had been authorized through accelerated programs, the conduction of post-marketing studies was requested as a condition of their marketing approval to better understand their risk-benefit profiles in real-world settings. As of the 4 January 2023, a total of 69 post-marketing studies concerning the three orphan drugs approved for SMA were identified in clinicaltrials.gov (N = 65; 94.2%) and in the EU PAS register (N = 4; 5.8%). Currently, ongoing studies are primarily aimed at providing evidence concerning the risk-benefit profile of the three drugs in specific populations that were not included in the pivotal trials and to investigate the long-term safety and clinical benefits of these drugs. Real-world data sources collecting information regarding the natural history of the disease and post-marketing surveillance of the available therapies are increasingly becoming essential for generating real-world evidence on this rare disease and its orphan drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Crisafulli
- Department of Medicine, University of Verona, Piazzale Ludovico Antonio Scuro 10, 37124 Verona, Italy;
| | - Brigida Boccanegra
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy; (B.B.); (A.D.L.)
| | - Giacomo Vitturi
- Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Piazzale Ludovico Antonio Scuro 10, 37124 Verona, Italy;
| | - Gianluca Trifirò
- Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Piazzale Ludovico Antonio Scuro 10, 37124 Verona, Italy;
| | - Annamaria De Luca
- Department of Pharmacy-Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy; (B.B.); (A.D.L.)
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13
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Ling Q, Herstine JA, Bradbury A, Gray SJ. AAV-based in vivo gene therapy for neurological disorders. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2023; 22:789-806. [PMID: 37658167 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-023-00766-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
Recent advancements in gene supplementation therapy are expanding the options for the treatment of neurological disorders. Among the available delivery vehicles, adeno-associated virus (AAV) is often the favoured vector. However, the results have been variable, with some trials dramatically altering the course of disease whereas others have shown negligible efficacy or even unforeseen toxicity. Unlike traditional drug development with small molecules, therapeutic profiles of AAV gene therapies are dependent on both the AAV capsid and the therapeutic transgene. In this rapidly evolving field, numerous clinical trials of gene supplementation for neurological disorders are ongoing. Knowledge is growing about factors that impact the translation of preclinical studies to humans, including the administration route, timing of treatment, immune responses and limitations of available model systems. The field is also developing potential solutions to mitigate adverse effects, including AAV capsid engineering and designs to regulate transgene expression. At the same time, preclinical research is addressing new frontiers of gene supplementation for neurological disorders, with a focus on mitochondrial and neurodevelopmental disorders. In this Review, we describe the current state of AAV-mediated neurological gene supplementation therapy, including critical factors for optimizing the safety and efficacy of treatments, as well as unmet needs in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinglan Ling
- Department of Paediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Jessica A Herstine
- Center for Gene Therapy, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Paediatrics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Allison Bradbury
- Center for Gene Therapy, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Paediatrics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Steven J Gray
- Department of Paediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
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14
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Tuncel G, Sanlıdag B, Dirik E, Baris T, Ergoren MC, Temel SG. Lessons from Real Life Experience: Importance of In-House Sequencing and Smart Ratio-Based Real-Time PCR Outperform Multiplex Ligation-Dependent Probe Amplification in Prenatal Diagnosis for Spinal Muscular Atrophy: Bench to Bedside Diagnosis. Glob Med Genet 2023; 10:240-246. [PMID: 37663644 PMCID: PMC10471427 DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-1774307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a rare, recessively inherited neurodegenerative disorder caused by the presence of pathogenic variants in the SMN gene. As it is the leading inherited cause of infant mortality, identification of SMN gene pathogenic variant carriers is important for diagnostic purposes with effective genetic counseling. Multiple ligation probe analysis (MLPA), a probe-based method, is considered as the gold standard for SMA carrier analysis. However, MLPA might give false-negative results in cases with variations in the probe-binding regions. Here, we present a case born to consanguineous SMA carrier parents. Prenatal diagnosis with MLPA failed to detect the compound heterozygous mutant state of the proband and she was born unfortunately with SMA phenotype. Further analysis with a real-time polymerase chain reaction kit was able to detect the compound heterozygous state of the patient and was confirmed with targeted next-generation sequencing technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gulten Tuncel
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus
- DESAM Research Institute, Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Burcin Sanlıdag
- Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Eray Dirik
- Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Tugba Baris
- Gelişim Tıp Laboratuvarları, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Mahmut Cerkez Ergoren
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Near East University, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Sehime Gulsun Temel
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
- Department of Translational Medicine, Institute of Health Science, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
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15
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Papaioannou I, Owen JS, Yáñez‐Muñoz RJ. Clinical applications of gene therapy for rare diseases: A review. Int J Exp Pathol 2023; 104:154-176. [PMID: 37177842 PMCID: PMC10349259 DOI: 10.1111/iep.12478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Rare diseases collectively exact a high toll on society due to their sheer number and overall prevalence. Their heterogeneity, diversity, and nature pose daunting clinical challenges for both management and treatment. In this review, we discuss recent advances in clinical applications of gene therapy for rare diseases, focusing on a variety of viral and non-viral strategies. The use of adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors is discussed in the context of Luxturna, licenced for the treatment of RPE65 deficiency in the retinal epithelium. Imlygic, a herpes virus vector licenced for the treatment of refractory metastatic melanoma, will be an example of oncolytic vectors developed against rare cancers. Yescarta and Kymriah will showcase the use of retrovirus and lentivirus vectors in the autologous ex vivo production of chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T), licenced for the treatment of refractory leukaemias and lymphomas. Similar retroviral and lentiviral technology can be applied to autologous haematopoietic stem cells, exemplified by Strimvelis and Zynteglo, licenced treatments for adenosine deaminase-severe combined immunodeficiency (ADA-SCID) and β-thalassaemia respectively. Antisense oligonucleotide technologies will be highlighted through Onpattro and Tegsedi, RNA interference drugs licenced for familial transthyretin (TTR) amyloidosis, and Spinraza, a splice-switching treatment for spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). An initial comparison of the effectiveness of AAV and oligonucleotide therapies in SMA is possible with Zolgensma, an AAV serotype 9 vector, and Spinraza. Through these examples of marketed gene therapies and gene cell therapies, we will discuss the expanding applications of such novel technologies to previously intractable rare diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - James S. Owen
- Division of MedicineUniversity College LondonLondonUK
| | - Rafael J. Yáñez‐Muñoz
- AGCTlab.orgCentre of Gene and Cell TherapyCentre for Biomedical SciencesDepartment of Biological SciencesSchool of Life Sciences and the EnvironmentRoyal Holloway University of LondonEghamUK
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16
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Ishibashi Y, Sung CYW, Grati M, Chien W. Immune responses in the mammalian inner ear and their implications for AAV-mediated inner ear gene therapy. Hear Res 2023; 432:108735. [PMID: 36965335 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2023.108735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
Abstract
Adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated inner ear gene therapy is a promising treatment option for hearing loss and dizziness. Several studies have shown that AAV-mediated inner ear gene therapy can be applied to various mouse models of hereditary hearing loss to improve their auditory function. Despite the increase in AAV-based animal and clinical studies aiming to rescue auditory and vestibular functions, little is currently known about the host immune responses to AAV in the mammalian inner ear. It has been reported that the host immune response plays an important role in the safety and efficacy of viral-mediated gene therapy. Therefore, in order for AAV-mediated gene therapy to be successfully and safely translated into patients with hearing loss and dizziness, a better understanding of the host immune responses to AAV in the inner ear is critical. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on host immune responses to AAV-mediated gene therapy in the mammalian inner ear and other organ systems. We also outline the areas of research that are critical for ensuring the safety and efficacy of AAV-mediated inner ear gene therapy in future clinical and translational studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuko Ishibashi
- Inner Ear Gene Therapy Program, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), National Institutes of Health, 35A 1F220, 35A Covent Dr., Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Cathy Yea Won Sung
- Laboratory of Hearing Biology and Therapeutics, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mhamed Grati
- Inner Ear Gene Therapy Program, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), National Institutes of Health, 35A 1F220, 35A Covent Dr., Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Wade Chien
- Inner Ear Gene Therapy Program, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), National Institutes of Health, 35A 1F220, 35A Covent Dr., Bethesda, MD 20892, USA; Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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17
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Günther R. [Gene Therapies in Motor Neuron Diseases ALS and SMA]. FORTSCHRITTE DER NEUROLOGIE-PSYCHIATRIE 2023; 91:153-163. [PMID: 36822211 DOI: 10.1055/a-2002-5215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
In the past, the diagnosis of motor neuron diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and 5q-associated spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) meant powerlessness in the face of seemingly untreatable diseases with severe motor-functional limitations and sometimes fatal courses. Recent advances in an understanding of the genetic causalities of these diseases, combined with success in the development of targeted gene therapy strategies, spell hope for effective, innovative therapeutic approaches, pioneering the ability to treat neurodegenerative diseases. While gene therapies have been approved for SMA since a few years, gene therapy research in ALS is still in clinical trials with encouraging results. This article provides an overview of the genetic background of ALS and SMA known to date and gene therapy approaches to them with a focus on therapy candidates that are in clinical trials or have already gained market approval.
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Affiliation(s)
- René Günther
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Neurologie, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus at Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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18
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Qiu J, Wu L, Qu R, Jiang T, Bai J, Sheng L, Feng P, Sun J. History of development of the life-saving drug “Nusinersen” in spinal muscular atrophy. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:942976. [PMID: 36035257 PMCID: PMC9414009 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.942976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive disorder with an incidence of 1/6,000–1/10,000 and is the leading fatal disease among infants. Previously, there was no effective treatment for SMA. The first effective drug, nusinersen, was approved by the US FDA in December 2016, providing hope to SMA patients worldwide. The drug was introduced in the European Union in 2017 and China in 2019 and has so far saved the lives of several patients in most parts of the world. Nusinersen are fixed sequence antisense oligonucleotides with special chemical modifications. The development of nusinersen progressed through major scientific discoveries in medicine, genetics, biology, and other disciplines, wherein several scientists have made substantial contributions. In this article, we will briefly describe the pathogenesis and therapeutic strategies of SMA, summarize the timeline of important scientific findings during the development of nusinersen in a detailed, scientific, and objective manner, and finally discuss the implications of the development of nusinersen for SMA research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaying Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Tissue Engineering Technology Products, Jiangsu Clinical Medicine Center of Tissue Engineering and Nerve Injury Repair, Nantong University, Nantong, China
- Department of Prenatal Screening and Diagnosis Center, Affiliated Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Liucheng Wu
- Laboratory Animal Center, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Ruobing Qu
- Biomedical Polymers Laboratory, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Tao Jiang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Jialin Bai
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lei Sheng
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Pengchao Feng
- Nanjing Antisense Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Nanjing, China
| | - Junjie Sun
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Tissue Engineering Technology Products, Jiangsu Clinical Medicine Center of Tissue Engineering and Nerve Injury Repair, Nantong University, Nantong, China
- *Correspondence: Junjie Sun
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19
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López-Cortés A, Echeverría-Garcés G, Ramos-Medina MJ. Molecular Pathogenesis and New Therapeutic Dimensions for Spinal Muscular Atrophy. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11060894. [PMID: 35741415 PMCID: PMC9219894 DOI: 10.3390/biology11060894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The condition known as 5q spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a devastating autosomal recessive neuromuscular disease caused by a deficiency of the ubiquitous protein survival of motor neuron (SMN), which is encoded by the SMN1 and SMN2 genes. It is one of the most common pediatric recessive genetic diseases, and it represents the most common cause of hereditary infant mortality. After decades of intensive basic and clinical research efforts, and improvements in the standard of care, successful therapeutic milestones have been developed, delaying the progression of 5q SMA and increasing patient survival. At the same time, promising data from early-stage clinical trials have indicated that additional therapeutic options are likely to emerge in the near future. Here, we provide updated information on the molecular underpinnings of SMA; we also provide an overview of the rapidly evolving therapeutic landscape for SMA, including SMN-targeted therapies, SMN-independent therapies, and combinational therapies that are likely to be key for the development of treatments that are effective across a patient’s lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés López-Cortés
- Programa de Investigación en Salud Global, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Internacional SEK, Quito 170302, Ecuador
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito 170124, Ecuador
- Latin American Network for the Implementation and Validation of Clinical Pharmacogenomics Guidelines (RELIVAF-CYTED), 28001 Madrid, Spain; (G.E.-G.); (M.J.R.-M.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Gabriela Echeverría-Garcés
- Latin American Network for the Implementation and Validation of Clinical Pharmacogenomics Guidelines (RELIVAF-CYTED), 28001 Madrid, Spain; (G.E.-G.); (M.J.R.-M.)
| | - María José Ramos-Medina
- Latin American Network for the Implementation and Validation of Clinical Pharmacogenomics Guidelines (RELIVAF-CYTED), 28001 Madrid, Spain; (G.E.-G.); (M.J.R.-M.)
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20
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Mendonça RH, Zanoteli E. Gene therapy in neuromuscular disorders. ARQUIVOS DE NEURO-PSIQUIATRIA 2022; 80:249-256. [PMID: 35976325 PMCID: PMC9491441 DOI: 10.1590/0004-282x-anp-2022-s135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Monogenic neuromuscular disorders are potentially treatable through gene therapy. Using viral vectors, a therapeutic transgene aims to restore normal levels of a protein not produced by the defective gene, or to silence a gene whose expression leads to toxic effects. Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) is a good example of a monogenic disease that currently has an AAV9-based vector gene therapy as a therapeutic option. In this review, we intend to discuss the viral vectors and their mechanisms of action, in addition to reviewing the clinical trials that supported the approval of gene therapy (AVXS-101) for SMA as well as neuromuscular diseases that are potentially treatable with gene replacement therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Holanda Mendonça
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Hospital das Clínicas, Departamento de Neurologia, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Edmar Zanoteli
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina, Hospital das Clínicas, Departamento de Neurologia, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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21
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Reilly A, Deguise MO, Beauvais A, Yaworski R, Thebault S, Tessier DR, Tabard-Cossa V, Hensel N, Schneider BL, Kothary R. Central and peripheral delivered AAV9-SMN are both efficient but target different pathomechanisms in a mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy. Gene Ther 2022; 29:544-554. [DOI: 10.1038/s41434-022-00338-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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22
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Brakemeier S, Stolte B, Kleinschnitz C, Hagenacker T. Treatment of Adult Spinal Muscular Atrophy: Overview and Recent Developments. Curr Pharm Des 2022; 28:892-898. [PMID: 35352647 DOI: 10.2174/1381612828666220329115433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a rare genetic neuromuscular disease leading to progressive and in many cases severe muscle weakness and atrophy in the natural disease course. An increasing number of gene-based treatment options have become available in recent years. Growing knowledge about the underlying genetic mechanisms makes the disease well amenable to this. Over the past few years, many data on new treatments, their mechanisms of action and therapeutic outcomes have been published, reflecting the current dynamics in this field. With the approval of the antisense oligonucleotide nusinersen, the vector-based therapy with onasemnogene abeparvovec and the small molecule splicing modifier risdiplam, three gene therapeutic drugs are available for the treatment of SMA showing improvement in motor function. But in the pivotal studies several relevant parameters have not been addressed. There is a data gap for the treatment outcome of adult individuals with SMA as well as for several other relevant outcome parameters like bulbary or ventilatory function. With increasing treatment options, additional individual therapies have become necessary. Studies on combination therapies or switch of therapy, e.g. the sequential administration of onasemnogen abeparvovec and nusinersen, are necessary. An overview of current developments in the field of therapeutic options for adult SMA is presented. Important characteristics of each therapeutic option will be discussed so that the reader can comprehend underlying pathophysiological mechanisms as well as advantages and disadvantages of each therapy. The focus is on gene-based treatment options, but options beyond this are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svenja Brakemeier
- Department of Neurology and Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University Hospital Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147 Essen, Germany
| | - Benjamin Stolte
- Department of Neurology and Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University Hospital Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147 Essen, Germany
| | - Christoph Kleinschnitz
- Department of Neurology and Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University Hospital Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147 Essen, Germany
| | - Tim Hagenacker
- Department of Neurology and Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University Hospital Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45147 Essen, Germany
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23
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Tukov FF, Mansfield K, Milton M, Meseck E, Penraat K, Chand D, Hartmann A. Single-Dose Intrathecal Dorsal Root Ganglia Toxicity of Onasemnogene Abeparvovec in Cynomolgus Monkeys. Hum Gene Ther 2022; 33:740-756. [PMID: 35331006 PMCID: PMC9347375 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2021.255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Intravenous onasemnogene abeparvovec is approved for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy in children < 2 years. For later-onset patients, intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec may be advantageous over intravenous administration. Recently, microscopic dorsal root ganglion (DRG) changes were observed in nonhuman primates (NHPs) following intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec administration. To characterize these DRG findings, two NHP studies evaluating intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec administration were conducted: a 12-month study with a 6-week interim cohort and a 13-week study with a 2-week interim cohort. The latter investigated the potential impact of prednisolone or rituximab plus everolimus on DRG toxicity. An additional 6-month, single-dose, intravenous NHP study conducted in parallel evaluated onasemnogene abeparvovec safety (including DRG toxicity) with or without prednisolone coadministration. Intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec administration was well tolerated and not associated with clinical observations. Microscopic onasemnogene abeparvovec-related changes were observed in the DRG and trigeminal ganglion (TG) and included mononuclear cell inflammation and/or neuronal degeneration, which was colocalized with high vector transcript expression at 6 weeks postdose. Incidence and severity of DRG changes were generally decreased after 52 weeks compared with 6 weeks postdose. Other onasemnogene abeparvovec-related microscopic findings of axonal degeneration, mononuclear cell infiltrates and/or gliosis in the spinal cord, dorsal spinal nerve root/spinal nerves, and/or peripheral nerves were absent or found at decreased incidences and/or severities after 52 weeks. DRG and/or TG microscopic findings following intravenous onasemnogene abeparvovec dosing included minimal to slight neuronal degeneration and mononuclear cell inflammation at 6 weeks and 6 months postdose. Nervous system microscopic findings following intrathecal onasemnogene abeparvovec (≥1.2 × 1013 vg/animal) trended toward resolution after 52 weeks, supporting nonprogression of changes, including in the DRG. Onasemnogene abeparvovec-related DRG findings were not associated with electrophysiology changes and were not ameliorated by prednisolone or rituximab plus everolimus coadministration. The pathogenesis is possibly a consequence of increased vector genome transduction and/or transgene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Keith Mansfield
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, 33413, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States;
| | - Mark Milton
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, 33413, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States;
| | - Emily Meseck
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corp, 33412, East Hanover, New Jersey, United States;
| | - Kelley Penraat
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research Inc, 33413, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States;
| | - Deepa Chand
- Novartis Gene Therapies, Inc., Bannockburn, United States.,Washington University School of Medicine in Saint Louis, 12275, St Louis, Missouri, United States;
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24
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Aslesh T, Yokota T. Restoring SMN Expression: An Overview of the Therapeutic Developments for the Treatment of Spinal Muscular Atrophy. Cells 2022; 11:417. [PMID: 35159227 PMCID: PMC8834523 DOI: 10.3390/cells11030417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder and one of the most common genetic causes of infant death. It is characterized by progressive weakness of the muscles, loss of ambulation, and death from respiratory complications. SMA is caused by the homozygous deletion or mutations in the survival of the motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene. Humans, however, have a nearly identical copy of SMN1 known as the SMN2 gene. The severity of the disease correlates inversely with the number of SMN2 copies present. SMN2 cannot completely compensate for the loss of SMN1 in SMA patients because it can produce only a fraction of functional SMN protein. SMN protein is ubiquitously expressed in the body and has a variety of roles ranging from assembling the spliceosomal machinery, autophagy, RNA metabolism, signal transduction, cellular homeostasis, DNA repair, and recombination. Motor neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord are extremely susceptible to the loss of SMN protein, with the reason still being unclear. Due to the ability of the SMN2 gene to produce small amounts of functional SMN, two FDA-approved treatment strategies, including an antisense oligonucleotide (AON) nusinersen and small-molecule risdiplam, target SMN2 to produce more functional SMN. On the other hand, Onasemnogene abeparvovec (brand name Zolgensma) is an FDA-approved adeno-associated vector 9-mediated gene replacement therapy that can deliver a copy of the human SMN1. In this review, we summarize the SMA etiology, the role of SMN, and discuss the challenges of the therapies that are approved for SMA treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tejal Aslesh
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, 116 St. and 85 Ave., Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada;
| | - Toshifumi Yokota
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, 116 St. and 85 Ave., Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada;
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, 116 St. and 85 Ave., Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada
- The Friends of Garret Cumming Research and Muscular Dystrophy Canada HM Toupin Neurological Science Research Chair, 8812 112 St., Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
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25
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Chilcott EM, Muiruri EW, Hirst TC, Yáñez-Muñoz RJ. Systematic review and meta-analysis determining the benefits of in vivo genetic therapy in spinal muscular atrophy rodent models. Gene Ther 2022; 29:498-512. [PMID: 34611322 PMCID: PMC9482879 DOI: 10.1038/s41434-021-00292-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a severe childhood neuromuscular disease for which two genetic therapies, Nusinersen (Spinraza, an antisense oligonucleotide), and AVXS-101 (Zolgensma, an adeno-associated viral vector of serotype 9 AAV9), have recently been approved. We investigated the pre-clinical development of SMA genetic therapies in rodent models and whether this can predict clinical efficacy. We have performed a systematic review of relevant publications and extracted median survival and details of experimental design. A random effects meta-analysis was used to estimate and compare efficacy. We stratified by experimental design (type of genetic therapy, mouse model, route and time of administration) and sought any evidence of publication bias. 51 publications were identified containing 155 individual comparisons, comprising 2573 animals in total. Genetic therapies prolonged survival in SMA mouse models by 3.23-fold (95% CI 2.75-3.79) compared to controls. Study design characteristics accounted for significant heterogeneity between studies and greatly affected observed median survival ratios. Some evidence of publication bias was found. These data are consistent with the extended average lifespan of Spinraza- and Zolgensma-treated children in the clinic. Together, these results support that SMA has been particularly amenable to genetic therapy approaches and highlight SMA as a trailblazer for therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellie M. Chilcott
- grid.4970.a0000 0001 2188 881XAGCTlab.org, Centre of Gene and Cell Therapy, Centre for Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Environment, Royal Holloway University of London, TW20 0EX London, UK ,Present Address: Institute for Women’s Health, UCL, 86-96 Chenies Mews, London, WC1E 6HX UK
| | - Evalyne W. Muiruri
- grid.4970.a0000 0001 2188 881XAGCTlab.org, Centre of Gene and Cell Therapy, Centre for Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Environment, Royal Holloway University of London, TW20 0EX London, UK
| | - Theodore C. Hirst
- grid.416232.00000 0004 0399 1866Department of Neurosurgery, Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast, BT12 6BA UK
| | - Rafael J. Yáñez-Muñoz
- grid.4970.a0000 0001 2188 881XAGCTlab.org, Centre of Gene and Cell Therapy, Centre for Biomedical Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, School of Life Sciences and Environment, Royal Holloway University of London, TW20 0EX London, UK
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26
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Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) and Gene Therapy: A New Era for the Treatment of Neurological Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413674. [PMID: 34948465 PMCID: PMC8706293 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, gene therapy has employed viral vectors to deliver therapeutic genes. However, recent progress in molecular and cell biology has revolutionized the field of stem cells and gene therapy. A few years ago, clinical trials started using stem cell replacement therapy, and the induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) technology combined with CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing has launched a new era in gene therapy for the treatment of neurological disorders. Here, we summarize the latest findings in this research field and discuss their clinical applications, emphasizing the relevance of recent studies in the development of innovative stem cell and gene editing therapeutic approaches. Even though tumorigenicity and immunogenicity are existing hurdles, we report how recent progress has tackled them, making engineered stem cell transplantation therapy a realistic option.
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27
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Kotulska K, Fattal-Valevski A, Haberlova J. Recombinant Adeno-Associated Virus Serotype 9 Gene Therapy in Spinal Muscular Atrophy. Front Neurol 2021; 12:726468. [PMID: 34721262 PMCID: PMC8548432 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.726468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neuromuscular disease caused by deletion or mutation of the SMN1 gene. It is characterized by a progressive loss of motor neurons resulting in muscle weakness. The disease affects 1 in 11,000 live births and before the era of treatment SMA was a leading genetic cause of mortality in infants. Recently, disease modifying therapies have been introduced in clinical practice. They include intrathecal and oral antisense oligonucleotides binding to pre-mRNA of SMN2 gene and increasing the translation of fully functional SMN protein as well as SMN1 gene replacement therapy. Onasemnogene abeparvovec uses the adeno-associated virus 9 (AAV9) vector to deliver the SMN1 gene. Phase 1 and phase 3 clinical trials showed that a single administration of onasemnogene abeparvovec resulted in improvement of motor functions in the majority of infants with SMA. Currently, phase 3 trials in SMA1 and SMA2 patients, as well as presymptomatic infants diagnosed with SMA, are ongoing. The drug was approved for medical use in the US in 2019, and in Japan and the European Union in 2020. Thus, first real-world data on efficacy and safety of onasemnogene abeparvovec in SMA patients are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Kotulska
- Department of Neurology and Epileptology, The Children's Memorial Health Institute, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Aviva Fattal-Valevski
- Pediatric Neurology Institute, "Dana-Dwek" Children Hospital, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Jana Haberlova
- Neuromuscular Center, Department of Pediatric Neurology, Faculty Hospital Motol, 2nd School of Medicine Charles University, Prague, Czechia
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28
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Kray KM, McGovern VL, Chugh D, Arnold WD, Burghes AHM. Dual SMN inducing therapies can rescue survival and motor unit function in symptomatic ∆7SMA mice. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 159:105488. [PMID: 34425216 PMCID: PMC8502210 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive disease characterized by survival motor neuron (SMN) protein deficiency which results in motor neuron loss and muscle atrophy. SMA is caused by a mutation or deletion of the survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene and retention of the nearly identical SMN2 gene. SMN2 contains a C to T change in exon 7 that results in exon 7 exclusion from 90% of transcripts. SMN protein lacking exon 7 is unstable and rapidly degraded. The remaining full-length transcripts from SMN2 are insufficient for normal motor neuron function leading to the development of SMA. Three different therapeutic approaches that increase full-length SMN (FL-SMN) protein production are approved for treatment of SMA patients. Studies in both animal models and humans have demonstrated increasing SMN levels prior to onset of symptoms provides the greatest therapeutic benefit. Treatment of SMA, after some motor neuron loss has occurred, is also effective but to a lesser degree. The SMN∆7 mouse model is a well characterized model of severe or type 1 SMA, dying at 14 days of age. Here we treated three groups of ∆7SMA mice starting before, roughly during, and after symptom onset to determine if combining two mechanistically distinct SMN inducing therapies could improve the therapeutic outcome both before and after motor neuron loss. We found, compared with individual therapies, that morpholino antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) directed against ISS-N1 combined with the small molecule compound RG7800 significantly increased FL-SMN transcript and protein production resulting in improved survival and weight of ∆7SMA mice. Moreover, when give late symptomatically, motor unit function was completely rescued with no loss in function at 100 days of age in the dual treatment group. We have therefore shown that this dual therapeutic approach successfully increases SMN protein and rescues motor function in symptomatic ∆7SMA mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn M Kray
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, 1060 Carmack Road, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Vicki L McGovern
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, 1060 Carmack Road, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Deepti Chugh
- Department of Neurology, Neuromuscular Division, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, 395 W. 12(th) Ave, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - W David Arnold
- Department of Neurology, Neuromuscular Division, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, 395 W. 12(th) Ave, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Arthur H M Burghes
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Pharmacology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, 1060 Carmack Road, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Department of Neurology, Neuromuscular Division, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, 395 W. 12(th) Ave, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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29
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Abstract
Autosomal-recessive spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is characterized by the loss of specific motor neurons of the spinal cord and skeletal muscle atrophy. SMA is caused by mutations or deletions of the survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene, and disease severity correlates with the expression levels of the nearly identical copy gene, SMN2. Both genes ubiquitously express SMN protein, but SMN2 generates only low levels of protein that do not fully compensate for the loss-of-function of SMN1. SMN protein forms a multiprotein complex essential for the cellular assembly of ribonucleoprotein particles involved in diverse aspects of RNA metabolism. Other studies using animal models revealed a spatio-temporal requirement of SMN that is high during the development of the neuromuscular system and later, in the general maintenance of cellular and tissues homeostasis. These observations define a period for maximum therapeutic efficiency of SMN restoration, and suggest that cells outside the central nervous system may also participate in the pathogenesis of SMA. Finally, recent innovative therapies have been shown to mitigate SMN deficiency and have been approved to treat SMA patients. We briefly review major findings from the past twenty-five years of SMA research. © 2020 French Society of Pediatrics. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Lefebvre
- T3S INSERM UMR 1124, Toxicité Environnementale, Cibles Thérapeutiques, Signalisation Cellulaire et Biomarqueurs, UFR des Sciences Fondamentales et Biomédicales, Campus Saint-Germain-des-prés, Université de Paris, Paris, France.
| | - C Sarret
- Centre de compétence maladies rares des pathologies neuromusculaires, service de génétique médicale, Hôpital Estaing, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, France.
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30
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Blatnik AJ, McGovern VL, Burghes AHM. What Genetics Has Told Us and How It Can Inform Future Experiments for Spinal Muscular Atrophy, a Perspective. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:8494. [PMID: 34445199 PMCID: PMC8395208 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Proximal spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor neuron loss and subsequent atrophy of skeletal muscle. SMA is caused by deficiency of the essential survival motor neuron (SMN) protein, canonically responsible for the assembly of the spliceosomal small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs). Therapeutics aimed at increasing SMN protein levels are efficacious in treating SMA. However, it remains unknown how deficiency of SMN results in motor neuron loss, resulting in many reported cellular functions of SMN and pathways affected in SMA. Herein is a perspective detailing what genetics and biochemistry have told us about SMA and SMN, from identifying the SMA determinant region of the genome, to the development of therapeutics. Furthermore, we will discuss how genetics and biochemistry have been used to understand SMN function and how we can determine which of these are critical to SMA moving forward.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Arthur H. M. Burghes
- Department of Biological Chemistry & Pharmacology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Rightmire Hall, Room 168, 1060 Carmack Road, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; (A.J.B.III); (V.L.M.)
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31
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Van Alstyne M, Tattoli I, Delestree N, Recinos Y, Workman E, Shihabuddin LS, Zhang C, Mentis GZ, Pellizzoni L. Gain of toxic function by long-term AAV9-mediated SMN overexpression in the sensorimotor circuit. Nat Neurosci 2021; 24:930-940. [PMID: 33795885 PMCID: PMC8254787 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-021-00827-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The neurodegenerative disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by deficiency in the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein. Currently approved SMA treatments aim to restore SMN, but the potential for SMN expression beyond physiological levels is a unique feature of adeno-associated virus serotype 9 (AAV9)-SMN gene therapy. Here, we show that long-term AAV9-mediated SMN overexpression in mouse models induces dose-dependent, late-onset motor dysfunction associated with loss of proprioceptive synapses and neurodegeneration. Mechanistically, aggregation of overexpressed SMN in the cytoplasm of motor circuit neurons sequesters components of small nuclear ribonucleoproteins, leading to splicing dysregulation and widespread transcriptome abnormalities with prominent signatures of neuroinflammation and the innate immune response. Thus, long-term SMN overexpression interferes with RNA regulation and triggers SMA-like pathogenic events through toxic gain-of-function mechanisms. These unanticipated, SMN-dependent and neuron-specific liabilities warrant caution on the long-term safety of treating individuals with SMA with AAV9-SMN and the risks of uncontrolled protein expression by gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meaghan Van Alstyne
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032
| | - Ivan Tattoli
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032
| | - Nicolas Delestree
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032
| | - Yocelyn Recinos
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
| | - Eileen Workman
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032
| | | | - Chaolin Zhang
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Systems Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032
| | - George Z. Mentis
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032
| | - Livio Pellizzoni
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, 10032,Address correspondence to: Livio Pellizzoni, Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, 630 West 168TH Street, New York, NY, 10032. Phone: +1 212-305-3046;
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32
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Naveed A, Calderon H. Onasemnogene Abeparvovec (AVXS-101) for the Treatment of Spinal Muscular Atrophy. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther 2021; 26:437-444. [PMID: 34239394 DOI: 10.5863/1551-6776-26.5.437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a debilitating disorder characterized by degeneration of large motor neurons. It is a heterogeneous group of disorders caused by a homozygous deletion in the survival motor neuron (SMN) gene on chromosome 5, resulting in a SMN protein deficiency. Small amounts of SMN protein are also produced by the SMN2 gene, which that differs from SMN1 by a single nucleotide. Spinal muscular atrophy types and phenotypic severity depend on the number of variations of the SMN2 gene and the amount of SMN2 protein produced. Because the SMN protein deficiency is the root cause of the disease, treatment strategies for SMA revolve around increasing SMN protein production. Nusinersen (Spinraza, Biogen, Cambridge, MA) was the only treatment option available for SMA until the FDA approved onasemnogene abeparvovec-xioi (Zolgensma, AveXis Inc, Bannockburn, IL), a one-time-administered adeno-associated viral vector-based gene therapy that delivers the SMN gene to the motor neuron cells. Data from clinical studies show significant improvement in motor milestone achievements and ventilator-free survival but are limited by approximately 5 years' worth of results. This one-time intravenous injection of this new gene therapy also bears a hefty price tag; however, it may be more cost effective in the long run versus the multiple intrathecal administrations needed with nusinersen. Drug access and use are hindered by drug cost, payer reimbursement issues, and lack of long-term data from clinical studies. Questions also remain regarding the safety and efficacy of repeated drug administration for patients with advanced disease.
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33
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Restoring Protein Expression in Neuromuscular Conditions: A Review Assessing the Current State of Exon Skipping/Inclusion and Gene Therapies for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy and Spinal Muscular Atrophy. BioDrugs 2021; 35:389-399. [PMID: 34097287 DOI: 10.1007/s40259-021-00486-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The debilitating neuromuscular disorders Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), which harm 1 in 5000 newborn males and 1 in 11,000 newborns, respectively, are marked by progressive muscle wasting among other complications. While DMD causes generalized muscle weakness due to the absence of the dystrophin protein, SMA patients generally face motor neuron degeneration because of the lack of the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein. Many of the most promising therapies for both conditions restore the absent proteins dystrophin and SMN. Antisense oligonucleotide-mediated exon skipping and inclusion therapies are advancing clinically with the approved DMD therapies casimersen, eteplirsen, golodirsen, and viltolarsen, and the SMA therapy nusinersen. Existing antisense therapies focus on skeletal muscle for DMD and motor neurons for SMA, respectively. Through innovative techniques, such as peptide conjugation and multi-exon skipping, these therapies could be optimized for efficacy and applicability. By contrast, gene replacement therapy is administered only once to patients during treatment. Currently, only onasemnogene abeparvovec for SMA has been approved. Safety shortcomings remain a major challenge for gene therapy. Nevertheless, gene therapy for DMD has strong potential to restore dystrophin expression in patients. In light of promising functional improvements, antisense and gene therapies stand poised to elevate the lives of patients with DMD and SMA.
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34
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Yang L, Slone J, Li Z, Lou X, Hu YC, Queme LF, Jankowski MP, Huang T. Systemic administration of AAV-Slc25a46 mitigates mitochondrial neuropathy in Slc25a46-/- mice. Hum Mol Genet 2021; 29:649-661. [PMID: 31943007 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddz277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Revised: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial disorders are the result of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA mutations that affect multiple organs, with the central and peripheral nervous system often affected. Currently, there is no cure for mitochondrial disorders. Currently, gene therapy offers a novel approach for treating monogenetic disorders, including nuclear genes associated with mitochondrial disorders. We utilized a mouse model carrying a knockout of the mitochondrial fusion-fission-related gene solute carrier family 25 member 46 (Slc25a46) and treated them with neurotrophic AAV-PHP.B vector carrying the mouse Slc25a46 coding sequence. Thereafter, we used immunofluorescence staining and western blot to test the transduction efficiency of this vector. Toluidine blue staining and electronic microscopy were utilized to assess the morphology of optic and sciatic nerves following treatment, and the morphology and respiratory chain activity of mitochondria within these tissues were determined as well. The adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector effectively transduced in the cerebrum, cerebellum, heart, liver and sciatic nerves. AAV-Slc25a46 treatment was able to rescue the premature death in the mutant mice (Slc25a46-/-). The treatment-improved electronic conductivity of the peripheral nerves increased mobility and restored mitochondrial complex activities. Most notably, mitochondrial morphology inside the tissues of both the central and peripheral nervous systems was normalized, and the neurodegeneration, chronic neuroinflammation and loss of Purkinje cell dendrites observed within the mutant mice were alleviated. Overall, our study shows that AAV-PHP.B's neurotrophic properties are plausible for treating conditions where the central nervous system is affected, such as many mitochondrial diseases, and that AAV-Slc25a46 could be a novel approach for treating SLC25A46-related mitochondrial disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Yang
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China
| | - Jesse Slone
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Zhuo Li
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA.,State Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410078, China
| | - Xiaoting Lou
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA.,School of Laboratory Medicine and Life sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325035, China
| | - Yueh-Chiang Hu
- Division of Developmental Biology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Luis F Queme
- Division of Anesthesia, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Michael P Jankowski
- Division of Anesthesia, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Taosheng Huang
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
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35
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Amado DA, Davidson BL. Gene therapy for ALS: A review. Mol Ther 2021; 29:3345-3358. [PMID: 33839324 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2021.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) has historically posed unique challenges for gene-therapy-based approaches, due to a paucity of therapeutic targets as well as the difficulty of accessing both the brain and spinal cord. Recent advances in our understanding of disease mechanism and ALS genetics, however, have combined with tremendous strides in CNS targeting, gene delivery, and gene editing and knockdown techniques to open new horizons of therapeutic possibility. Gene therapy clinical trials are currently underway for ALS patients with SOD1 mutations, C9orf72 hexanucleotide repeat expansions, ATXN2 trinucleotide expansions, and FUS mutations, as well as sporadic disease without known genetic cause. In this review, we provide an in-depth exploration of the state of ALS-directed gene therapy, including antisense oligonucleotides, RNA interference, CRISPR, adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated trophic support, and antibody-based methods. We discuss how each of these approaches has been implemented across known genetic causes as well as sporadic ALS, reviewing preclinical studies as well as completed and ongoing human clinical trials. We highlight the transformative potential of these evolving technologies as the gene therapy field advances toward a true disease-modifying treatment for this devastating illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Defne A Amado
- Department of Neurology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Beverly L Davidson
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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36
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Ntetsika T, Papathoma PE, Markaki I. Novel targeted therapies for Parkinson's disease. Mol Med 2021; 27:17. [PMID: 33632120 PMCID: PMC7905684 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-021-00279-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second more common neurodegenerative disease with increasing incidence worldwide associated to the population ageing. Despite increasing awareness and significant research advancements, treatment options comprise dopamine repleting, symptomatic therapies that have significantly increased quality of life and life expectancy, but no therapies that halt or reverse disease progression, which remain a great, unmet goal in PD research. Large biomarker development programs are undertaken to identify disease signatures that will improve patient selection and outcome measures in clinical trials. In this review, we summarize PD-related mechanisms that can serve as targets of therapeutic interventions aiming to slow or modify disease progression, as well as previous and ongoing clinical trials in each field, and discuss future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodora Ntetsika
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Center of Neurology, Academic Specialist Center, Solnavägen 1E, 113 65, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Paraskevi-Evita Papathoma
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Neurology, Danderyd Hospital Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ioanna Markaki
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden. .,Center of Neurology, Academic Specialist Center, Solnavägen 1E, 113 65, Stockholm, Sweden.
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37
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Gene delivery using AAV8 in vivo for disease stabilization in a bimodal gene therapy approach for the treatment of ADA-deficient SCID. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2021; 20:765-778. [PMID: 33738330 PMCID: PMC7940710 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2021.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency is an inborn error of metabolism affecting multiple systems and causing severe combined immunodeficiency. We tested intravenous administration of recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) 2/8-ADA vector in ADA-deficient neonate and adult mice or as part of a bimodal approach comprised of rAAV treatment at birth followed by infusion of lentiviral vector (LV)-modified lineage-depleted bone marrow cells at 8 weeks. ADA−/− mice treated with rAAV and enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) for 30 days were rescued from the lethal pulmonary insufficiency, surviving out to 180 days without further treatment. rAAV vector copy number (VCN) was highest in liver, lung, and heart and was associated with near-normal ADA activity and thymocyte development. In the bimodal approach, rAAV-mediated ADA expression supported survival during the 4 weeks before infusion of the LV-modified bone marrow cells and during the engraftment period. Conditioning prior to infusion may have resulted in the replacement of rAAV marked cells in marrow and liver, with LV VCN 100- to 1,000-fold higher in hematopoietic tissue compared with rAAV VCN, and was associated with immune cell reconstitution. In conclusion, a bimodal approach may be an alternative for patients without reliable access to ERT before receiving a stem cell transplant or gene therapy.
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38
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In Search of a Cure: The Development of Therapeutics to Alter the Progression of Spinal Muscular Atrophy. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11020194. [PMID: 33562482 PMCID: PMC7915832 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11020194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Until the recent development of disease-modifying therapeutics, spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) was considered a devastating neuromuscular disease with a poor prognosis for most affected individuals. Symptoms generally present during early childhood and manifest as muscle weakness and progressive paralysis, severely compromising the affected individual’s quality of life, independence, and lifespan. SMA is most commonly caused by the inheritance of homozygously deleted SMN1 alleles with retention of one or more copies of a paralog gene, SMN2, which inversely correlates with disease severity. The recent advent and use of genetically targeted therapies have transformed SMA into a prototype for monogenic disease treatment in the era of genetic medicine. Many SMA-affected individuals receiving these therapies achieve traditionally unobtainable motor milestones and survival rates as medicines drastically alter the natural progression of this disease. This review discusses historical SMA progression and underlying disease mechanisms, highlights advances made in therapeutic research, clinical trials, and FDA-approved medicines, and discusses possible second-generation and complementary medicines as well as optimal temporal intervention windows in order to optimize motor function and improve quality of life for all SMA-affected individuals.
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Ravi B, Chan-Cortés MH, Sumner CJ. Gene-Targeting Therapeutics for Neurological Disease: Lessons Learned from Spinal Muscular Atrophy. Annu Rev Med 2021; 72:1-14. [PMID: 33502897 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-med-070119-115459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The last few decades have seen an explosion in identification of genes that cause monogenetic neurological diseases, as well as advances in gene-targeting therapeutics. Neurological conditions that were once considered incurable are now increasingly tractable. At the forefront is the motor neuron disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), historically the leading inherited cause of infant mortality. In the last 5 years, three SMA treatments have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA): intrathecally delivered splice-switching antisense oligonucleotide (nusinersen), systemically delivered AAV9-based gene replacement therapy (onasemnogene abeparvovec), and an orally bioavailable, small-molecule, splice-switching drug (risdiplam). Despite this remarkable progress, clinical outcomes in patients are variable. Therapeutic optimization will require improved understanding of drug pharmacokinetics and target engagement in neurons, potential toxicities, and long-term effects. We review current progress in SMA therapeutics, clinical trials, shortcomings of current treatments, and implications for the treatment of other neurogenetic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhavya Ravi
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA;
| | | | - Charlotte J Sumner
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA; .,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21202, USA
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40
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Wirth B. Spinal Muscular Atrophy: In the Challenge Lies a Solution. Trends Neurosci 2021; 44:306-322. [PMID: 33423791 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2020.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Revised: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The path from gene discovery to therapy in spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) has been a highly challenging endeavor, but also led to one of the most successful stories in neurogenetics. In SMA, a neuromuscular disorder with an often fatal outcome until recently, with those affected never able to sit, stand, or walk, children now achieve these motoric abilities and almost age-based development when treated presymptomatically. This review summarizes the challenges along this 30-year journey. It is also meant to inspire early-career scientists not to give up when things become difficult but to try to uncover the biological underpinnings and transform the challenge into the next big discovery. Without doubt, the improvements seen with the three therapeutic strategies in SMA are impressive; many open questions remain and are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brunhilde Wirth
- Institute of Human Genetics, Center for Molecular Medicine, Center for Rare Disorders, University of Cologne, Kerpener Str. 34, 50931 Cologne, Germany.
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41
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Yoon SY, Hunter JE, Chawla S, Clarke DL, Molony C, O'Donnell PA, Bagel JH, Kumar M, Poptani H, Vite CH, Wolfe JH. Global CNS correction in a large brain model of human alpha-mannosidosis by intravascular gene therapy. Brain 2020; 143:2058-2072. [PMID: 32671406 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awaa161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Intravascular injection of certain adeno-associated virus vector serotypes can cross the blood-brain barrier to deliver a gene into the CNS. However, gene distribution has been much more limited within the brains of large animals compared to rodents, rendering this approach suboptimal for treatment of the global brain lesions present in most human neurogenetic diseases. The most commonly used serotype in animal and human studies is 9, which also has the property of being transported via axonal pathways to distal neurons. A small number of other serotypes share this property, three of which were tested intravenously in mice compared to 9. Serotype hu.11 transduced fewer cells in the brain than 9, rh8 was similar to 9, but hu.32 mediated substantially greater transduction than the others throughout the mouse brain. To evaluate the potential for therapeutic application of the hu.32 serotype in a gyrencephalic brain of larger mammals, a hu.32 vector expressing the green fluorescent protein reporter gene was evaluated in the cat. Transduction was widely distributed in the cat brain, including in the cerebral cortex, an important target since mental retardation is an important component of many of the human neurogenetic diseases. The therapeutic potential of a hu.32 serotype vector was evaluated in the cat homologue of the human lysosomal storage disease alpha-mannosidosis, which has globally distributed lysosomal storage lesions in the brain. Treated alpha-mannosidosis cats had reduced severity of neurological signs and extended life spans compared to untreated cats. The extent of therapy was dose dependent and intra-arterial injection was more effective than intravenous delivery. Pre-mortem, non-invasive magnetic resonance spectroscopy and diffusion tensor imaging detected differences between the low and high doses, and showed normalization of grey and white matter imaging parameters at the higher dose. The imaging analysis was corroborated by post-mortem histological analysis, which showed reversal of histopathology throughout the brain with the high dose, intra-arterial treatment. The hu.32 serotype would appear to provide a significant advantage for effective treatment of the gyrencephalic brain by systemic adeno-associated virus delivery in human neurological diseases with widespread brain lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sea Young Yoon
- Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Jacqueline E Hunter
- Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Sanjeev Chawla
- Department of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Dana L Clarke
- W.F. Goodman Center for Comparative Medical Genetics, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Caitlyn Molony
- W.F. Goodman Center for Comparative Medical Genetics, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Patricia A O'Donnell
- W.F. Goodman Center for Comparative Medical Genetics, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Jessica H Bagel
- W.F. Goodman Center for Comparative Medical Genetics, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Manoj Kumar
- Department of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Harish Poptani
- Department of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - Charles H Vite
- W.F. Goodman Center for Comparative Medical Genetics, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
| | - John H Wolfe
- Research Institute of Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, USA.,W.F. Goodman Center for Comparative Medical Genetics, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
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42
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Mendell JR, Al-Zaidy SA, Rodino-Klapac LR, Goodspeed K, Gray SJ, Kay CN, Boye SL, Boye SE, George LA, Salabarria S, Corti M, Byrne BJ, Tremblay JP. Current Clinical Applications of In Vivo Gene Therapy with AAVs. Mol Ther 2020; 29:464-488. [PMID: 33309881 PMCID: PMC7854298 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2020.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 382] [Impact Index Per Article: 95.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hereditary diseases are caused by mutations in genes, and more than 7,000 rare diseases affect over 30 million Americans. For more than 30 years, hundreds of researchers have maintained that genetic modifications would provide effective treatments for many inherited human diseases, offering durable and possibly curative clinical benefit with a single treatment. This review is limited to gene therapy using adeno-associated virus (AAV) because the gene delivered by this vector does not integrate into the patient genome and has a low immunogenicity. There are now five treatments approved for commercialization and currently available, i.e., Luxturna, Zolgensma, the two chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T) therapies (Yescarta and Kymriah), and Strimvelis (the gammaretrovirus approved for adenosine deaminase-severe combined immunodeficiency [ADA-SCID] in Europe). Dozens of other treatments are under clinical trials. The review article presents a broad overview of the field of therapy by in vivo gene transfer. We review gene therapy for neuromuscular disorders (spinal muscular atrophy [SMA]; Duchenne muscular dystrophy [DMD]; X-linked myotubular myopathy [XLMTM]; and diseases of the central nervous system, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Canavan disease, aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase [AADC] deficiency, and giant axonal neuropathy), ocular disorders (Leber congenital amaurosis, age-related macular degeneration [AMD], choroideremia, achromatopsia, retinitis pigmentosa, and X-linked retinoschisis), the bleeding disorder hemophilia, and lysosomal storage disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry R Mendell
- Center of Gene Therapy, Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA; Department of Pediatrics and Neurology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | | | - Kimberly Goodspeed
- Department of Pediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Steven J Gray
- Department of Pediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | | | - Sanford L Boye
- Department of Pediatrics, Powell Gene Therapy Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Shannon E Boye
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Therapeutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lindsey A George
- Division of Hematology and the Perelman Center for Cellular and Molecular Therapeutics, Philadelphia, PA, USA; Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Stephanie Salabarria
- Department of Pediatrics, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Manuela Corti
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Powell Gene Therapy Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Barry J Byrne
- Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Powell Gene Therapy Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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43
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Buscara L, Gross DA, Daniele N. Of rAAV and Men: From Genetic Neuromuscular Disorder Efficacy and Toxicity Preclinical Studies to Clinical Trials and Back. J Pers Med 2020; 10:E258. [PMID: 33260623 PMCID: PMC7768510 DOI: 10.3390/jpm10040258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuromuscular disorders are a large group of rare pathologies characterised by skeletal muscle atrophy and weakness, with the common involvement of respiratory and/or cardiac muscles. These diseases lead to life-long motor deficiencies and specific organ failures, and are, in their worst-case scenarios, life threatening. Amongst other causes, they can be genetically inherited through mutations in more than 500 different genes. In the last 20 years, specific pharmacological treatments have been approved for human usage. However, these "à-la-carte" therapies cover only a very small portion of the clinical needs and are often partially efficient in alleviating the symptoms of the disease, even less so in curing it. Recombinant adeno-associated virus vector-mediated gene transfer is a more general strategy that could be adapted for a large majority of these diseases and has proved very efficient in rescuing the symptoms in many neuropathological animal models. On this solid ground, several clinical trials are currently being conducted with the whole-body delivery of the therapeutic vectors. This review recapitulates the state-of-the-art tools for neuron and muscle-targeted gene therapy, and summarises the main findings of the spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and X-linked myotubular myopathy (XLMTM) trials. Despite promising efficacy results, serious adverse events of various severities were observed in these trials. Possible leads for second-generation products are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David-Alexandre Gross
- Genethon, 91000 Evry, France; (L.B.); (D.-A.G.)
- Université Paris-Saclay, Univ Evry, Inserm, Genethon, Integrare Research Unit UMR_S951, 91000 Evry, France
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44
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Matesanz SE, Curry C, Gross B, Rubin AI, Linn R, Yum SW, Kichula EA. Clinical Course in a Patient With Spinal Muscular Atrophy Type 0 Treated With Nusinersen and Onasemnogene Abeparvovec. J Child Neurol 2020; 35:717-723. [PMID: 32515646 DOI: 10.1177/0883073820928784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy type 0 is the most severe phenotype of the disease, with patients presenting with contractures, weakness, and respiratory failure at birth, and is typically fatal within weeks. We describe the case of a patient with spinal muscular atrophy type 0 who was treated with both nusinersen and onasemnogene abeparvovec. She has made modest motor improvements since treatment initiation with a 30-point improvement in CHOP-INTEND score, and continues to make motor gains at age 13 months without regression of function, although she remains profoundly weak. Although she has had motor improvements, she has also had continued systemic complications from her spinal muscular atrophy, including chronic respiratory failure, dysphagia, congenital heart malformation, digit necrosis, and diffuse macular rash. This case highlights the challenges in treating those with more severe disease phenotypes and raises questions of how some systemic complications may respond to current SMN replacement therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan E Matesanz
- Division of Neurology, 367873Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Candace Curry
- Neurology, 381778Mission Children's Specialists, Asheville, NC, USA
| | - Brianna Gross
- Division of Neurology, 367873Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Adam I Rubin
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, 14640University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Dermatology, 14640University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine and Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Rebecca Linn
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, 14640University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Department of Pathology, 367873Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Sabrina W Yum
- Division of Neurology, 367873Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Division of Neurology, 14640University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Kichula
- Division of Neurology, 367873Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.,Division of Neurology, 14640University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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45
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Caicedo HH, Hashimoto DA, Caicedo JC, Pentland A, Pisano GP. Overcoming barriers to early disease intervention. Nat Biotechnol 2020; 38:669-673. [PMID: 32444852 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-020-0550-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- H Hugo Caicedo
- Connection Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA. .,Corporate Sustainability and Innovation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Daniel A Hashimoto
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Julio C Caicedo
- Materials Engineering, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia
| | - Alex Pentland
- Connection Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Gary P Pisano
- Technology and Operations Management, Harvard Business School, Boston, MA, USA
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46
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Waldrop MA, Karingada C, Storey MA, Powers B, Iammarino MA, Miller NF, Alfano LN, Noritz G, Rossman I, Ginsberg M, Mosher KA, Broomall E, Goldstein J, Bass N, Lowes LP, Tsao CY, Mendell JR, Connolly AM. Gene Therapy for Spinal Muscular Atrophy: Safety and Early Outcomes. Pediatrics 2020; 146:peds.2020-0729. [PMID: 32843442 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2020-0729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Historically, autosomal recessive 5q-linked spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) has been the leading inherited cause of infant death. SMA is caused by the absence of the SMN1 gene, and SMN1 gene replacement therapy, onasemnogene abeparvovec-xioi, was Food and Drug Administration approved in May 2019. Approval included all children with SMA age <2 years without end-stage weakness. However, gene transfer with onasemnogene abeparvovec-xioi has been only studied in children age ≤8 months. METHODS In this article, we report key safety and early outcome data from the first 21 children (age 1-23 months) treated in the state of Ohio. RESULTS In children ≤6 months, gene transfer was well tolerated. In this young group, serum transaminase (aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase) elevations were modest and not associated with γ glutamyl transpeptidase elevations. Initial prednisolone administration matched that given in the clinical trials. In older children, elevations in aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and γ glutamyl transpeptidase were more common and required a higher dose of prednisolone, but all were without clinical symptoms. Nineteen of 21 (90%) children experienced an asymptomatic drop in platelets in the first week after treatment that recovered without intervention. Of the 19 children with repeated outcome assessments, 11% (n = 2) experienced stabilization and 89% (n = 17) experienced improvement in motor function. CONCLUSIONS In this population, with thorough screening and careful post-gene transfer management, replacement therapy with onasemnogene abeparvovec-xioi is safe and shows promise for early efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan A Waldrop
- Departments of Neurology and Pediatrics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; .,Center for Gene Therapy and
| | | | - Mike A Storey
- Pharmacy, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, Ohio
| | | | | | | | | | - Garey Noritz
- Department of Pediatrics, Nationwide Children's Hospital and The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | | | | | | | - Eileen Broomall
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, Ohio; and
| | - Jessica Goldstein
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Nancy Bass
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Pediatrics, Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital, Cleveland, Ohio
| | | | - Chang-Yong Tsao
- Departments of Neurology and Pediatrics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.,Departments of Neurology and
| | - Jerry R Mendell
- Departments of Neurology and Pediatrics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.,Center for Gene Therapy and
| | - Anne M Connolly
- Departments of Neurology and Pediatrics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.,Center for Gene Therapy and
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47
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Besse A, Astord S, Marais T, Roda M, Giroux B, Lejeune FX, Relaix F, Smeriglio P, Barkats M, Biferi MG. AAV9-Mediated Expression of SMN Restricted to Neurons Does Not Rescue the Spinal Muscular Atrophy Phenotype in Mice. Mol Ther 2020; 28:1887-1901. [PMID: 32470325 PMCID: PMC7403319 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2020.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neuromuscular disease mainly caused by mutations or deletions in the survival of motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene and characterized by the degeneration of motor neurons and progressive muscle weakness. A viable therapeutic approach for SMA patients is a gene replacement strategy that restores functional SMN expression using adeno-associated virus serotype 9 (AAV9) vectors. Currently, systemic or intra-cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) delivery of AAV9-SMN is being explored in clinical trials. In this study, we show that the postnatal delivery of an AAV9 that expresses SMN under the control of the neuron-specific promoter synapsin selectively targets neurons without inducing re-expression in the peripheral organs of SMA mice. However, this approach is less efficient in restoring the survival and neuromuscular functions of SMA mice than the systemic or intra-CSF delivery of an AAV9 in which SMN is placed under the control of a ubiquitous promoter. This study suggests that further efforts are needed to understand the extent to which SMN is required in neurons and peripheral organs for a successful therapeutic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurore Besse
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Stephanie Astord
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Thibaut Marais
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Marianne Roda
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Benoit Giroux
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, 75013 Paris, France
| | - François-Xavier Lejeune
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière (ICM), Bioinformatics and Biostatistics Core Facility (iCONICS), Sorbonne Université, INSERM U1127, CNRS UMR 7225, GH Pitié-Salpêtrière, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Frederic Relaix
- Université Paris Est Créteil, INSERM, EnvA, AP-HP, 94000 Créteil, France
| | - Piera Smeriglio
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Martine Barkats
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Maria Grazia Biferi
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, Institute of Myology, Centre of Research in Myology, 75013 Paris, France.
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48
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Pagliarini V, Jolly A, Bielli P, Di Rosa V, De la Grange P, Sette C. Sam68 binds Alu-rich introns in SMN and promotes pre-mRNA circularization. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:633-645. [PMID: 31777926 PMCID: PMC6954450 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkz1117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA) gene SMN was recently duplicated (SMN1 and SMN2) in higher primates. Furthermore, invasion of the locus by repetitive elements almost doubled its size with respect to mouse Smn, in spite of an almost identical protein-coding sequence. Herein, we found that SMN ranks among the human genes with highest density of Alus, which are evolutionary conserved in primates and often occur in inverted orientation. Inverted repeat Alus (IRAlus) negatively regulate splicing of long introns within SMN, while promoting widespread alternative circular RNA (circRNA) biogenesis. Bioinformatics analyses revealed the presence of ultra-conserved Sam68 binding sites in SMN IRAlus. Cross-link-immunoprecipitation (CLIP), mutagenesis and silencing experiments showed that Sam68 binds in proximity of intronic Alus in the SMN pre-mRNA, thus favouring circRNA biogenesis in vitro and in vivo. These findings highlight a novel layer of regulation in SMN expression, uncover the crucial impact exerted by IRAlus and reveal a role for Sam68 in SMN circRNA biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vittoria Pagliarini
- Institute of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Rome 00168, Italy.,Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome 00168, Italy
| | - Ariane Jolly
- GenoSplice Technology, iPEPS-ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié Salpêtrière, Paris 75013, France
| | - Pamela Bielli
- Laboratory of Neuroembryology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome 00143, Italy.,Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome 00133, Italy
| | - Valentina Di Rosa
- Laboratory of Neuroembryology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome 00143, Italy.,Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome 00133, Italy
| | - Pierre De la Grange
- GenoSplice Technology, iPEPS-ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié Salpêtrière, Paris 75013, France
| | - Claudio Sette
- Institute of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Rome 00168, Italy.,Laboratory of Neuroembryology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome 00143, Italy
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Abstract
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is the most common genetic disease leading to infant mortality. This neuro-muscular disorder is caused by the loss or mutation of the telomeric copy of the 'survival of motor neuron' (Smn) gene, termed SMN1. Loss of SMN1 leads to reduced SMN protein levels, inducing degeneration of motor neurons (MN) and progressive muscle weakness and atrophy. Gene therapy, consisting of reintroducing SMN1 in the MNs, is an attractive approach for SMA. We showed the most efficient rescue of SMA mice to date after a single intravenous injection of an AAV9 expressing SMN1, highlighting the considerable potential of this method for the treatment of human SMA. Recently, a startup led by the Dr Kaspar decided to test this experimental approach in children with SMA type 1. Dr Mendell, in charge of this clinical project, showed a very significant increase of the lifespan and motor function of the patients (until 4 years) after a single injection of AAV9-SMN1 (named ZolgenSMA®) into an arm or leg vein. This gene therapy treatment obtained a marketing authorization by the FDA in May 24 and is now the first efficient therapy for neuromuscular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martine Barkats
- Groupe Biothérapies des maladies du motoneurone, Centre de Recherche en Myologie, Sorbonne Université - UMRS974 Inserm - Institut de Myologie, Faculté de Médecine, 105 boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
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Braun S. [Gene-based therapies of spinal muscular atrophy: a piece of history of medicine]. Med Sci (Paris) 2020; 36:141-146. [PMID: 32129750 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/2020011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
It is worth stating that a generation is needed to bring about a new family of drugs. After the deciphering of the genetic cause in 1995, two innovative classes of therapeutics are now available for spinal muscular atrophy (SMA): the repeated administration of antisens oligonucleotides and the one-shot administration of a scAAV9-SMN as a gene therapy. By addressing the genetic mechanisms of the disease, these drugs fundamentally change its course. These major advances in an extremely severe disease, often fatal before the age of 18 months in the type 1 form (50% of patients), pave the way for the treatment of other serious pathologies of the nervous or neuromuscular system, and provide unambiguous evidence of the effectiveness of these new classes of drugs called to address a number of genetic or acquired diseases. These breakthroughs raise also new scientific and technological questions (limited production yields of gene therapy drugs) but also ethical issues (access of patients to these innovative therapies) that resonate beyond this disease alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serge Braun
- AFM-Téléthon, 1 rue de l'Internationale, BP59, 91002 Évry, France
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