Mendelian genes for Parkinson's disease contribute to the sporadic forms of the disease†

Parkinson's disease risk enhancers in microglia

Genome-wide association studies have identified thousands of single nucleotide polymorphisms that associate with increased risk for Parkinson's disease (PD), but the functions of most of them are unknown. Using assay for transposase-accessible chromatin (ATAC) and H3K27ac chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) sequencing data, we identified 73 regulatory elements in microglia that overlap PD risk SNPs. To determine the target genes of a "risk enhancer" within intron two of SNCA, we used CRISPR-Cas9 to delete the open chromatin region where two PD risk SNPs reside. The loss of the enhancer led to reduced expression of multiple genes including SNCA and the adjacent gene MMRN1. It also led to expression changes of genes involved in glucose metabolism, a process that is known to be altered in PD patients. Our work expands the role of SNCA in PD and provides a connection between PD-associated genetic variants and underlying biology that points to a risk mechanism in microglia.

Selection of suitable reference genes for gene expression studies in HMC3 cell line by quantitative real-time RT-PCR

Microglia represent the primary immune defense system within the central nervous system and play a role in the inflammatory processes occurring in numerous disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). PD onset and progression are associated with factors considered possible causes of neuroinflammation, i.e. genetic mutations. In vitro models of microglial cells were established to identify specific molecular targets in PD through the analysis of gene expression data. Recently, the Human Microglial Clone 3 cell line (HMC3) has been characterized and a new human microglia model has emerged. Here we perform RT-qPCR analyses to evaluate the expression of ten reference genes in HMC3, untreated or stimulated to a pro-inflammatory status. The comparative ∆CT method, BestKeeper, Normfinder, geNorm and RefFinder algorithms were used to assess the stability of the candidate genes. The results showed that the most suitable internal controls are HPRT1, RPS18 and B2M genes. In addition, the most stable and unstable reference genes were used to normalize the expression of a gene of interest in HMC3, resulting in a difference in the statistical significance in cells treated with Rotenone. This is the first reference gene validation study in HMC3 cell line in pro-inflammatory status and can contribute to more reliable gene expression analysis in the field of neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory research.

Gene Panel Sequencing Analysis Revealed a Strong Contribution of Rare Coding Variants to the Risk of Parkinson's Disease in Sporadic Moroccan Patients

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative movement disorder which can be either familial or sporadic. While it is well known that monogenic mutations are not a very common cause of PD, GWAS studies have shown that an additional fraction of the PD heritability could be explained by rare or common variants. To identify the rare variants that could influence the risk of PD in the Moroccan population, a cohort of 94 sporadic PD patients negative for the LRRK2 G2019S mutation was subjected to NGS gene panel sequencing, and gene dosage using the MLPA method. Mean age of onset at enrollment was 51.7 ± 11.51 years, and 60% of patients were men. We identified 70 rare variants under 0.5% of frequency in 16 of the 20 genes analyzed, of which 7 were novel. Biallelic disease-causing variants in genes with recessive inheritance were found in 5 PD cases (5.31%), whereas 13 patients (13.8%) carried likely pathogenic variants in genes with dominant inheritance. Moreover, 8 patients (8.5%) carried a single variant in MAPT or POLG, whereas co-occurrence of rare variants involving more than one gene was observed in 28 patients (30%). PD patients with variants in recessive genes had a younger mean age at onset than patients with dominant ones (33.40 (12.77) vs. 53.15 (6.63), p < 0.001), while their clinical features were similar. However, patients with rare variants in the risk factor genes or in more than one gene tended to have less resting tremor (p < 0.04), but more dystonia (p < 0.006) and dementia (p < 0.002) than those without any rare variants in known PD-associated genes. Our results showed a significant enrichment of rare variants particularly in LRRK2, VPS13C, POLG, and MAPT and underline their impact on the risk of sporadic form of the disease.

Gut microbiome and Parkinson's disease: Perspective on pathogenesis and treatment

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a disease of ⍺-synuclein aggregation-mediated dopaminergic neuronal loss in the substantia nigra pars compacta, which leads to motor and non-motor symptoms. Through the last two decades of research, there has been growing consensus that inflammation-mediated oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cytokine-induced toxicity are mainly involved in neuronal damage and loss associated with PD. However, it remains unclear how these mechanisms relate to sporadic PD, a more common form of PD. Both enteric and central nervous systems have been implicated in the pathogenesis of sporadic PD, thus highlighting the crosstalk between the gut and brain.

AIM

of Review: In this review, we summarize how alterations in the gut microbiome can affect PD pathogenesis. We highlight various mechanisms increasing/decreasing the risk of PD development. Based on the previous supporting evidence, we suggest how early interventions could protect against PD development and how controlling specific factors, including our diet, could modify our perspective on disease mechanisms and therapeutics. We explain the strong relationship between the gut microbiota and the brain in PD subjects, by delineating the multiple mechanisms involved inneuroinflammation and oxidative stress. We conclude that the neurodetrimental effects of western diet (WD) and the neuroprotective effects of Mediterranean diets should be further exploredin humans through clinical trials. Key Scientific Concepts of Review: Alterations in the gut microbiome and associated metabolites may contribute to pathogenesis in PD. In some studies, probiotics have been shown to exert anti-oxidative effects in PD via improved mitochondrial dynamics and homeostasis, thus reducing PD-related consequences. However, there is a significant unmet need for randomized clinical trials to investigate the effectiveness of microbial products, probiotic-based supplementation, and dietary intervention in reversing gut microbial dysbiosis in PD.

Genomic Assessment of Cancer Susceptibility in the Threatened Catalina Island Fox (Urocyon littoralis catalinae)

Small effective population sizes raise the probability of extinction by increasing the frequency of potentially deleterious alleles and reducing fitness. However, the extent to which cancers play a role in the fitness reduction of genetically depauperate wildlife populations is unknown. Santa Catalina island foxes (Urocyon littoralis catalinae) sampled in 2007-2008 have a high prevalence of ceruminous gland tumors, which was not detected in the population prior to a recent bottleneck caused by a canine distemper epidemic. The disease appears to be associated with inflammation from chronic ear mite (Otodectes) infections and secondary elevated levels of Staphyloccus pseudointermedius bacterial infections. However, no other environmental factors to date have been found to be associated with elevated cancer risk in this population. Here, we used whole genome sequencing of the case and control individuals from two islands to identify candidate loci associated with cancer based on genetic divergence, nucleotide diversity, allele frequency spectrum, and runs of homozygosity. We identified several candidate loci based on genomic signatures and putative gene functions, suggesting that cancer susceptibility in this population may be polygenic. Due to the efforts of a recovery program and weak fitness effects of late-onset disease, the population size has increased, which may allow selection to be more effective in removing these presumably slightly deleterious alleles. Long-term monitoring of the disease alleles, as well as overall genetic diversity, will provide crucial information for the long-term persistence of this threatened population.

Somatic Mutations Detected in Parkinson Disease Could Affect Genes With a Role in Synaptic and Neuronal Processes

The role of somatic mutations in complex diseases, including neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders, is becoming increasingly clear. However, to date, no study has shown their relation to Parkinson disease’s phenotype. To explore the relevance of embryonic somatic mutations in sporadic Parkinson disease, we performed whole-exome sequencing in blood and four brain regions of ten patients. We identified 59 candidate somatic single nucleotide variants (sSNVs) through sensitive calling and a careful filtering strategy (COSMOS). We validated 27 of them with amplicon-based ultra-deep sequencing, with a 70% validation rate for the highest-confidence variants. The identified sSNVs are in genes with synaptic functions that are co-expressed with genes previously associated with Parkinson disease. Most of the sSNVs were only called in blood but were also found in the brain tissues with ultra-deep amplicon sequencing, demonstrating the strength of multi-tissue sampling designs.

Parkinson's Disease in Teneurin Transmembrane Protein 4 (TENM4) Mutation Carriers

Introduction

Mutations in the teneurin transmembrane protein 4 (TENM4) gene, known to be involved in neuropsychiatric disorders, have been identified in three pedigree of essential tremor (ET) from Spain. ET has overlapping clinical manifestations and epidemiological symptoms with Parkinson’s disease (PD), suggesting these two disorders may reflect common genetic risk factors. In this study, we investigated clinical and genetic manifestations in four unrelated pedigrees with both ET and PD in which TENM4 variants were identified.

Methods

We subsequently explored whether TENM4 variants contributed to the risk of developing PD. The frequency of TENM4 variants was evaluated from four PD pedigrees and other 407 subjects.

Results

The results revealed 12 different novel heterozygous variants, all at low frequency. A clear general enrichment of TENM4 variants was detected in early onset PD patients (p < 0.001, OR = 5.264, 95% CI = 1.957–14.158).

Conclusion

The results indicate that rare TENM4 variants may be associated with an increased risk of PD.

Identification of Disease-Associated Variants by Targeted Gene Panel Resequencing in Parkinson's Disease

Background: Recent advanced technologies, such as high-throughput sequencing, have enabled the identification of a broad spectrum of variants. Using targeted-gene-panel resequencing for Parkinson's disease (PD)-associated genes, we have occasionally found several single-nucleotide variants (SNVs), which are thought to be disease-associated, in PD patients. To confirm the significance of these potentially disease-associated variants, we performed genome association analyses, using next-generation target resequencing, to evaluate the associations between the identified SNVs and PD. Methods: We obtained genomic DNA from 766 patients, who were clinically diagnosed with PD, and 336 healthy controls, all of Japanese origin. All data were analyzed using Ion AmpliSeq panel sequences, with 29 PD- or dementia-associated genes in a single panel. We excluded any variants that did not comply with the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in the control group. Variant frequencies in the PD and control groups were compared using PLINK. The identified variants were confirmed to a frequency difference of P < 0.05, after applying the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure using Fisher's exact test. The pathogenicity and prevalence of each variant were estimated based on a public gene database. Results: We identified three rare variants that were significantly associated with PD: rs201012663/rs150500694 in SYNJ1 and rs372754391 in DJ-1, which are intronic variants, and rs7412 in ApoE, which is an exonic variant. The variants in SYNJ1 and ApoE were frequently identified in the control group, and rs201012663/rs150500694 in SYNJ1 may play a protective role against PD. The DJ-1 variant was frequently identified in the PD group, with a high odds ratio of 2.2. Conclusion: The detected variants may represent genetic modifiers or disease-related variants in PD. Targeted-gene-panel resequencing may represent a useful method for detecting disease-causing variants and genetic association studies in PD.

Analysis of rare variants of autosomal-dominant genes in a Chinese population with sporadic Parkinson's disease

BACKGROUND

To date, several studies have suggested that genes involved in monogenic forms of Parkinson's disease (PD) contribute to unrelated sporadic cases, but there is limited evidence in the Chinese population.

METHODS

We performed a systematic analysis of 12 autosomal-dominant PD (AD-PD) genes (SNCA, LRRK2, GIGYF2, VPS35, EIF4G1, DNAJC13, CHCHD2, HTRA2, NR4A2, RIC3, TMEM230, and UCHL1) using panel sequencing and database filtration in a case-control study of a cohort of 391 Chinese sporadic PD patients and unrelated controls. We evaluated the association between candidate variants and sporadic PD using gene-based analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, 18 rare variants were discovered in 18.8% (36/191) of the index patients. In addition to previously reported pathogenic mutations (LRRK2 p.Arg1441His and p.Ala419Val), another four unknown variants were found in LRRK2, which also contribute to PD risk (p = 0.002; odds ratio (OR) = 7.83, 95% confidence intervals (CI) = 1.76-34.93). The cumulative frequency of undetermined rare variants was significantly higher in PD patients (14.1%) than in controls (3.5%) (p = 0.0002; OR=4.54, 95% CI = 1.93-10.69).

CONCLUSION

Our results confirm the strong impact of LRRK2 on the risk of sporadic PD, and also provide considerable evidence of the existence of additional undetermined rare variants in AD-PD genes that contribute to the genetic etiology of sporadic PD in a Chinese cohort.

Systematically analyzing rare variants of autosomal-dominant genes for sporadic Parkinson's disease in a Chinese cohort

Studies have shown that rare variants of Mendelian genes for Parkinson's disease (PD) contribute to sporadic PD in the Caucasian population, which lacked confirmation in the Chinese population. Because the autosomal-dominant PD (AD-PD) had a phenotype closely resembling sporadic PD, we performed a systematic analysis of 7 AD-PD genes (SNCA, LRRK2, GIGYF2, VPS35, EIF4G1, DNAJC13, and CHCHD2) in 1456 Chinese sporadic PD patients and 1568 controls. Overall, 72 rare variants were identified, 7 of which were classified as likely pathogenic, 63 of which were categorized as of uncertain significance, and 2 of them were predicted to be likely benign. These AD-PD genes represented a clear enrichment of rare variants in PD patients from a burden analysis (p = 0.003), and significant differences could still be observed when likely pathogenic variants were removed (p = 0.027). The gene-based association testing also reached significance for LRRK2 (p = 0.004) and remained statistically significant after the Bonferroni correction. This report suggested that rare variants of AD-PD genes had a role in the Chinese sporadic PD cohort, especially for those rare variants of LRRK2.

Nicotine promotes neuron survival and partially protects from Parkinson's disease by suppressing SIRT6

Parkinson’s disease is characterized by progressive death of dopaminergic neurons, leading to motor and cognitive dysfunction. Epidemiological studies consistently show that the use of tobacco reduces the risk of Parkinson’s. We report that nicotine reduces the abundance of SIRT6 in neuronal culture and brain tissue. We find that reduction of SIRT6 is partly responsible for neuroprotection afforded by nicotine. Additionally, SIRT6 abundance is greater in Parkinson’s patient brains, and decreased in the brains of tobacco users. We also identify SNPs that promote SIRT6 expression and simultaneously associate with an increased risk of Parkinson’s. Furthermore, brain-specific SIRT6 knockout mice are protected from MPTP-induced Parkinson’s, while SIRT6 overexpressing mice develop more severe pathology. Our data suggest that SIRT6 plays a pathogenic and pro-inflammatory role in Parkinson’s and that nicotine can provide neuroprotection by accelerating its degradation. Inhibition of SIRT6 may be a promising strategy to ameliorate Parkinson’s and neurodegeneration.

Genetic variants of PARK genes in Korean patients with early-onset Parkinson's disease

Early-onset Parkinson's disease (EOPD) can be linked to different genetic backgrounds depending on the disease characteristics. In Korean patients with EOPD, however, only 5 PARK genes have been tested. We recruited 70 patients with EOPD from 4 hospitals in Korea, and 12 PARK genes were screened via multigene panel sequencing. Large insertions or deletions were confirmed by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification. We found 20 rare variants (2 in SNCA, 2 in PRKN, 6 in LRRK2, 3 in PINK1, 1 in DJ1, 4 in FBX07, 1 in HTRA2, and 1 in EIG4G1) in 20 subjects regardless of heterogeneity. Two pathogenic variants (SNCA in 2 subjects and DJ1 in one) were from 3 subjects, and 7 likely pathogenic variants (SNCA, LRRK2, FBXO7, and 2 in PINK1 and PRKN) from 7. Akinetic-rigid subtype and dystonia were more common in patients with EOPD with rare variants than in those without rare variants. Multigene panel tests can be effective at identifying genetic variants in patients with EOPD. In addition, we suggest there are different genetic backgrounds in patients with EOPD.

Coordinating Mitochondrial Biology Through the Stress-Responsive Regulation of Mitochondrial Proteases

Proteases are localized throughout mitochondria and function as critical regulators of all aspects of mitochondrial biology. As such, the activities of these proteases are sensitively regulated through transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms to adapt mitochondrial function to specific cellular demands. Here, we discuss the stress-responsive mechanisms responsible for regulating mitochondrial protease activity and the implications of this regulation on mitochondrial function. Furthermore, we describe how imbalances in the activity or regulation of mitochondrial proteases induced by genetic, environmental, or aging-related factors influence mitochondria in the context of disease. Understanding the molecular mechanisms by which cells regulate mitochondrial function through alterations in protease activity provide insights into the contributions of these proteases in pathologic mitochondrial dysfunction and reveals new therapeutic opportunities to ameliorate this dysfunction in the context of diverse classes of human disease.

Pooled-DNA target sequencing of Parkinson genes reveals novel phenotypic associations in Spanish population

Eighteen loci and several susceptibility genes have been related to Parkinson's disease (PD). However, most studies focus on single genes in small PD series. Our aim was to establish the genetic background of a large Spanish PD sample. Pooled-DNA target sequencing of 7 major PD genes (SNCA, PARK2, PINK1, DJ-1, LRRK2, GBA, and MAPT) was performed in 562 PD cases. Forty-four variants were found among 114 individuals (20.28%, p<0.05). Among these variants, 30 were found in Mendelian genes (68.18%) and 14 in PD susceptibility genes (31.82%). Seven novel variants were identified. Interestingly, most variants were found in PARK2 and PINK1 genes, whereas SNCA and DJ-1 variants were rare. Validated variants were also genotyped in Spanish healthy controls (n = 597). Carriers of heterozygous PARK2 variants presented earlier disease onset and showed dementia more frequently. PD subjects carrying 2 variants at different genes (1.42%) had an earlier age of onset and a predominantly akinetic-rigid PD phenotype (55.6%, p < 0.05), suggesting that the accumulation of genetic risk variants could modify PD phenotype.

Genetics of neurodegenerative diseases: an overview

Genetic factors are central to the etiology of neurodegeneration, both as monogenic causes of heritable disease and as modifiers of susceptibility to complex, sporadic disorders. Over the last two decades, the identification of disease genes and risk loci has led to some of the greatest advances in medicine and invaluable insights into pathogenic mechanisms and disease pathways. Large-scale research efforts, novel study designs, and advances in methodology are rapidly expanding our understanding of the genome and the genetic architecture of neurodegenerative disease. Here, we review major developments in the field to date, highlighting overarching historic trends and general insights. Monogenic neurodegenerative diseases are discussed from the perspectives of both rare Mendelian forms of common disorders, such as Alzheimer disease and Parkinson disease, and heterogeneous heritable conditions, including ataxias and spastic paraplegias. Next, we summarize the experiences from investigations of complex neurodegenerative disorders, including genomewide association studies. In the final section, we reflect upon the limitations of current findings and outline important future directions. Genetics plays an essential role in translational research, ultimately aiming to develop novel disease-modifying therapies for neurodegenerative disorders. We anticipate that individual genetic profiling will also be increasingly relevant in a clinical context, with implications for patient care in line with the proposed ideal of personalized medicine.

Modeling the genetic complexity of Parkinson's disease by targeted genome edition in iPS cells

Patient-specific iPSC are being intensively exploited as experimental disease models. Even for late-onset diseases of complex genetic influence, such as Parkinson's disease (PD), the use of iPSC-based models is beginning to provide important insights into the genetic bases of PD heritability. Here, we present an update on recently reported genetic risk factors associated with PD. We discuss how iPSC technology, combined with targeted edition of the coding or noncoding genome, can be used to address clinical observations such as incomplete penetrance, and variability in phenoconversion or age-at-onset in familial PD. Finally, we also discuss the relevance of advanced iPSC/CRISPR/Cas9 disease models to ascertain causality in genotype-to-phenotype correlation studies of sporadic PD.

Genetic Mutation Analysis of Parkinson's Disease Patients Using Multigene Next-Generation Sequencing Panels

BACKGROUND

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, affecting millions of people. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have found >25 genetic risk factors and at least 15 loci directly associated with PD. Recent advances in new next-generation DNA sequencing technologies, such as the semiconductor-based Ion Torrent platform, make multigene sequencing cheaper, faster, and more reliable.

OBJECTIVES

Our objective was to test the power of this next-generation sequencing technology to analyze large samples by screening the majority of the most relevant PD-related genes known for single and compound mutations.

METHODS

To archive a rapid, robust, and cost-effective genetic analysis of a PD cohort, we designed a multiplex, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based primer panel to amplify and sequence coding exons of 15 PD-associated genes (SNCA, LRRK2, PARK2, PINK1, PARK7, GIGYF2, ATP13A2, UCHL1, PLA2G6, FBXO7, EIF4G1, VPS35, ACMSD, APOE, and GBA). We conducted parallel sequencing using the Ion Torrent Personal Genome Machine(®) system to detect mutations in 92 blood DNA samples from PD patients.

RESULTS

After bioinformatics analysis and filtering, 95.13 % coverage of the targeted region was obtained at >40-fold mean coverage. The results revealed 44 previously documented variants in these 15 genes, with five revealed as pathogenic. We also discovered six novel variants, five of which had an in silico prediction of being pathogenic.

CONCLUSIONS

Benchtop next-generation sequencing is a powerful method for genetic screening for PD. Our results indicated that it yielded a high frequency of discovery (66 %; n = 92) of variants in carriers from an enriched Spanish PD sample.

Genetic regulation of gene expression in the epileptic human hippocampus

Epilepsy is a serious and common neurological disorder. Expression quantitative loci (eQTL) analysis is a vital aid for the identification and interpretation of disease-risk loci. Many eQTLs operate in a tissue- and condition-specific manner. We have performed the first genome-wide cis-eQTL analysis of human hippocampal tissue to include not only normal (n = 22) but also epileptic (n = 22) samples. We demonstrate that disease-associated variants from an epilepsy GWAS meta-analysis and a febrile seizures (FS) GWAS are significantly more enriched with epilepsy-eQTLs than with normal hippocampal eQTLs from two larger independent published studies. In contrast, GWAS meta-analyses of two other brain diseases associated with hippocampal pathology (Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia) are more enriched with normal hippocampal eQTLs than with epilepsy-eQTLs. These observations suggest that an eQTL analysis that includes disease-affected brain tissue is advantageous for detecting additional risk SNPs for the afflicting and closely related disorders, but not for distinct diseases affecting the same brain regions. We also show that epilepsy eQTLs are enriched within epilepsy-causing genes: an epilepsy cis-gene is significantly more likely to be a causal gene for a Mendelian epilepsy syndrome than to be a causal gene for another Mendelian disorder. Epilepsy cis-genes, compared to normal hippocampal cis-genes, are more enriched within epilepsy-causing genes. Hence, we utilize the epilepsy eQTL data for the functional interpretation of epilepsy disease-risk variants and, thereby, highlight novel potential causal genes for sporadic epilepsy. In conclusion, an epilepsy-eQTL analysis is superior to normal hippocampal tissue eQTL analyses for identifying the variants and genes underlying epilepsy.

Whole-genome sequencing suggests mechanisms for 22q11.2 deletion-associated Parkinson's disease

OBJECTIVES

To investigate disease risk mechanisms of early-onset Parkinson's disease (PD) associated with the recurrent 22q11.2 deletion, a genetic risk factor for early-onset PD.

METHODS

In a proof-of-principle study, we used whole-genome sequencing (WGS) to investigate sequence variants in nine adults with 22q11.2DS, three with neuropathologically confirmed early-onset PD and six without PD. Adopting an approach used recently to study schizophrenia in 22q11.2DS, here we tested candidate gene-sets relevant to PD.

RESULTS

No mutations common to the cases with PD were found in the intact 22q11.2 region. While all were negative for rare mutations in a gene-set comprising PD disease-causing and risk genes, another candidate gene-set of 1000 genes functionally relevant to PD presented a nominally significant (P = 0.03) enrichment of rare putatively damaging missense variants in the PD cases. Polygenic score results, based on common variants associated with PD risk, were non-significantly greater in those with PD.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this first-ever pilot study of WGS in PD suggest that the cumulative burden of genome-wide sequence variants may contribute to expression of early-onset PD in the presence of threshold-lowering dosage effects of a 22q11.2 deletion. We found no evidence that expression of PD in 22q11.2DS is mediated by a recessive locus on the intact 22q11.2 chromosome or mutations in known PD genes. These findings offer initial evidence of the potential effects of multiple within-individual rare variants on the expression of PD and the utility of next generation sequencing for studying the etiology of PD.

Properties of human disease genes and the role of genes linked to Mendelian disorders in complex disease aetiology

Do genes presenting variation that has been linked to human disease have different biological properties than genes that have never been related to disease? What is the relationship between disease and fitness? Are the evolutionary pressures that affect genes linked to Mendelian diseases the same to those acting on genes whose variation contributes to complex disorders? The answers to these questions could shed light on the architecture of human genetic disorders and may have relevant implications when designing mapping strategies in future genetic studies. Here we show that, relative to non-disease genes, human disease (HD) genes have specific evolutionary profiles and protein network properties. Additionally, our results indicate that the mutation-selection balance renders an insufficient account of the evolutionary history of some HD genes and that adaptive selection could also contribute to shape their genetic architecture. Notably, several biological features of HD genes depend on the type of pathology (complex or Mendelian) with which they are related. For example, genes harbouring both causal variants for Mendelian disorders and risk factors for complex disease traits (Complex-Mendelian genes), tend to present higher functional relevance in the protein network and higher expression levels than genes associated only with complex disorders. Moreover, risk variants in Complex-Mendelian genes tend to present higher odds ratios than those on genes associated with the same complex disorders but with no link to Mendelian diseases. Taken together, our results suggest that genetic variation at genes linked to Mendelian disorders plays an important role in driving susceptibility to complex disease.

Detection of genomic rearrangements from targeted resequencing data in Parkinson's disease patients

Background

The analysis of coverage depth in next‐generation sequencing data allows the detection of gene dose alterations. We explore the frequency of such structural events in a Spanish cohort of sporadic PD cases.

Methods

Gene dose alterations were detected with the eXome‐Hidden Markov Model (XHMM) software from depth of coverage in resequencing data available for 38 Mendelian and other risk PD loci in 394 individuals (249 cases and 145 controls) and subsequently validated by quantitative PCR.

Results

We identified 10 PD patients with exon dosage alterations in PARK2, GBA‐GBAP1, and DJ1. Additional functional variants, including 2 novel nonsense mutations (p.Arg1552Ter in LRRK2 and p.Trp90Ter in PINK1), were confirmed by Sanger sequencing. This combined approach disclosed the genetic cause of 12 PD cases.

Conclusions

Gene dose alterations related to PD can be correctly identified from targeting resequencing data. This approach substantially improves the detection rate of cases with causal genetic alterations. © 2016 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Increased copper toxicity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae lacking VPS35, a component of the retromer and monogenic Parkinson disease gene in humans

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene VPS35 encodes a component of the retromer complex which is involved in vesicle transport from endosomes to the trans-Golgi network. Yeast and human VPS35 orthologs are highly conserved and mutations in human VPS35 cause an autosomal dominant form of late-onset Parkinson disease (PD). We now show that deletion of VPS35 in yeast (vps35Δ) leads to a dose-dependent growth defect towards copper. This increased sensitivity could be rescued by transformation with yeast wild-type VPS35 but not by the expression of a construct harboring the yeast equivalent (i.e. D686N) of the most commonly identified VPS35-associated PD mutation, p.D620N. In addition, we show that expression of one copy of α-synuclein, which is known to directly interact with copper, leads to a pronounced aggravation of copper toxicity in vps35Δ cells, thereby linking the regulation of copper homeostasis by Vps35p in yeast to one of the key molecules in PD pathophysiology.

Resequencing analysis of five Mendelian genes and the top genes from genome-wide association studies in Parkinson's Disease

Background

Most sequencing studies in Parkinson’s disease (PD) have focused on either a particular gene, primarily in familial and early onset PD samples, or on screening single variants in sporadic PD cases. To date, there is no systematic study that sequences the most common PD causing genes with Mendelian inheritance [α-synuclein (SNCA), leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), PARKIN, PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1) and DJ-1 (Daisuke-Junko-1)] and susceptibility genes [glucocerebrosidase beta acid (GBA) and microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT)] identified through genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in a European-American case-control sample (n=815).

Results

Disease-causing variants in the SNCA,LRRK2 and PARK2 genes were found in 2 % of PD patients. The LRRK2, p.G2019S mutation was found in 0.6 % of sporadic PD and 4.8 % of familial PD cases. Gene-based analysis suggests that additional variants in the LRRK2 gene also contribute to PD risk. The SNCA duplication was found in 0.8 % of familial PD patients. Novel variants were found in 0.8 % of PD cases and 0.6 % of controls. Heterozygous Gaucher disease-causing mutations in the GBA gene were found in 7.1 % of PD patients. Here, we established that the GBA variant (p.T408M) is associated with PD risk and age at onset. Additionally, gene-based and single-variant analyses demostrated that GBA gene variants (p.L483P, p.R83C, p.N409S, p.H294Q and p.E365K) increase PD risk.

Conclusions

Our data suggest that the impact of additional untested coding variants in the GBA and LRRK2 genes is higher than previously estimated. Our data also provide compelling evidence of the existence of additional untested variants in the primary Mendelian and PD GWAS genes that contribute to the genetic etiology of sporadic PD.