Hereditary spastic paraplegia: gain-of-function mechanisms revealed by new transgenic mouse

Tubulin glutamylation regulates axon guidance via the selective tuning of microtubule-severing enzymes

The microtubule cytoskeleton is a major driving force of neuronal circuit development. Fine-tuned remodelling of this network by selective activation of microtubule-regulating proteins, including microtubule-severing enzymes, has emerged as a central process in neuronal wiring. Tubulin posttranslational modifications control both microtubule properties and the activities of their interacting proteins. However, whether and how tubulin posttranslational modifications may contribute to neuronal connectivity has not yet been addressed. Here we show that the microtubule-severing proteins p60-katanin and spastin play specific roles in axon guidance during zebrafish embryogenesis and identify a key role for tubulin polyglutamylation in their functional specificity. Furthermore, our work reveals that polyglutamylases with undistinguishable activities in vitro, TTLL6 and TTLL11, play exclusive roles in motor circuit wiring by selectively tuning p60-katanin- and spastin-driven motor axon guidance. We confirm the selectivity of TTLL11 towards spastin regulation in mouse cortical neurons and establish its relevance in preventing axonal degeneration triggered by spastin haploinsufficiency. Our work thus provides mechanistic insight into the control of microtubule-driven neuronal development and homeostasis and opens new avenues for developing therapeutic strategies in spastin-associated hereditary spastic paraplegia.

Unraveling Isoform Complexity: The Roles of M1- and M87-Spastin in Spastic Paraplegia 4 (SPG4)

Spastic Paraplegia 4 (SPG4) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive muscle weakness and spasticity in the lower limbs, often leading to gait impairment. Central to SPG4 pathology is the die-back degeneration of corticospinal tracts, primarily driven by mutations in the spastin protein encoded by the SPAST gene. SPAST gives rise to two major spastin isoforms, M1- and M87-spastin, which are generated from distinct translation initiation sites. Although spastin is implicated in various cellular functions, the specific roles of each isoform in the pathogenesis of SPG4 remain poorly understood. This review offers an overview of the genetic and structural organization of the M1- and M87-spastin isoforms, highlighting their distinct and overlapping functions, and exploring their potential roles in the haploinsufficiency and gain-of-toxicity mechanisms underlying SPG4. We also present a novel perspective on the evolutionary emergence of M1-spastin and its potential unique involvement in the pathogenesis of SPG4. Drawing upon the latest research, we propose an intriguing hypothesis regarding the hetero-oligomerization of M1- and M87-spastin, exploring how their interaction may drive disease progression and open new avenues for therapeutic intervention. By integrating the current research with these fresh insights, we seek to illuminate the complex molecular mechanisms driving SPG4 and foster the development of innovative therapeutic strategies. This review not only incorporates existing knowledge but also lays the groundwork for future studies aimed at uncovering the isoform-specific roles of spastin in SPG4, with the ultimate goal of advancing targeted treatments for this challenging neurodegenerative disorder. © 2024 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Development and validation a novel FEZF2 based fluorescent reporter for corticospinal motor neurons

Corticospinal motor neurons (CSMNs), also named upper motor neurons, are the giant pyramidal neurons called Betz cells. In mammals, the majority of CSMNs reside within layer V of the primary motor cortex, where they extend long axon bundles named the pyramidal tract into the brainstem and the spinal cord to control voluntary movement. CSMN lesions are implicated in a variety of neurodegenerative disorders, such Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Primary Lateral Sclerosis and Hereditary Spastic paraplegia. Although FEZF2-CTIP2 genetic axis have been indicated as the cardinal molecular pathway underlying the development of CSMNs, these proteins are transcription factors that are mostly used to label the nuclei of CSMNs in the fixed cells and tissues. Therefore, a fluorescent reporter to mark CSMNs will be invaluable in identifying living CSMNs, including their extended processes, for time-lapse imaging and high-throughput molecular analyses with much more improved specificity. Based on the in-silico analysis, we identified a putative region within the promoter sequence of FEZF2 and assembled it with an indispensable enhancer motif at its downstream of the gene to form a complex promoter that drives the expression of reporter GFP. The plasmid and virus of FEZF2:eGFP reporter constructs were further validated for its use in specifically labeling CSMNs in primary neuronal cultures from the embryonic rat motor cortex, postnatal mouse cortex. This innovative molecular labeling tool has the potential to offer indispensable support in diverse experimental setups, enabling a comprehensive understanding of the susceptibility and specificity of CSMNs in a wide array of neurological disorders.

Spastin accumulation and motor neuron defects caused by a novel SPAST splice site mutation

BACKGROUND

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a rare genetically heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorder. The most common type of HSP is caused by pathogenic variants in the SPAST gene. Various hypotheses regarding the pathogenic mechanisms of HSP-SPAST have been proposed. However, a single hypothesis may not be sufficient to explain HSP-SPAST.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the causative gene of autosomal dominant HSP-SPAST in a pure pedigree and to study its underlying pathogenic mechanism.

METHODS

A four-generation Chinese family was investigated. Genetic testing was performed for the causative gene, and a splice site variant was identified. In vivo and in vitro experiments were conducted separately. Western blotting and immunofluorescence were performed after transient transfection of cells with the wild-type (WT) or mutated plasmid. The developmental expression pattern of zebrafish spasts was assessed via whole-mount in situ hybridization. The designed guide RNA (gRNA) and an antisense oligo spast-MO were microinjected into Tg(hb9:GFP) zebrafish embryos, spinal cord motor neurons were observed, and a swimming behavioral analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

A novel heterozygous intron variant, c.1004 + 5G > A, was identified in a pure HSP-SPAST pedigree and shown to cosegregate with the disease phenotypes. This intron splice site variant skipped exon 6, causing a frameshift mutation that resulted in a premature termination codon. In vitro, the truncated protein was evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm, formed filamentous accumulations around the nucleus, and colocalized with microtubules. Truncated proteins diffusing in the cytoplasm appeared denser. No abnormal microtubule structures were observed, and the expression levels of α-tubulin remained unchanged. In vivo, zebrafish larvae with this mutation displayed axon pathfinding defects, impaired outgrowth, and axon loss. Furthermore, spast-MO larvae exhibited unusual behavioral preferences and increased acceleration.

CONCLUSION

The adverse effects of premature stop codon mutations in SPAST result in insufficient levels of functional protein, and the potential toxicity arising from the intracellular accumulation of spastin serves as a contributing factor to HSP-SPAST.

A novel SPAST gene splicing variant (c.1617-2A>C) in a heterozygous carrier with hereditary spastic paraplegia

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a group of genetically heterogenous neurodegenerative disorders characterized by progressive spasticity and weakness of lower limbs. We report a novel splicing variant (c.1617-2A>C) of the SPAST gene in a heterozygous carrier from an Italian family with autosomal dominant HSP. The case study describes a pure form of spastic paraparesis with the cardinal clinical features of SPG4. The novel variant affects a canonical splice site and is likely to disrupt RNA splicing. We conclude that the c.1617-2A>C substitution is a null variant, which could be classified as pathogenic; its penetrance should be further investigated.

Conditional Astrocyte Rac1KO Attenuates Hyperreflexia after Spinal Cord Injury

Spasticity is a hyperexcitability disorder that adversely impacts functional recovery and rehabilitative efforts after spinal cord injury (SCI). The loss of evoked rate-dependent depression (RDD) of the monosynaptic H-reflex is indicative of hyperreflexia, a physiological sign of spasticity. Given the intimate relationship between astrocytes and neurons, that is, the tripartite synapse, we hypothesized that astrocytes might have a significant role in post-injury hyperreflexia and plasticity of neighboring neuronal synaptic dendritic spines. Here, we investigated the effect of selective Rac1KO in astrocytes (i.e., adult male and female mice, transgenic cre-flox system) on SCI-induced spasticity. Three weeks after a mild contusion SCI, control Rac1wt animals displayed a loss of H-reflex RDD, that is, hyperreflexia. In contrast, transgenic animals with astrocytic Rac1KO demonstrated near-normal H-reflex RDD similar to pre-injury levels. Reduced hyperreflexia in astrocytic Rac1KO animals was accompanied by a loss of thin-shaped dendritic spine density on α-motor neurons in the ventral horn. In SCI-Rac1wt animals, as expected, we observed the development of dendritic spine dysgenesis on α-motor neurons associated with spasticity. As compared with WT animals, SCI animals with astrocytic Rac1KO expressed increased levels of the glial-specific glutamate transporter, glutamate transporter-1 in the ventral spinal cord, potentially enhancing glutamate clearance from the synaptic cleft and reducing hyperreflexia in astrocytic Rac1KO animals. Taken together, our findings show for the first time that Rac1 activity in astrocytes can contribute to hyperreflexia underlying spasticity following SCI. These results reveal an opportunity to target cell-specific molecular regulators of H-reflex excitability to manage spasticity after SCI.Significance Statement Spinal cord injury leads to stretch reflex hyperexcitability, which underlies the clinical symptom of spasticity. This study shows for the first time that astrocytic Rac1 contributes to the development of hyperreflexia after SCI. Specifically, astrocytic Rac1KO reduced SCI-related H-reflex hyperexcitability, decreased dendritic spine dysgenesis on α-motor neurons, and elevated the expression of the astrocytic glutamate transporter-1 (GLT-1). Overall, this study supports a distinct role for astrocytic Rac1 signaling within the spinal reflex circuit and the development of SCI-related spasticity.

Deletion of Transferrin Receptor 1 in Parvalbumin Interneurons Induces a Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia-Like Phenotype

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a severe neurodegenerative movement disorder, the underlying pathophysiology of which remains poorly understood. Mounting evidence has suggested that iron homeostasis dysregulation can lead to motor function impairment. However, whether deficits in iron homeostasis are involved in the pathophysiology of HSP remains unknown. To address this knowledge gap, we focused on parvalbumin-positive (PV+) interneurons, a large category of inhibitory neurons in the central nervous system, which play a critical role in motor regulation. The PV+ interneuron-specific deletion of the gene encoding transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1), a key component of the neuronal iron uptake machinery, induced severe progressive motor deficits in both male and female mice. In addition, we observed skeletal muscle atrophy, axon degeneration in the spinal cord dorsal column, and alterations in the expression of HSP-related proteins in male mice with Tfr1 deletion in the PV+ interneurons. These phenotypes were highly consistent with the core clinical features of HSP cases. Furthermore, the effects on motor function induced by Tfr1 ablation in PV+ interneurons were mostly concentrated in the dorsal spinal cord; however, iron repletion partly rescued the motor defects and axon loss seen in both sexes of conditional Tfr1 mutant mice. Our study describes a new mouse model for mechanistic and therapeutic studies relating to HSP and provides novel insights into iron metabolism in spinal cord PV+ interneurons and its role in the regulation of motor functions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Iron is crucial for neuronal functioning. Mounting evidence suggests that iron homeostasis dysregulation can induce motor function deficits. Transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1) is thought to be the key component in neuronal iron uptake. We found that deletion of Tfr1 in parvalbumin-positive (PV+) interneurons in mice induced severe progressive motor deficits, skeletal muscle atrophy, axon degeneration in the spinal cord dorsal column, and alterations in the expression of hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP)-related proteins. These phenotypes were highly consistent with the core clinical features of HSP cases and partly rescued by iron repletion. This study describes a new mouse model for the study of HSP and provides novel insights into iron metabolism in spinal cord PV+ interneurons.

A novel missense mutation in SPAST causes hereditary spastic paraplegia in male members of a family: A case report

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) comprises a group of hereditary and neurodegenerative diseases that are characterized by axonal degeneration or demyelination of bilateral corticospinal tracts in the spinal cord; affected patients exhibit progressive spasticity and weakness in the lower limbs. The most common manifestation of HSP is spastic paraplegia type 4 (SPG4), which is caused by mutations in the spastin (SPAST) gene. The present study reports the clinical characteristics of affected individuals and sequencing analysis of a mutation that caused SPG4 in a family. All affected family members exhibited spasticity and weakness of the lower limbs and, notably, only male members of the family were affected. Whole‑exome sequencing revealed that all affected individuals had a novel c.1785C>A (p. Ser595Arg) missense mutation in SPAST. Bioinformatics analysis revealed changes in both secondary and tertiary structures of the mutated protein. The novel missense mutation in SPAST supported the diagnosis of SPG4 in this family and expands the spectrum of pathogenic mutations that cause SPG4. Analysis of SPAST sequences revealed that most pathogenic mutations occurred in the AAA domain of the protein, which may have a close relationship with SPG4 pathogenesis.

TFG regulates secretory and endosomal sorting pathways in neurons to promote their activity and maintenance

Molecular pathways that intrinsically regulate neuronal maintenance are poorly understood, but rare pathogenic mutations that underlie neurodegenerative disease can offer important insights into the mechanisms that facilitate lifelong neuronal function. Here, we leverage a rat model to demonstrate directly that the TFG p.R106C variant implicated previously in complicated forms of hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) underlies progressive spastic paraparesis with accompanying ventriculomegaly and thinning of the corpus callosum, consistent with disease phenotypes identified in adolescent patients. Analyses of primary cortical neurons obtained from CRISPR-Cas9-edited animals reveal a kinetic delay in biosynthetic secretory protein transport from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in agreement with prior induced pluripotent stem cell-based studies. Moreover, we identify an unexpected role for TFG in the trafficking of Rab4A-positive recycling endosomes specifically within axons and dendrites. Impaired TFG function compromises the transport of at least a subset of endosomal cargoes, which we show results in down-regulated inhibitory receptor signaling that may contribute to excitation-inhibition imbalances. In contrast, the morphology and trafficking of other organelles, including mitochondria and lysosomes, are unaffected by the TFG p.R106C mutation. Our findings demonstrate a multifaceted role for TFG in secretory and endosomal protein sorting that is unique to cells of the central nervous system and highlight the importance of these pathways to maintenance of corticospinal tract motor neurons.

Ubap1 knock-in mice reproduced the phenotype of SPG80

SPG80 is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a pure type of juvenile-onset hereditary spastic paraplegia and is caused by a heterozygous mutation of the UBAP1 (ubiquitin-associated protein 1) gene. UBAP1 is one of the subunits of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport I and plays a role in endosome sorting by binding to ubiquitin-tagged proteins. In this study, we generated novel Ubap1^+/E176Efx23 knock-in mice, in which the SOUBA domain of Ubap1 was completely deleted with the UMA domain being intact, as an animal model of SPG80. The knock-in mice with this heterozygous Ubap1 truncated mutation appeared normal at birth, but they developed progressive hind limb dysfunction several months later. Molecular pathologically, loss of neurons in the spinal cord and accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins were observed in Ubap1^+/E176Efx23 knock-in mice. In addition, changes in the distributions of Rab5 and Rab7 in the spinal cord suggest that this mutation in Ubap1 disturbs endosome-mediated vesicular trafficking. This is the first report of a mouse model that reproduces the phenotype of SPG80. Our knock-in mice may provide a clue for understanding the molecular pathogenesis underlying UBAP1-related HSP and screening of therapeutic agents.

The Role of Spastin in Axon Biology

Neurons are highly polarized cells with elaborate shapes that allow them to perform their function. In neurons, microtubule organization—length, density, and dynamics—are essential for the establishment of polarity, growth, and transport. A mounting body of evidence shows that modulation of the microtubule cytoskeleton by microtubule-associated proteins fine tunes key aspects of neuronal cell biology. In this respect, microtubule severing enzymes—spastin, katanin and fidgetin—a group of microtubule-associated proteins that bind to and generate internal breaks in the microtubule lattice, are emerging as key modulators of the microtubule cytoskeleton in different model systems. In this review, we provide an integrative view on the latest research demonstrating the key role of spastin in neurons, specifically in the context of axonal cell biology. We focus on the function of spastin in the regulation of microtubule organization, and axonal transport, that underlie its importance in the intricate control of axon growth, branching and regeneration.

Genetic architecture of motor neuron diseases

Motor neuron diseases (MNDs) are rare and frequently fatal neurological disorders in which motor neurons within the brainstem and spinal cord regions slowly die. MNDs are primarily caused by genetic mutations, and > 100 different mutant genes in humans have been discovered thus far. Given the fact that many more MND-related genes have yet to be discovered, the growing body of genetic evidence has offered new insights into the diverse cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the aetiology and pathogenesis of MNDs. This search may aid in the selection of potential candidate genes for future investigation and, eventually, may open the door to novel interventions to slow down disease progression. In this review paper, we have summarized detailed existing research findings of different MNDs, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), spinal bulbar muscle atrophy (SBMA) and hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) in relation to their complex genetic architecture.

Modeling gain-of-function and loss-of-function components of SPAST-based hereditary spastic paraplegia using transgenic mice

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a disease in which dieback degeneration of corticospinal tracts, accompanied by axonal swellings, leads to gait deficiencies. SPG4-HSP, the most common form of the disease, results from mutations of human spastin gene (SPAST), which is the gene that encodes spastin, a microtubule-severing protein. The lack of a vertebrate model that recapitulates both the etiology and symptoms of SPG4-HSP has stymied the development of effective therapies for the disease. hSPAST-C448Y mice, which express human mutant spastin at the ROSA26 locus, display corticospinal dieback and gait deficiencies but not axonal swellings. On the other hand, mouse spastin gene (Spast)-knockout (KO) mice display axonal swellings but not corticospinal dieback or gait deficiencies. One possibility is that reduced spastin function, resulting in axonal swellings, is not the cause of the disease but exacerbates the toxic effects of the mutant protein. To explore this idea, Spast-KO and hSPAST-C448Y mice were crossbred, and the offspring were compared with the parental lines via histological and behavioral analyses. The crossbred animals displayed axonal swellings as well as earlier onset, worsened gait deficiencies and corticospinal dieback compared with the hSPAST-C448Y mouse. These results, together with observations on changes in histone deacetylases 6 and tubulin modifications in the axon, indicate that each of these three transgenic mouse lines is valuable for investigating a different component of the disease pathology. Moreover, the crossbred mice are the best vertebrate model to date for testing potential therapies for SPG4-HSP.

A Novel SPAST Mutation Results in Spastin Accumulation and Defects in Microtubule Dynamics

Background

Haploinsufficiency is widely accepted as the pathogenic mechanism of spastic paraplegia type 4 (SPG4). However, there are some cases that cannot be explained by reduced function of the spastin protein encoded by SPAST.

Objectives

To identify the causative gene of autosomal dominant hereditary spastic paraplegia in three large Chinese families and explore the pathological mechanism of a spastin variant.

Methods

Three large Chinese hereditary spastic paraplegia families with a total of 247 individuals (67 patients) were investigated, of whom 59 members were recruited to the study. Genetic testing was performed to identify the causative gene. Western blotting and immunofluorescence were used to analyze the effects of the mutant proteins in vitro.

Results

In the three hereditary spastic paraplegia families, of whom three index cases were misdiagnosed as other types of neurological diseases, a novel c.985dupA (p.Met329Asnfs*3) variant in SPAST was identified and was shown to cosegregate with the phenotype in the three families. The c.985dupA mutation produced two truncated mutants (mutant M1 and M87 isoforms) that accumulated to a higher level than their wild‐type counterparts. Furthermore, the mutant M1 isoform heavily decorated the microtubules and rendered them resistant to depolymerization. In contrast, the mutant M87 isoform was diffusely localized in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm, could not decorate microtubules, and was not able to promote microtubule disassembly.

Conclusions

SPAST mutations leading to premature stop codons do not always act through haploinsufficiency. The truncated spastin may damage the corticospinal tracts through an isoform‐specific toxic effect.

The emerging genetic diversity of hereditary spastic paraplegia in Korean patients

Hereditary Spastic Paraplegias (HSP) are a group of rare inherited neurological disorders characterized by progressive loss of corticospinal motor-tract function. Numerous patients with HSP remain undiagnosed despite screening for known genetic causes of HSP. Therefore, identification of novel genetic variations related to HSP is needed. In this study, we identified 88 genetic variants in 54 genes from whole-exome data of 82 clinically well-defined Korean HSP families. Fifty-six percent were known HSP genes, and 44% were composed of putative candidate HSP genes involved in the HSPome and originally reported neuron-related genes, not previously diagnosed in HSP patients. Their inheritance modes were 39, de novo; 33, autosomal dominant; and 10, autosomal recessive. Notably, ALDH18A1 showed the second highest frequency. Fourteen known HSP genes were firstly reported in Koreans, with some of their variants being predictive of HSP-causing protein malfunction. SPAST and REEP1 mutants with unknown function induced neurite abnormality. Further, 54 HSP-related genes were closely linked to the HSP progression-related network. Additionally, the genetic spectrum and variation of known HSP genes differed across ethnic groups. These results expand the genetic spectrum for HSP and may contribute to the accurate diagnosis and treatment for rare HSP.

Molecular and cellular mechanisms of spastin in neural development and disease (Review)

Spastin is a microtubule (MT)‑severing enzyme identified from mutations of hereditary spastic paraplegia in 1999 and extensive studies indicate its vital role in various cellular activities. In the past two decades, efforts have been made to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms of how spastin is linked to neural development and disease. Recent studies on spastin have unraveled the mechanistic processes of its MT‑severing activity and revealed that spastin acts as an MT amplifier to mediate its remodeling, thus providing valuable insight into the molecular roles of spastin under physiological conditions. In addition, recent research has revealed multiple novel molecular mechanisms of spastin in cellular biological pathways, including endoplasmic reticulum shaping, calcium trafficking, fatty acid trafficking, as well as endosomal fission and trafficking. These processes are closely involved in axonal and dendritic development and maintenance. The current review presents recent biological advances regarding the molecular mechanisms of spastin at the cellular level and provides insight into how it affects neural development and disease.

Therapeutic Strategies for Mutant SPAST-Based Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia

Mutations of the SPAST gene that encodes the microtubule-severing enzyme called spastin are the chief cause of Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia. Growing evidence indicates that pathogenic mutations functionally compromise the spastin protein and endow it with toxic gain-of-function properties. With each of these two factors potentially relevant to disease etiology, the present article discusses possible therapeutic strategies that may ameliorate symptoms in patients suffering from SPAST-based Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia, which is usually termed SPG4-HSP.

Anticipation Can Be More Common in Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia with SPAST Mutations Than It Appears

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorder with lower-limb spasticity and weakness. Different patterns of inheritance have been identified in HSP. Most autosomal-dominant HSPs (AD-HSPs) are associated with mutations of the SPAST gene (SPG4), leading to a pure form of HSP with variable age-at-onset (AAO). Anticipation, an earlier onset of disease, as well as aggravation of symptoms in successive generations, may be correlated to SPG4. Herein, we suggested that anticipation might be a relatively common finding in SPG4 families.

METHODS

Whole-exome sequencing was done on DNA of 14 unrelated Iranian AD-HSP probands. Data were analyzed, and candidate variants were PCR-amplified and sequenced by the Sanger method, subsequently checked in family members to co-segregation analysis. Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) was done for seven probands. Clinical features of the probands were recorded, and the probable anticipation was checked in these families. Other previous reported SPG4 families were investigated to anticipation.

RESULTS

Our findings showed that SPG4 was the common subtype of HSP; three families carried variants in the KIF5A, ATL1, and MFN2 genes, while five families harbored mutations in the SPAST gene. Clinical features of only SPG4 families indicated decreasing AAO in affected individuals of the successive generations, and this difference was significant (p-value <0.05).

CONCLUSION

It seems SPAST will be the first candidate gene in families that manifests a pure form of AD-HSP and anticipation. Therefore, it may be a powerful situation of genotype-phenotype correlation. However, the underlying mechanism of anticipation in these families is not clear yet.

Semaphorin 7A restricts serotonergic innervation and ensures recovery after spinal cord injury

Descending serotonergic (5-HT) projections originating from the raphe nuclei form an important input to the spinal cord that control basic locomotion. The molecular signals that control this projection pattern are currently unknown. Here, we identify Semaphorin7A (Sema7A) as a critical cue that restricts serotonergic innervation in the spinal cord. Sema7A deficient mice show a marked increase in serotonergic fiber density in all layers of the spinal cord while the density of neurons expressing the corresponding 5-HTR2α receptor remains unchanged. These alterations appear to be successfully compensated as no obvious changes in rhythmic locomotion and skilled stepping are observed in adult mice. When the system is challenged with a spinal lesion, serotonergic innervation patterns in both Sema7A-deficient and -competent mice evolve over time with excessive innervation becoming most pronounced in the dorsal horn of Sema7A-deficient mice. These altered serotonergic innervation patterns correlate with diminished functional recovery that predominantly affects rhythmic locomotion. Our findings identify Sema7A as a critical regulator of serotonergic circuit formation in the injured spinal cord.

Swimming in Deep Water: Zebrafish Modeling of Complicated Forms of Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia and Spastic Ataxia

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) and hereditary ataxia (HA) are two groups of disorders characterized, respectively, by progressive dysfunction or degeneration of the pyramidal tracts (HSP) and of the Purkinje cells and spinocerebellar tracts (HA). Although HSP and HA are generally shown to have distinct clinical-genetic profiles, in several cases the clinical presentation, the causative genes, and the cellular pathways and mechanisms involved overlap between the two forms. Genetic analyses in humans in combination with in vitro and in vivo studies using model systems have greatly expanded our knowledge of spinocerebellar degenerative disorders. In this review, we focus on the zebrafish (Danio rerio), a vertebrate model widely used in biomedical research since its overall nervous system organization is similar to that of humans. A critical analysis of the literature suggests that zebrafish could serve as a powerful experimental tool for molecular and genetic dissection of both HA and HSP. The zebrafish, found to be very useful for demonstrating the causal relationship between defect and mutation, also offers a useful platform to exploit for the development of therapies.

Novel mutations in the SPAST gene cause hereditary spastic paraplegia

BACKGROUND

Mutations in the SPAST gene are the most frequent cause of hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP). We aim to extend the mutation spectrum of spastic paraplegia 4 (SPG4) and carried out experiment in vitro to explore the influence of the SPAST gene mutation on the function of corresponding protein.

METHODS

Whole-exome sequencing (WES) combined with multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) were performed in a cohort of 150 patients clinically diagnosed with HSP. We focus on screening for mutations in SPAST gene and carrying out functional experiments to assess the effects of the novel variants.

RESULTS

A total of 34 different mutations in the SPAST gene were identified, of which 10 were novel, including 1 missense (c.1479T > A), 1 nonsense (c.766G > T), 3 splicing (c.1413 + 1_1413+4delGTAA, c.1729-1G > A and c.1536+2T > G) and 5 frameshift mutations (c.1094delC, c.885dupA, c.517_518delAG, c.280delG and c.908dupC). For 7 novel non-splicing mutations, functional study showed that accumulated M1 spastin colcocalized with microtubules which was different from a uniformly diffused M87 spastin. While an impairment in severing activity was observed in both mutant M1 and mutant M87, except for c.280delG. All 3 novel splicing variants w ere predicted to affect splicing by using bioinformatic programs. However, only c.1536+2T > G had no influence on splice site in vitro, which conflicts with the in-silico analysis.

CONCLUSION

We genetically diagnosed 40 SPG4 patients. All the novel non-splicing mutations except for c.280delG were certified to exert an effect on the microtubule-severing and all the novel splicing mutations other than c.1536+2T > G would cause abnormal splicing of the spastin.

NeurodegenERation: The Central Role for ER Contacts in Neuronal Function and Axonopathy, Lessons From Hereditary Spastic Paraplegias and Related Diseases

The hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are a group of inherited neurodegenerative conditions whose characteristic feature is degeneration of the longest axons within the corticospinal tract which leads to progressive spasticity and weakness of the lower limbs. Though highly genetically heterogeneous, the majority of HSP cases are caused by mutations in genes encoding proteins that are responsible for generating and organizing the tubular endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Despite this, the role of the ER within neurons, particularly the long axons affected in HSP, is not well understood. Throughout axons, ER tubules make extensive contacts with other organelles, the cytoskeleton and the plasma membrane. At these ER contacts, protein complexes work in concert to perform specialized functions including organelle shaping, calcium homeostasis and lipid biogenesis, all of which are vital for neuronal survival and may be disrupted by HSP-causing mutations. In this article we summarize the proteins which mediate ER contacts, review the functions these contacts are known to carry out within neurons, and discuss the potential contribution of disruption of ER contacts to axonopathy in HSP.

Complexity of Generating Mouse Models to Study the Upper Motor Neurons: Let Us Shift Focus from Mice to Neurons

Motor neuron circuitry is one of the most elaborate circuitries in our body, which ensures voluntary and skilled movement that requires cognitive input. Therefore, both the cortex and the spinal cord are involved. The cortex has special importance for motor neuron diseases, in which initiation and modulation of voluntary movement is affected. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is defined by the progressive degeneration of both the upper and lower motor neurons, whereas hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) and primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) are characterized mainly by the loss of upper motor neurons. In an effort to reveal the cellular and molecular basis of neuronal degeneration, numerous model systems are generated, and mouse models are no exception. However, there are many different levels of complexities that need to be considered when developing mouse models. Here, we focus our attention to the upper motor neurons, which are one of the most challenging neuron populations to study. Since mice and human differ greatly at a species level, but the cells/neurons in mice and human share many common aspects of cell biology, we offer a solution by focusing our attention to the affected neurons to reveal the complexities of diseases at a cellular level and to improve translational efforts.

An allosteric network in spastin couples multiple activities required for microtubule severing

The AAA+ ATPase spastin remodels microtubule arrays through severing and its mutation is the most common cause of hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSP). Polyglutamylation of the tubulin C-terminal tail recruits spastin to microtubules and modulates severing activity. Here, we present a ~3.2 Å resolution cryo-EM structure of the Drosophila melanogaster spastin hexamer with a polyglutamate peptide bound in its central pore. Two electropositive loops arranged in a double-helical staircase coordinate the substrate sidechains. The structure reveals how concurrent nucleotide and substrate binding organizes the conserved spastin pore loops into an ordered network that is allosterically coupled to oligomerization, and suggests how tubulin tail engagement activates spastin for microtubule disassembly. This allosteric coupling may apply generally in organizing AAA+ protein translocases into their active conformations. We show that this allosteric network is essential for severing and is a hotspot for HSP mutations.

New hypothesis for the etiology of SPAST-based hereditary spastic paraplegia

Mutations of the SPAST gene are the chief cause of hereditary spastic paraplegia. Controversy exists in the medical community as to whether the etiology of the disease is haploinsufficiency or toxic gain-of-function properties of the mutant spastin proteins. In recognition of strong reasons that support each possible mechanism, here we present a novel perspective, based in part on new studies with mouse models and in part on the largest study to date on patients with the disease. We posit that haploinsufficiency does not cause the disease but makes the corticospinal tracts vulnerable to a second hit, which is usually the mutant spastin proteins but could also be proteins generated by mutations of other genes that may or may not cause the disease on their own.