1
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Tesla R, Guhl C, Werthmann GC, Dixon D, Cenik B, Addepalli Y, Liang J, Fass DM, Rosenthal Z, Haggarty SJ, Williams NS, Posner BA, Ready JM, Herz J. Benzoxazole-derivatives enhance progranulin expression and reverse the aberrant lysosomal proteome caused by GRN haploinsufficiency. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6125. [PMID: 39033178 PMCID: PMC11271458 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50076-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in the GRN gene are a major cause of hereditary frontotemporal dementia. The mechanisms linking frontotemporal dementia pathogenesis to progranulin deficiency are not well understood, and there is currently no treatment. Our strategy to prevent the onset and progression of frontotemporal dementia in patients with GRN mutations is to utilize small molecule positive regulators of GRN expression to boost progranulin levels from the remaining functional GRN allele, thus restoring progranulin levels back to normal within the brain. This work describes a series of blood-brain-barrier-penetrant small molecules which significantly increase progranulin protein levels in human cellular models, correct progranulin protein deficiency in Grn+/- mouse brains, and reverse lysosomal proteome aberrations, a phenotypic hallmark of frontotemporal dementia, more efficiently than the previously described small molecule suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid. These molecules will allow further elucidation of the cellular functions of progranulin and its role in frontotemporal dementia and will also serve as lead structures for further drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Tesla
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Center for Translational Neurodegeneration Research, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Charlotte Guhl
- Faculty of Chemistry and Earth Sciences, Institute of Organic Chemistry and Macromolecular Chemistry, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Gordon C Werthmann
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Center for Translational Neurodegeneration Research, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Danielle Dixon
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Center for Translational Neurodegeneration Research, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Basar Cenik
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
- Center for Translational Neurodegeneration Research, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Yesu Addepalli
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Jue Liang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Daniel M Fass
- Chemical Neurobiology Laboratory, Center for Genomic Medicine, Departments of Neurology and Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zachary Rosenthal
- Chemical Neurobiology Laboratory, Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Chemistry & Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Stephen J Haggarty
- Chemical Neurobiology Laboratory, Center for Genomic Medicine, Departments of Neurology and Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Noelle S Williams
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Bruce A Posner
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Joseph M Ready
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Joachim Herz
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
- Center for Translational Neurodegeneration Research, Dallas, TX, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
- Department of Neurology and Neurotherapeutics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
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2
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Feringa FM, Hertog SJKD, Wang L, Derks RJE, Kruijff I, Erlebach L, Heijneman J, Miramontes R, Pömpner N, Blomberg N, Olivier-Jimenez D, Johansen LE, Cammack AJ, Giblin A, Toomey CE, Rose IVL, Yuan H, Ward M, Isaacs AM, Kampmann M, Kronenberg-Versteeg D, Lashley T, Thompson LM, Ori A, Mohammed Y, Giera M, van der Kant R. The Neurolipid Atlas: a lipidomics resource for neurodegenerative diseases uncovers cholesterol as a regulator of astrocyte reactivity impaired by ApoE4. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.01.601474. [PMID: 39005258 PMCID: PMC11244892 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.01.601474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Lipid changes in the brain have been implicated in many neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Parkinson's disease and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. To facilitate comparative lipidomic research across brain-diseases we established a data commons named the Neurolipid Atlas, that we have pre-populated with novel human, mouse and isogenic induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived lipidomics data for different brain diseases. We show that iPSC-derived neurons, microglia and astrocytes display distinct lipid profiles that recapitulate in vivo lipotypes. Leveraging multiple datasets, we show that the AD risk gene ApoE4 drives cholesterol ester (CE) accumulation in human astrocytes recapitulating CE accumulation measured in the human AD brain. Multi-omic interrogation of iPSC-derived astrocytes revealed that cholesterol plays a major role in astrocyte interferon-dependent pathways such as the immunoproteasome and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I antigen presentation. We show that through enhanced cholesterol esterification ApoE4 suppresses immune activation of astrocytes. Our novel data commons, available at neurolipidatlas.com, provides a user-friendly tool and knowledge base for a better understanding of lipid dyshomeostasis in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Femke M Feringa
- Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sascha J Koppes-den Hertog
- Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lian Wang
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Rico J E Derks
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Iris Kruijff
- Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lena Erlebach
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jorin Heijneman
- Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ricardo Miramontes
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Nadine Pömpner
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Niek Blomberg
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Damien Olivier-Jimenez
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Lill Eva Johansen
- Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Alexander J Cammack
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, UK
| | - Ashling Giblin
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, UK
| | - Christina E Toomey
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Neuroscience, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Indigo V L Rose
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases and Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Hebao Yuan
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Michael Ward
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Adrian M Isaacs
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, University College London, London, UK
| | - Martin Kampmann
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Deborah Kronenberg-Versteeg
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Cellular Neurology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Tammaryn Lashley
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Leslie M Thompson
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Alessandro Ori
- Leibniz Institute on Aging, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Yassene Mohammed
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, the Netherlands
- Gerald Bronfman Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada
| | - Martin Giera
- Leiden University Medical Center, Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Rik van der Kant
- Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Alzheimer Center Amsterdam, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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3
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Reich M, Simon MJ, Polke B, Paris I, Werner G, Schrader C, Spieth L, Davis SS, Robinson S, de Melo GL, Schlaphoff L, Buschmann K, Berghoff S, Logan T, Nuscher B, de Weerd L, Edbauer D, Simons M, Suh JH, Sandmann T, Kariolis MS, DeVos SL, Lewcock JW, Paquet D, Capell A, Di Paolo G, Haass C. Peripheral expression of brain-penetrant progranulin rescues pathologies in mouse models of frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Sci Transl Med 2024; 16:eadj7308. [PMID: 38838131 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adj7308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Progranulin (PGRN) haploinsufficiency is a major risk factor for frontotemporal lobar degeneration with TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) pathology (FTLD-GRN). Multiple therapeutic strategies are in clinical development to restore PGRN in the CNS, including gene therapy. However, a limitation of current gene therapy approaches aimed to alleviate FTLD-associated pathologies may be their inefficient brain exposure and biodistribution. We therefore developed an adeno-associated virus (AAV) targeting the liver (L) to achieve sustained peripheral expression of a transferrin receptor (TfR) binding, brain-penetrant (b) PGRN variant [AAV(L):bPGRN] in two mouse models of FTLD-GRN, namely, Grn knockout and GrnxTmem106b double knockout mice. This therapeutic strategy avoids potential safety and biodistribution issues of CNS-administered AAVs and maintains sustained concentrations of PGRN in the brain after a single dose. AAV(L):bPGRN treatment reduced several FTLD-GRN-associated pathologies including severe motor function deficits, aberrant TDP-43 phosphorylation, dysfunctional protein degradation, lipid metabolism, gliosis, and neurodegeneration in the brain. The potential translatability of our findings was tested in an in vitro model using cocultured human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived microglia lacking PGRN and TMEM106B and wild-type hiPSC-derived neurons. As in mice, aberrant TDP-43, lysosomal dysfunction, and neuronal loss were ameliorated after treatment with exogenous TfR-binding protein transport vehicle fused to PGRN (PTV:PGRN). Together, our studies suggest that peripherally administered brain-penetrant PGRN replacement strategies ameliorate FTLD-GRN relevant phenotypes including TDP-43 pathology, neurodegeneration, and behavioral deficits. Our data provide preclinical proof of concept for the use of this AAV platform for treatment of FTLD-GRN and potentially other CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marvin Reich
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN), LMU Munich, 82152 Planegg, Germany
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Matthew J Simon
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Beate Polke
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Iñaki Paris
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Georg Werner
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Christian Schrader
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Lena Spieth
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sonnet S Davis
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Sophie Robinson
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN), LMU Munich, 82152 Planegg, Germany
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | | | - Lennart Schlaphoff
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences (GSN), LMU Munich, 82152 Planegg, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
| | - Katrin Buschmann
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Berghoff
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Multidisciplinary Sciences, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Todd Logan
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Brigitte Nuscher
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Lis de Weerd
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Dieter Edbauer
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (Synergy), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Mikael Simons
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Institute of Neuronal Cell Biology, Technical University Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (Synergy), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Jung H Suh
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Thomas Sandmann
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Sarah L DeVos
- Denali Therapeutics Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Dominik Paquet
- Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research (ISD), University Hospital, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (Synergy), 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Anja Capell
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | | | - Christian Haass
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), 81377 Munich, Germany
- Metabolic Biochemistry, Biomedical Centre (BMC), Faculty of Medicine, LMU Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (Synergy), 81377 Munich, Germany
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4
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Ali NH, Al-Kuraishy HM, Al-Gareeb AI, Alnaaim SA, Hetta HF, Saad HM, Batiha GES. A Mutual Nexus Between Epilepsy and α-Synuclein: A Puzzle Pathway. Mol Neurobiol 2024:10.1007/s12035-024-04204-6. [PMID: 38703341 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-04204-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein (α-Syn) is a specific neuronal protein that regulates neurotransmitter release and trafficking of synaptic vesicles. Exosome-associated α-Syn which is specific to the central nervous system (CNS) is involved in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Therefore, this review aimed to elucidate the possible link between α-Syn and epilepsy, and how it affects the pathophysiology of epilepsy. A neurodegenerative protein such as α-Syn is implicated in the pathogenesis of epilepsy. Evidence from preclinical and clinical studies revealed that upregulation of α-Syn induces progressive neuronal dysfunctions through induction of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and inhibition of autophagy in a vicious cycle with subsequent development of severe epilepsy. In addition, accumulation of α-Syn in epilepsy could be secondary to the different cellular alterations including oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, reduction of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and progranulin (PGN), and failure of the autophagy pathway. However, the mechanism of α-Syn-induced-epileptogenesis is not well elucidated. Therefore, α-Syn could be a secondary consequence of epilepsy. Preclinical and clinical studies are warranted to confirm this causal relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naif H Ali
- Department of Internal Medicine, Medical College, Najran University, Najran, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Hayder M Al-Kuraishy
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Medicine, College of Medicine, Mustansiriyah University, M.B.Ch.B, FRCP, P.O. Box 14132, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Ali I Al-Gareeb
- Jabir Ibn Hayyan Medical University, Al-Ameer Qu, P.O. Box 13, Kufa, Najaf, Iraq
| | - Saud A Alnaaim
- Clinical Neurosciences Department, College of Medicine, King Faisal University, Hofuf, Saudi Arabia
| | - Helal F Hetta
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71515, Egypt
| | - Hebatallah M Saad
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Matrouh University, Matrouh, 51744, Egypt.
| | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, 22511, AlBeheira, Egypt.
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5
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Todd TW, Shao W, Zhang YJ, Petrucelli L. The endolysosomal pathway and ALS/FTD. Trends Neurosci 2023; 46:1025-1041. [PMID: 37827960 PMCID: PMC10841821 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2023.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are considered to be part of a disease spectrum that is associated with causative mutations and risk variants in a wide range of genes. Mounting evidence indicates that several of these genes are linked to the endolysosomal system, highlighting the importance of this pathway in ALS/FTD. Although many studies have focused on how disruption of this pathway impacts on autophagy, recent findings reveal that this may not be the whole picture: specifically, disrupting autophagy may not be sufficient to induce disease, whereas disrupting the endolysosomal system could represent a crucial pathogenic driver. In this review we discuss the connections between ALS/FTD and the endolysosomal system, including a breakdown of how disease-associated genes are implicated in this pathway. We also explore the potential downstream consequences of disrupting endolysosomal activity in the brain, outside of an effect on autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany W Todd
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Wei Shao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Yong-Jie Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA; Neurobiology of Disease Graduate Program, Mayo Graduate School, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Leonard Petrucelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA; Neurobiology of Disease Graduate Program, Mayo Graduate School, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA.
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6
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Gillett DA, Wallings RL, Uriarte Huarte O, Tansey MG. Progranulin and GPNMB: interactions in endo-lysosome function and inflammation in neurodegenerative disease. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:286. [PMID: 38037070 PMCID: PMC10688479 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02965-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alterations in progranulin (PGRN) expression are associated with multiple neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), including frontotemporal dementia (FTD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs). Recently, the loss of PGRN was shown to result in endo-lysosomal system dysfunction and an age-dependent increase in the expression of another protein associated with NDs, glycoprotein non-metastatic B (GPNMB). MAIN BODY It is unclear what role GPNMB plays in the context of PGRN insufficiency and how they interact and contribute to the development or progression of NDs. This review focuses on the interplay between these two critical proteins within the context of endo-lysosomal health, immune function, and inflammation in their contribution to NDs. SHORT CONCLUSION PGRN and GPNMB are interrelated proteins that regulate disease-relevant processes and may have value as therapeutic targets to delay disease progression or extend therapeutic windows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew A Gillett
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease (CTRND), University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Rebecca L Wallings
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease (CTRND), University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Oihane Uriarte Huarte
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease (CTRND), University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Malú Gámez Tansey
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease (CTRND), University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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7
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Boylan MA, Pincetic A, Romano G, Tatton N, Kenkare-Mitra S, Rosenthal A. Targeting Progranulin as an Immuno-Neurology Therapeutic Approach. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15946. [PMID: 37958929 PMCID: PMC10647331 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Immuno-neurology is an emerging therapeutic strategy for dementia and neurodegeneration designed to address immune surveillance failure in the brain. Microglia, as central nervous system (CNS)-resident myeloid cells, routinely perform surveillance of the brain and support neuronal function. Loss-of-function (LOF) mutations causing decreased levels of progranulin (PGRN), an immune regulatory protein, lead to dysfunctional microglia and are associated with multiple neurodegenerative diseases, including frontotemporal dementia caused by the progranulin gene (GRN) mutation (FTD-GRN), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), limbic-predominant age-related transactivation response deoxyribonucleic acid binding protein 43 (TDP-43) encephalopathy (LATE), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Immuno-neurology targets immune checkpoint-like proteins, offering the potential to convert aging and dysfunctional microglia into disease-fighting cells that counteract multiple disease pathologies, clear misfolded proteins and debris, promote myelin and synapse repair, optimize neuronal function, support astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, and maintain brain vasculature. Several clinical trials are underway to elevate PGRN levels as one strategy to modulate the function of microglia and counteract neurodegenerative changes associated with various disease states. If successful, these and other immuno-neurology drugs have the potential to revolutionize the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders by harnessing the brain's immune system and shifting it from an inflammatory/pathological state to an enhanced physiological/homeostatic state.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Arnon Rosenthal
- Alector, Inc., 131 Oyster Point Blvd, Suite 600, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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8
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Feng T, Minevich G, Liu P, Qin HX, Wozniak G, Pham J, Pham K, Korgaonkar A, Kurnellas M, Defranoux NA, Long H, Mitra A, Hu F. AAV- GRN partially corrects motor deficits and ALS/FTLD-related pathology in Tmem106b-/-Grn-/- mice. iScience 2023; 26:107247. [PMID: 37519899 PMCID: PMC10371829 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss of function of progranulin (PGRN), encoded by the granulin (GRN) gene, is implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases. Several therapeutics to boost PGRN levels are currently in clinical trials. However, it is difficult to test the efficacy of PGRN-enhancing drugs in mouse models due to the mild phenotypes of Grn-/- mice. Recently, mice deficient in both PGRN and TMEM106B were shown to develop severe motor deficits and pathology. Here, we show that intracerebral ventricle injection of PGRN-expressing AAV1/9 viruses partially rescues motor deficits, neuronal loss, glial activation, and lysosomal abnormalities in Tmem106b-/-Grn-/- mice. Widespread expression of PGRN is detected in both the brain and spinal cord for both AAV subtypes. However, AAV9 but not AAV1-mediated expression of PGRN results in high levels of PGRN in the serum. Together, these data support using the Tmem106b-/-Grn-/- mouse strain as a robust mouse model to determine the efficacy of PGRN-elevating therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuancheng Feng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | | | - Pengan Liu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Henry Xin Qin
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | | | - Jenny Pham
- Alector Inc, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Khanh Pham
- Alector Inc, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | | | | | - Hua Long
- Alector Inc, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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9
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Chatterjee D, Krainc D. Mechanisms of Glucocerebrosidase Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease. J Mol Biol 2023; 435:168023. [PMID: 36828270 PMCID: PMC10247409 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2023.168023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Beta-glucocerebrosidase is a lysosomal hydrolase, encoded by GBA1 that represents the most common risk gene associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) and Lewy Body Dementia. Glucocerebrosidase dysfunction has been also observed in the absence of GBA1 mutations across different genetic and sporadic forms of PD and related disorders, suggesting a broader role of glucocerebrosidase in neurodegeneration. In this review, we highlight recent advances in mechanistic characterization of glucocerebrosidase function as the foundation for development of novel therapeutics targeting glucocerebrosidase in PD and related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diptaman Chatterjee
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA. https://twitter.com/NeilChatterBox
| | - Dimitri Krainc
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA; Simpson Querrey Center for Neurogenetics, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA.
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10
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Davis SE, Cook AK, Hall JA, Voskobiynyk Y, Carullo NV, Boyle NR, Hakim AR, Anderson KM, Hobdy KP, Pugh DA, Murchison CF, McMeekin LJ, Simmons M, Margolies KA, Cowell RM, Nana AL, Spina S, Grinberg LT, Miller BL, Seeley WW, Arrant AE. Patients with sporadic FTLD exhibit similar increases in lysosomal proteins and storage material as patients with FTD due to GRN mutations. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:70. [PMID: 37118844 PMCID: PMC10148425 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01571-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss of function progranulin (GRN) mutations are a major autosomal dominant cause of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Patients with FTD due to GRN mutations (FTD-GRN) develop frontotemporal lobar degeneration with TDP-43 pathology type A (FTLD-TDP type A) and exhibit elevated levels of lysosomal proteins and storage material in frontal cortex, perhaps indicating lysosomal dysfunction as a mechanism of disease. To investigate whether patients with sporadic FTLD exhibit similar signs of lysosomal dysfunction, we compared lysosomal protein levels, transcript levels, and storage material in patients with FTD-GRN or sporadic FTLD-TDP type A. We analyzed samples from frontal cortex, a degenerated brain region, and occipital cortex, a relatively spared brain region. In frontal cortex, patients with sporadic FTLD-TDP type A exhibited similar increases in lysosomal protein levels, transcript levels, and storage material as patients with FTD-GRN. In occipital cortex of both patient groups, most lysosomal measures did not differ from controls. Frontal cortex from a transgenic mouse model of TDP-opathy had similar increases in cathepsin D and lysosomal storage material, showing that TDP-opathy and neurodegeneration can drive these changes independently of progranulin. To investigate these changes in additional FTLD subtypes, we analyzed frontal cortical samples from patients with sporadic FTLD-TDP type C or Pick's disease, an FTLD-tau subtype. All sporadic FTLD groups had similar increases in cathepsin D activity, lysosomal membrane proteins, and storage material as FTD-GRN patients. However, patients with FTLD-TDP type C or Pick's disease did not have similar increases in lysosomal transcripts as patients with FTD-GRN or sporadic FTLD-TDP type A. Based on these data, accumulation of lysosomal proteins and storage material may be a common aspect of end-stage FTLD. However, the unique changes in gene expression in patients with FTD-GRN or sporadic FTLD-TDP type A may indicate distinct underlying lysosomal changes among FTLD subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skylar E Davis
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Anna K Cook
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Justin A Hall
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Yuliya Voskobiynyk
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Nancy V Carullo
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Nicholas R Boyle
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Ahmad R Hakim
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Kristian M Anderson
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Kierra P Hobdy
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Derian A Pugh
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Charles F Murchison
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Laura J McMeekin
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Micah Simmons
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | | | - Rita M Cowell
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Southern Research, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Alissa L Nana
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Salvatore Spina
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Lea T Grinberg
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Bruce L Miller
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - William W Seeley
- Department of Neurology, Memory and Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Andrew E Arrant
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
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11
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Simon MJ, Logan T, DeVos SL, Di Paolo G. Lysosomal functions of progranulin and implications for treatment of frontotemporal dementia. Trends Cell Biol 2023; 33:324-339. [PMID: 36244875 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2022.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Loss-of-function heterozygous mutations in GRN, the gene encoding progranulin (PGRN), were identified in patients with frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) almost two decades ago and are generally linked to reduced PGRN protein expression levels. Although initial characterization of PGRN function primarily focused on its role in extracellular signaling as a secreted protein, more recent studies revealed critical roles of PGRN in regulating lysosome function, including proteolysis and lipid degradation, consistent with its lysosomal localization. Emerging from these studies is the notion that PGRN regulates glucocerebrosidase activity via direct chaperone activities and via interaction with prosaposin (i.e., a key regulator of lysosomal sphingolipid-metabolizing enzymes), as well as with the anionic phospholipid bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate. This emerging lysosomal biology of PGRN identified novel and promising opportunities in therapeutic discovery as well as biomarker development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Todd Logan
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
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12
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Marian OC, Teo JD, Lee JY, Song H, Kwok JB, Landin-Romero R, Halliday G, Don AS. Disrupted myelin lipid metabolism differentiates frontotemporal dementia caused by GRN and C9orf72 gene mutations. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:52. [PMID: 36967384 PMCID: PMC10041703 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01544-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous mutations in the GRN gene and hexanucleotide repeat expansions in C9orf72 are the two most common genetic causes of Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD) with TDP-43 protein inclusions. The triggers for neurodegeneration in FTD with GRN (FTD-GRN) or C9orf72 (FTD-C9orf72) gene abnormalities are unknown, although evidence from mouse and cell culture models suggests that GRN mutations disrupt lysosomal lipid catabolism. To determine how brain lipid metabolism is affected in familial FTD with TDP-43 inclusions, and how this is related to myelin and lysosomal markers, we undertook comprehensive lipidomic analysis, enzyme activity assays, and western blotting on grey and white matter samples from the heavily-affected frontal lobe and less-affected parietal lobe of FTD-GRN cases, FTD-C9orf72 cases, and age-matched neurologically-normal controls. Substantial loss of myelin-enriched sphingolipids (sulfatide, galactosylceramide, sphingomyelin) and myelin proteins was observed in frontal white matter of FTD-GRN cases. A less-pronounced, yet statistically significant, loss of sphingolipids was also observed in FTD-C9orf72. FTD-GRN was distinguished from FTD-C9orf72 and control cases by increased acylcarnitines in frontal grey matter and marked accumulation of cholesterol esters in both frontal and parietal white matter, indicative of myelin break-down. Both FTD-GRN and FTD-C9orf72 cases showed significantly increased lysosomal and phagocytic protein markers, however galactocerebrosidase activity, required for lysosomal catabolism of galactosylceramide and sulfatide, was selectively increased in FTD-GRN. We conclude that both C9orf72 and GRN mutations are associated with disrupted lysosomal homeostasis and white matter lipid loss, but GRN mutations cause a more pronounced disruption to myelin lipid metabolism. Our findings support the hypothesis that hyperactive myelin lipid catabolism is a driver of gliosis and neurodegeneration in FTD-GRN. Since FTD-GRN is associated with white matter hyperintensities by MRI, our data provides important biochemical evidence supporting the use of MRI measures of white matter integrity in the diagnosis and management of FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oana C Marian
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Jonathan D Teo
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Jun Yup Lee
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Huitong Song
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - John B Kwok
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Ramon Landin-Romero
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- School of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Glenda Halliday
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Anthony S Don
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia.
- School of Medical Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia.
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13
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Khrouf W, Saracino D, Rucheton B, Houot M, Clot F, Rinaldi D, Vitor J, Huynh M, Heng E, Schlemmer D, Pasquier F, Deramecourt V, Auriacombe S, Azuar C, Levy R, Bombois S, Boutoleau-Brétonnière C, Pariente J, Didic M, Wallon D, Fluchère F, Auvin S, Younes IB, Nadjar Y, Brice A, Dubois B, Bonnefont-Rousselot D, Le Ber I, Lamari F, Auriacombe S, Belliard S, Blanc F, Boutoleau-Brétonnière C, Brice A, Ceccaldi M, Couratier P, Didic M, Dubois B, Etcharry-Bouyx F, Formaglio M, Golfier V, Hannequin D, Lacomblez L, Lagarde J, Le Ber I, Levy R, Michel BF, Pariente J, Pasquier F, Rinaldi D, Roué-Jagot C, Sellal F, Thauvin-Robinet C, Thomas-Antérion C, Vercelletto M, Didic M, Girard N, Guedj E, Puel M, Pariente J, Berry I, Payoux P, Vercelletto M, Boutoleau-Brétonnière C, Auffray-Calvier E, Pallardy A, Pasquier F, Deramecourt V, Bombois S, Lebouvier T, Rollin A, Kuchinski G, Hannequin D, Martinaud O, Wallon D, Gerardin E, Vera P, Rinaldi D, Camuzat A, Brice A, Chupin M, Bardinet E, Kas A, Lemercier VC, Masmanian M, Oya H. Plasma lysosphingolipids in GRN-related diseases: Monitoring lysosomal dysfunction to track disease progression. Neurobiol Dis 2023; 181:106108. [PMID: 37003407 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/01/2023] Open
Abstract
GRN mutations are among the main genetic causes of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Considering the progranulin involvement in lysosomal homeostasis, we aimed to evaluate if plasma lysosphingolipids (lysoSPL) are increased in GRN mutation carriers, and whether they might represent relevant fluid-based biomarkers in GRN-related diseases. We analyzed four lysoSPL levels in plasmas of 131 GRN carriers and 142 non-carriers, including healthy controls and patients with frontotemporal dementias (FTD) carrying a C9orf72 expansion or without any mutation. GRN carriers consisted of 102 heterozygous FTD patients (FTD-GRN), three homozygous patients with neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis-11 (CLN-11) and 26 presymptomatic carriers (PS-GRN), the latter with longitudinal assessments. Glucosylsphingosin d18:1 (LGL1), lysosphingomyelins d18:1 and isoform 509 (LSM18:1, LSM509) and lysoglobotriaosylceramide (LGB3) were measured by electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry coupled to ultraperformance liquid chromatography. Levels of LGL1, LSM18:1 and LSM509 were increased in GRN carriers compared to non-carriers (p < 0.0001). No lysoSPL increases were detected in FTD patients without GRN mutations. LGL1 and LSM18:1 progressively increased with age at sampling, and LGL1 with disease duration, in FTD-GRN. Among PS-GRN carriers, LSM18:1 and LGL1 significantly increased over 3.4-year follow-up. LGL1 levels were associated with increasing neurofilaments in presymptomatic carriers. This study evidences an age-dependent increase of β-glucocerebrosidase and acid sphingomyelinase substrates in GRN patients, with progressive changes as early as the presymptomatic phase. Among FTD patients, plasma lysoSPL appear to be uniquely elevated in GRN carriers, and thus might serve as suitable non-invasive disease-tracking biomarkers of progression, specific to the pathophysiological process. Finally, this study might add lysoSPL to the portfolio of fluid-based biomarkers, and pave the way to disease-modifying approaches based on lysosomal function rescue in GRN diseases.
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14
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Role of Tau in Various Tauopathies, Treatment Approaches, and Emerging Role of Nanotechnology in Neurodegenerative Disorders. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:1690-1720. [PMID: 36562884 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-03164-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A few protein kinases and phosphatases regulate tau protein phosphorylation and an imbalance in their enzyme activity results in tau hyper-phosphorylation. Aberrant tau phosphorylation causes tau to dissociate from the microtubules and clump together in the cytosol to form neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), which lead to the progression of neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other tauopathies. Hence, targeting hyperphosphorylated tau protein is a restorative approach for treating neurodegenerative tauopathies. The cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk5) and the glycogen synthase kinase (GSK3β) have both been implicated in aberrant tau hyperphosphorylation. The limited transport of drugs through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) for reaching the central nervous system (CNS) thus represents a significant problem in the development of drugs. Drug delivery systems based on nanocarriers help solve this problem. In this review, we discuss the tau protein, regulation of tau phosphorylation and abnormal hyperphosphorylation, drugs in use or under clinical trials, and treatment strategies for tauopathies based on the critical role of tau hyperphosphorylation in the pathogenesis of the disease. Pathology of neurodegenerative disease due to hyperphosphorylation and various therapeutic approaches including nanotechnology for its treatment.
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15
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Kashyap SN, Boyle NR, Roberson ED. Preclinical Interventions in Mouse Models of Frontotemporal Dementia Due to Progranulin Mutations. Neurotherapeutics 2023; 20:140-153. [PMID: 36781744 PMCID: PMC10119358 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-023-01348-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in progranulin (GRN) cause frontotemporal dementia (FTD), a leading cause of early-onset dementia characterized clinically by behavioral, social, and language deficits. There are currently no FDA-approved therapeutics for FTD-GRN, but this has been an active area of investigation, and several approaches are now in clinical trials. Here, we review preclinical development of therapies for FTD-GRN with a focus on testing in mouse models. Since most FTD-GRN-associated mutations cause progranulin haploinsufficiency, these approaches focus on raising progranulin levels. We begin by considering the disorders associated with altered progranulin levels, and then review the basics of progranulin biology including its lysosomal, neurotrophic, and immunomodulatory functions. We discuss mouse models of progranulin insufficiency and how they have been used in preclinical studies on a variety of therapeutic approaches. These include approaches to raise progranulin expression from the normal allele or facilitate progranulin production by the mutant allele, as well as approaches to directly increase progranulin levels by delivery across the blood-brain barrier or by gene therapy. Several of these approaches have entered clinical trials, providing hope that new therapies for FTD-GRN may be the next frontier in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shreya N Kashyap
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Medical Scientist Training Program, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Nicholas R Boyle
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Medical Scientist Training Program, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA
| | - Erik D Roberson
- Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Medical Scientist Training Program, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA.
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16
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Sandhoff R, Sandhoff K. Neuronal Ganglioside and Glycosphingolipid (GSL) Metabolism and Disease : Cascades of Secondary Metabolic Errors Can Generate Complex Pathologies (in LSDs). ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2023; 29:333-390. [PMID: 36255681 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-12390-0_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) are a diverse group of membrane components occurring mainly on the surfaces of mammalian cells. They and their metabolites have a role in intercellular communication, serving as versatile biochemical signals (Kaltner et al, Biochem J 476(18):2623-2655, 2019) and in many cellular pathways. Anionic GSLs, the sialic acid containing gangliosides (GGs), are essential constituents of neuronal cell surfaces, whereas anionic sulfatides are key components of myelin and myelin forming oligodendrocytes. The stepwise biosynthetic pathways of GSLs occur at and lead along the membranes of organellar surfaces of the secretory pathway. After formation of the hydrophobic ceramide membrane anchor of GSLs at the ER, membrane-spanning glycosyltransferases (GTs) of the Golgi and Trans-Golgi network generate cell type-specific GSL patterns for cellular surfaces. GSLs of the cellular plasma membrane can reach intra-lysosomal, i.e. luminal, vesicles (ILVs) by endocytic pathways for degradation. Soluble glycoproteins, the glycosidases, lipid binding and transfer proteins and acid ceramidase are needed for the lysosomal catabolism of GSLs at ILV-membrane surfaces. Inherited mutations triggering a functional loss of glycosylated lysosomal hydrolases and lipid binding proteins involved in GSL degradation cause a primary lysosomal accumulation of their non-degradable GSL substrates in lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs). Lipid binding proteins, the SAPs, and the various lipids of the ILV-membranes regulate GSL catabolism, but also primary storage compounds such as sphingomyelin (SM), cholesterol (Chol.), or chondroitin sulfate can effectively inhibit catabolic lysosomal pathways of GSLs. This causes cascades of metabolic errors, accumulating secondary lysosomal GSL- and GG- storage that can trigger a complex pathology (Breiden and Sandhoff, Int J Mol Sci 21(7):2566, 2020).
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Sandhoff
- Lipid Pathobiochemistry Group, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Konrad Sandhoff
- LIMES, c/o Kekule-Institute for Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
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17
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Bossolasco P, Cimini S, Maderna E, Bardelli D, Canafoglia L, Cavallaro T, Ricci M, Silani V, Marucci G, Rossi G. GRN−/− iPSC-derived cortical neurons recapitulate the pathological findings of both frontotemporal lobar degeneration and neuronal ceroidolipofuscinosis. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 175:105891. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Decreased Prosaposin and Progranulin in the Cingulate Cortex Are Associated with Schizophrenia Pathophysiology. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231912056. [PMID: 36233357 PMCID: PMC9570388 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231912056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Prosaposin (PSAP) and progranulin (PGRN) are two lysosomal proteins that interact and modulate the metabolism of lipids, particularly sphingolipids. Alterations in sphingolipid metabolism have been found in schizophrenia. Genetic associations of PSAP and PGRN with schizophrenia have been reported. To further clarify the role of PSAP and PGRN in schizophrenia, we examined PSAP and PGRN levels in postmortem cingulate cortex tissue from healthy controls along with patients who had suffered from schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depressive disorder. We found that PSAP and PGRN levels are reduced specifically in schizophrenia patients. To understand the role of PSAP in the cingulate cortex, we used an AAV strategy to knock down PSAP in neurons located in this region. Neuronal PSAP knockdown led to the downregulation of neuronal PGRN levels and behavioral abnormalities. Cingulate-PSAP-deficient mice exhibited increased anxiety-like behavior and impaired prepulse inhibition, as well as intact locomotion, working memory, and a depression-like state. The behavioral changes were accompanied by increased early growth response protein 1 (EGR-1) and activity-dependent cytoskeleton-associated protein (ARC) levels in the sensorimotor cortex and hippocampus, regions implicated in circuitry dysfunction in schizophrenia. In conclusion, PSAP and PGRN downregulation in the cingulate cortex is associated with schizophrenia pathophysiology.
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19
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Menéndez-González M, García-Martínez A, Fernández-Vega I, Pitiot A, Álvarez V. A variant in GRN of Spanish origin presenting with heterogeneous phenotypes. Neurologia 2022:S2173-5808(22)00112-2. [PMID: 36216226 DOI: 10.1016/j.nrleng.2022.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The variant c.1414-1G>T in the GRN gene has previously been reported as probably pathogenic in subjects of Hispanic origin in the American continent. METHODS We report 5 families of Spanish origin carrying this variant, including the clinical, neuroimaging, and laboratory findings. RESULTS Phenotypes were strikingly different, including cases presenting with behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia, semantic variant primary progressive aphasia, rapidly progressive motor neuron disease (pathologically documented), and tremor-dominant parkinsonism. Retinal degeneration has been found in homozygous carriers only. Ex vivo splicing assays confirmed that the mutation c.1414-1G>T affects the splicing of the exon, causing a loss of 20 amino acids in exon 11. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that variant c.1414-1G>T of the GRN gene is pathogenic, can lead to a variety of clinical presentations and to gene dosage effect, and probably has a Spanish founder effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Menéndez-González
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Spain; Department of Medicine, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain.
| | - A García-Martínez
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Spain
| | - I Fernández-Vega
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Spain; Department of Pathology Anatomy, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Spain; Department of Surgery, Universidad de Oviedo, Spain
| | - A Pitiot
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Spain
| | - V Álvarez
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Spain; Laboratory of Genetics, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias, Spain
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20
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Santos MN, Paushter DH, Zhang T, Wu X, Feng T, Lou J, Du H, Becker SM, Fragoza R, Yu H, Hu F. Progranulin-derived granulin E and lysosome membrane protein CD68 interact to reciprocally regulate their protein homeostasis. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102348. [PMID: 35933009 PMCID: PMC9450144 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Progranulin (PGRN) is a glycoprotein implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases. It is highly expressed in microglia and macrophages and can be secreted or delivered to the lysosome compartment. PGRN comprises 7.5 granulin repeats and is processed into individual granulin peptides within the lysosome, but the functions of these peptides are largely unknown. Here, we identify CD68, a lysosome membrane protein mainly expressed in hematopoietic cells, as a binding partner of PGRN and PGRN-derived granulin E. Deletion analysis of CD68 showed that this interaction is mediated by the mucin–proline-rich domain of CD68. While CD68 deficiency does not affect the lysosomal localization of PGRN, it results in a specific decrease in the levels of granulin E but no other granulin peptides. On the other hand, the deficiency of PGRN, and its derivative granulin peptides, leads to a significant shift in the molecular weight of CD68, without altering CD68 localization within the cell. Our results support that granulin E and CD68 reciprocally regulate each other’s protein homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariela Nunez Santos
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Daniel H Paushter
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Tingting Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Xiaochun Wu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Tuancheng Feng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Jiaoying Lou
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA; Department of Gynecology, Dongfang Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Huan Du
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Stephanie M Becker
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Robert Fragoza
- Department of Computational Biology, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Haiyuan Yu
- Department of Computational Biology, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA.
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21
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Ondaro J, Hernandez-Eguiazu H, Garciandia-Arcelus M, Loera-Valencia R, Rodriguez-Gómez L, Jiménez-Zúñiga A, Goikolea J, Rodriguez-Rodriguez P, Ruiz-Martinez J, Moreno F, Lopez de Munain A, Holt IJ, Gil-Bea FJ, Gereñu G. Defects of Nutrient Signaling and Autophagy in Neurodegeneration. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:836196. [PMID: 35419363 PMCID: PMC8996160 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.836196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons are post-mitotic cells that allocate huge amounts of energy to the synthesis of new organelles and molecules, neurotransmission and to the maintenance of redox homeostasis. In neurons, autophagy is not only crucial to ensure organelle renewal but it is also essential to balance nutritional needs through the mobilization of internal energy stores. A delicate crosstalk between the pathways that sense nutritional status of the cell and the autophagic processes to recycle organelles and macronutrients is fundamental to guarantee the proper functioning of the neuron in times of energy scarcity. This review provides a detailed overview of the pathways and processes involved in the balance of cellular energy mediated by autophagy, which when defective, precipitate the neurodegenerative cascade of Parkinson’s disease, frontotemporal dementia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or Alzheimer’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon Ondaro
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Haizea Hernandez-Eguiazu
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Maddi Garciandia-Arcelus
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Raúl Loera-Valencia
- Department of Neurology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet (KI), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Laura Rodriguez-Gómez
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés Jiménez-Zúñiga
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Julen Goikolea
- Department of Neurology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet (KI), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Patricia Rodriguez-Rodriguez
- Department of Neurology, Care Sciences and Society, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet (KI), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Javier Ruiz-Martinez
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Donostia University Hospital, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Fermín Moreno
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Donostia University Hospital, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Adolfo Lopez de Munain
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Donostia University Hospital, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Ian James Holt
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, Queen Square Institute of Neurology, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom.,IKERBASQUE Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Francisco Javier Gil-Bea
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Gorka Gereñu
- Department of Neuroscience, Biodonostia Health Research Institute (IIS Biodonostia), San Sebastian, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Leioa, Spain
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22
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Zhang T, Du H, Santos MN, Wu X, Pagan MD, Trigiani LJ, Nishimura N, Reinheckel T, Hu F. Differential regulation of progranulin derived granulin peptides. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:15. [PMID: 35120524 PMCID: PMC8815130 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-021-00513-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Haploinsufficiency of progranulin (PGRN) is a leading cause of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). PGRN is comprised of 7.5 granulin repeats and is processed into individual granulin peptides in the lysosome. However, very little is known about the levels and regulations of individual granulin peptides due to the lack of specific antibodies. RESULTS Here we report the generation and characterization of antibodies specific to each granulin peptide. We found that the levels of granulins C, E and F are regulated differently compared to granulins A and B in various tissues. The levels of PGRN and granulin peptides vary in different brain regions and the ratio between granulins and PGRN is highest in the cortical region in the adult male mouse brain. Granulin-A is localized in the lysosome in both neurons and microglia and its levels in microglia increase under pathological conditions. Interestingly, the levels of granulin A in microglia change correspondingly with PGRN in response to stroke but not demyelination. Furthermore, deficiency of lysosomal proteases and the PGRN binding partner prosaposin leads to alterations in the ratios between individual granulin peptides. Granulins B, C and E are heavily glycosylated and the glycosylation patterns can be regulated. CONCLUSION Our results support that the levels of individual granulin peptides are differentially regulated under physiological and pathological conditions and provide novel insights into how granulin peptides function in the lysosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Zhang
- grid.5386.8000000041936877XDepartment of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | - Huan Du
- grid.5386.8000000041936877XDepartment of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | - Mariela Nunez Santos
- grid.5386.8000000041936877XDepartment of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | - Xiaochun Wu
- grid.5386.8000000041936877XDepartment of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | - Mitchell D. Pagan
- grid.5386.8000000041936877XDepartment of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | - Lianne Jillian Trigiani
- grid.5386.8000000041936877XNancy E. and Peter C. Meining School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | - Nozomi Nishimura
- grid.5386.8000000041936877XNancy E. and Peter C. Meining School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- grid.5963.9Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Medical Faculty and BIOSS Centre for Biological Signaling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Fenghua Hu
- grid.5386.8000000041936877XDepartment of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
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23
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Amin S, Carling G, Gan L. New insights and therapeutic opportunities for progranulin-deficient frontotemporal dementia. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2022; 72:131-139. [PMID: 34826653 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2021.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is the second most common form of dementia. It affects the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain and has a highly heterogeneous clinical representation with patients presenting with a wide range of behavioral, language, and executive dysfunctions. Etiology of FTD is complex and consists of both familial and sporadic cases. Heterozygous mutations in the GRN gene, resulting in GRN haploinsufficiency, cause progranulin (PGRN)-deficient FTD characterized with cytoplasmic mislocalization of TAR DNA-binding protein 43 kDa (TDP-43) aggregates. GRN codes for PGRN, a secreted protein that is also localized in the endolysosomes and plays a critical role in regulating lysosomal homeostasis. How PGRN deficiency modulates immunity and causes TDP-43 pathology and FTD-related neurodegeneration remains an active area of intense investigation. In the current review, we discuss some of the significant progress made in the past two years that links PGRN deficiency with microglial-associated neuroinflammation, TDP-43 pathology, and lysosomal dysfunction. We also review the opportunities and challenges toward developing therapies and biomarkers to treat PGRN-deficient FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadaf Amin
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Research Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Gillian Carling
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Research Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA; Neuroscience Graduate Program, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Li Gan
- Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Research Institute, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
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24
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Chitramuthu BP, Campos-García VR, Bateman A. Multiple Molecular Pathways Are Influenced by Progranulin in a Neuronal Cell Model-A Parallel Omics Approach. Front Neurosci 2022; 15:775391. [PMID: 35095393 PMCID: PMC8791029 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.775391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Progranulin (PGRN) is critical in supporting a healthy CNS. Its haploinsufficiency results in frontotemporal dementia, while in experimental models of age-related neurodegenerative diseases, the targeted expression of PGRN greatly slows the onset of disease phenotypes. Nevertheless, much remains unclear about how PGRN affects its target cells. In previous studies we found that PGRN showed a remarkable ability to support the survival of NSC-34 motor neuron cells under conditions that would otherwise lead to their apoptosis. Here we used the same model to investigate other phenotypes of PGRN expression in NSC-34 cells. PGRN significantly influenced morphological differentiation, resulting in cells with enlarged cell bodies and extended projections. At a molecular level this correlated with pathways associated with the cytoskeleton and synaptic differentiation. Depletion of PGRN led to increased expression of several neurotrophic receptors, which may represent a homeostatic mechanism to compensate for loss of neurotrophic support from PGRN. The exception was RET, a neurotrophic tyrosine receptor kinase, which, when PGRN levels are high, shows increased expression and enhanced tyrosine phosphorylation. Other receptor tyrosine kinases also showed higher tyrosine phosphorylation when PGRN was elevated, suggesting a generalized enhancement of receptor activity. PGRN was found to bind to multiple plasma membrane proteins, including RET, as well as proteins in the ER/Golgi apparatus/lysosome pathway. Understanding how these various pathways contribute to PGRN action may provide routes toward improving neuroprotective therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Babykumari P Chitramuthu
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, and Centre for Translational Biology, Metabolic Disorders and Complications, McGill University Health Centre Research Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Víctor R Campos-García
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, and Centre for Translational Biology, Metabolic Disorders and Complications, McGill University Health Centre Research Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Andrew Bateman
- Division of Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, and Centre for Translational Biology, Metabolic Disorders and Complications, McGill University Health Centre Research Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
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25
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Du H, Zhou X, Feng T, Hu F. Regulation of lysosomal trafficking of progranulin by sortilin and prosaposin. Brain Commun 2022; 4:fcab310. [PMID: 35169707 PMCID: PMC8833632 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcab310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Haploinsufficiency of the progranulin protein is a leading cause of frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Accumulating evidence support a crucial role of progranulin in the lysosome. Progranulin comprises 7.5 granulin repeats and is known to traffic to lysosomes via direct interactions with prosaposin or sortilin. Within the lysosome, progranulin gets processed into granulin peptides. Here, we report that sortilin and prosaposin independently regulate lysosomal trafficking of progranulin in vivo. The deletion of either prosaposin or sortilin alone results in a significant decrease in the ratio of granulin peptides versus full-length progranulin in mouse brain lysates. This decrease is further augmented by the deficiency of both prosaposin and sortilin. A concomitant increase in the levels of secreted progranulin in the serum was observed. Interestingly, while the deletion of both prosaposin and sortilin totally abolishes lysosomal localization of progranulin in neurons, it has a limited effect on lysosomal trafficking of progranulin in microglia, suggesting the existence of a novel sortilin and prosaposin independent pathway mediating progranulin lysosomal trafficking. In summary, our studies shed light on the regulation of lysosomal trafficking and processing of progranulin in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Du
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Xiaolai Zhou
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA,State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tuancheng Feng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Correspondence to: Fenghua Hu 345 Weill Hall, Ithaca NY 14853, USA E-mail:
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26
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Schumann L, Wilken-Schmitz A, Trautmann S, Vogel A, Schreiber Y, Hahnefeld L, Gurke R, Geisslinger G, Tegeder I. Increased Fat Taste Preference in Progranulin-Deficient Mice. Nutrients 2021; 13:4125. [PMID: 34836380 PMCID: PMC8623710 DOI: 10.3390/nu13114125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Progranulin deficiency in mice is associated with deregulations of the scavenger receptor signaling of CD36/SCARB3 in immune disease models, and CD36 is a dominant receptor in taste bud cells in the tongue and contributes to the sensation of dietary fats. Progranulin-deficient mice (Grn-/-) are moderately overweight during middle age. We therefore asked if there was a connection between progranulin/CD36 in the tongue and fat taste preferences. By using unbiased behavioral analyses in IntelliCages and Phenomaster cages we showed that progranulin-deficient mice (Grn-/-) developed a strong preference of fat taste in the form of 2% milk over 0.3% milk, and for diluted MCTs versus tap water. The fat preference in the 7d-IntelliCage observation period caused an increase of 10% in the body weight of Grn-/- mice, which did not occur in the wildtype controls. CD36 expression in taste buds was reduced in Grn-/- mice at RNA and histology levels. There were no differences in the plasma or tongue lipids of various classes including sphingolipids, ceramides and endocannabinoids. The data suggest that progranulin deficiency leads to a lower expression of CD36 in the tongue resulting in a stronger urge for fatty taste and fatty nutrition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lana Schumann
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany; (L.S.); (A.W.-S.); (S.T.); (A.V.); (Y.S.); (L.H.); (R.G.); (G.G.)
| | - Annett Wilken-Schmitz
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany; (L.S.); (A.W.-S.); (S.T.); (A.V.); (Y.S.); (L.H.); (R.G.); (G.G.)
| | - Sandra Trautmann
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany; (L.S.); (A.W.-S.); (S.T.); (A.V.); (Y.S.); (L.H.); (R.G.); (G.G.)
| | - Alexandra Vogel
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany; (L.S.); (A.W.-S.); (S.T.); (A.V.); (Y.S.); (L.H.); (R.G.); (G.G.)
| | - Yannick Schreiber
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany; (L.S.); (A.W.-S.); (S.T.); (A.V.); (Y.S.); (L.H.); (R.G.); (G.G.)
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Lisa Hahnefeld
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany; (L.S.); (A.W.-S.); (S.T.); (A.V.); (Y.S.); (L.H.); (R.G.); (G.G.)
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Robert Gurke
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany; (L.S.); (A.W.-S.); (S.T.); (A.V.); (Y.S.); (L.H.); (R.G.); (G.G.)
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Gerd Geisslinger
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany; (L.S.); (A.W.-S.); (S.T.); (A.V.); (Y.S.); (L.H.); (R.G.); (G.G.)
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology ITMP, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
- Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence for Immune Mediated Diseases (CIMD), 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Irmgard Tegeder
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany; (L.S.); (A.W.-S.); (S.T.); (A.V.); (Y.S.); (L.H.); (R.G.); (G.G.)
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27
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Imbimbo BP, Ippati S, Watling M, Balducci C. A critical appraisal of tau-targeting therapies for primary and secondary tauopathies. Alzheimers Dement 2021; 18:1008-1037. [PMID: 34533272 DOI: 10.1002/alz.12453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Primary tauopathies are neurological disorders in which tau protein deposition is the predominant pathological feature. Alzheimer's disease is a secondary tauopathy with tau forming hyperphosphorylated insoluble aggregates. Tau pathology can propagate from region to region in the brain, while alterations in tau processing may impair tau physiological functions. METHODS We reviewed literature on tau biology and anti-tau drugs using PubMed, meeting abstracts, and ClnicalTrials.gov. RESULTS The past 15 years have seen >30 drugs interfering with tau aggregation, processing, and accumulation reaching the clinic. Initial results with tau aggregation inhibitors and anti-tau monoclonal antibodies have not shown clinical efficacy. DISCUSSION The reasons for these clinical failures are unclear but could be linked to the clearing of physiological forms of tau by non-specific drugs. Research is now concentrating efforts on developing reliable translational animal models and selective compounds targeting specific tau epitopes, neurotoxic tau aggregates, and post-translational tau modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno P Imbimbo
- Department of Research & Development, Chiesi Farmaceutici, Parma, Italy
| | - Stefania Ippati
- San Raffaele Scientific Institute, San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Mark Watling
- CNS & Pain Department, TranScrip Ltd, Reading, UK
| | - Claudia Balducci
- Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" IRCCS, Milan, Italy
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28
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Mendsaikhan A, Tooyama I, Serrano GE, Beach TG, Walker DG. Loss of Lysosomal Proteins Progranulin and Prosaposin Associated with Increased Neurofibrillary Tangle Development in Alzheimer Disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2021; 80:741-753. [PMID: 34374777 PMCID: PMC8433593 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlab056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease causing cognitive decline in the aging population. To develop disease-modifying treatments, understanding the mechanisms behind the pathology is important, which should include observations using human brain samples. We reported previously on the association of lysosomal proteins progranulin (PGRN) and prosaposin (PSAP) with amyloid plaques in non-demented aged control and AD brains. In this study, we investigated the possible involvement of PGRN and PSAP in tangle formation using human brain tissue sections of non-demented aged control subjects and AD cases and compared with cases of frontotemporal dementia with granulin (GRN) mutations. The study revealed that decreased amounts of PGRN and PSAP proteins were detected even in immature neurofibrillary tangles, while colocalization was still evident in adjacent neurons in all cases. Results suggest that neuronal loss of PGRN preceded loss of PSAP as tangles developed and matured. The GRN mutation cases exhibited almost complete absence of PGRN in most neurons, while PSAP signal was preserved. Although based on correlative data, we suggest that reduced levels of PGRN and PSAP and their interaction in neurons might predispose to accumulation of p-Tau protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anarmaa Mendsaikhan
- Molecular Neuroscience Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Shiga, Japan (AM, IT, DGW)
| | - Ikuo Tooyama
- Molecular Neuroscience Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Shiga, Japan (AM, IT, DGW)
| | - Geidy E Serrano
- Civin Laboratory for Neuropathology, Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, Arizona (GES, TGB)
| | - Thomas G Beach
- Civin Laboratory for Neuropathology, Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, Arizona (GES, TGB)
| | - Douglas G Walker
- Molecular Neuroscience Research Center, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Shiga, Japan (AM, IT, DGW)
- School of Life Sciences and Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona (DGW)
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29
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Logan T, Simon MJ, Rana A, Cherf GM, Srivastava A, Davis SS, Low RLY, Chiu CL, Fang M, Huang F, Bhalla A, Llapashtica C, Prorok R, Pizzo ME, Calvert MEK, Sun EW, Hsiao-Nakamoto J, Rajendra Y, Lexa KW, Srivastava DB, van Lengerich B, Wang J, Robles-Colmenares Y, Kim DJ, Duque J, Lenser M, Earr TK, Nguyen H, Chau R, Tsogtbaatar B, Ravi R, Skuja LL, Solanoy H, Rosen HJ, Boeve BF, Boxer AL, Heuer HW, Dennis MS, Kariolis MS, Monroe KM, Przybyla L, Sanchez PE, Meisner R, Diaz D, Henne KR, Watts RJ, Henry AG, Gunasekaran K, Astarita G, Suh JH, Lewcock JW, DeVos SL, Di Paolo G. Rescue of a lysosomal storage disorder caused by Grn loss of function with a brain penetrant progranulin biologic. Cell 2021; 184:4651-4668.e25. [PMID: 34450028 PMCID: PMC8489356 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
GRN mutations cause frontotemporal dementia (GRN-FTD) due to deficiency in progranulin (PGRN), a lysosomal and secreted protein with unclear function. Here, we found that Grn-/- mice exhibit a global deficiency in bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate (BMP), an endolysosomal phospholipid we identified as a pH-dependent PGRN interactor as well as a redox-sensitive enhancer of lysosomal proteolysis and lipolysis. Grn-/- brains also showed an age-dependent, secondary storage of glucocerebrosidase substrate glucosylsphingosine. We investigated a protein replacement strategy by engineering protein transport vehicle (PTV):PGRN-a recombinant protein linking PGRN to a modified Fc domain that binds human transferrin receptor for enhanced CNS biodistribution. PTV:PGRN rescued various Grn-/- phenotypes in primary murine macrophages and human iPSC-derived microglia, including oxidative stress, lysosomal dysfunction, and endomembrane damage. Peripherally delivered PTV:PGRN corrected levels of BMP, glucosylsphingosine, and disease pathology in Grn-/- CNS, including microgliosis, lipofuscinosis, and neuronal damage. PTV:PGRN thus represents a potential biotherapeutic for GRN-FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd Logan
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Anil Rana
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Chi-Lu Chiu
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Meng Fang
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Fen Huang
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Akhil Bhalla
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Junhua Wang
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Do Jin Kim
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Joseph Duque
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Hoang Nguyen
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Roni Chau
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Ritesh Ravi
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Howard J Rosen
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; On behalf of the ALLFTD investigators
| | - Bradley F Boeve
- On behalf of the ALLFTD investigators; Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Adam L Boxer
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; On behalf of the ALLFTD investigators
| | - Hilary W Heuer
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; On behalf of the ALLFTD investigators
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Rene Meisner
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Dolores Diaz
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kirk R Henne
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ryan J Watts
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Giuseppe Astarita
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA; Biochemistry and Molecular & Cellular Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jung H Suh
- Denali Therapeutics, South San Francisco, CA, USA
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Davis SE, Roth JR, Aljabi Q, Hakim AR, Savell KE, Day JJ, Arrant AE. Delivering progranulin to neuronal lysosomes protects against excitotoxicity. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:100993. [PMID: 34298019 PMCID: PMC8379502 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in progranulin (GRN) are a major genetic cause of frontotemporal dementia (FTD), possibly due to loss of progranulin’s neurotrophic and anti-inflammatory effects. Progranulin promotes neuronal growth and protects against excitotoxicity and other forms of injury. It is unclear if these neurotrophic effects are mediated through cellular signaling or through promotion of lysosomal function. Progranulin is a secreted proprotein that may activate neurotrophic signaling through cell-surface receptors. However, progranulin is efficiently trafficked to lysosomes and is necessary for maintaining lysosomal function. To determine which of these mechanisms mediates progranulin’s protection against excitotoxicity, we generated lentiviral vectors expressing progranulin (PGRN) or lysosome-targeted progranulin (L-PGRN). L-PGRN was generated by fusing the LAMP-1 transmembrane and cytosolic domains to the C-terminus of progranulin. L-PGRN exhibited no detectable secretion, but was delivered to lysosomes and processed into granulins. PGRN and L-PGRN protected against NMDA excitotoxicity in rat primary cortical neurons, but L-PGRN had more consistent protective effects than PGRN. L-PGRN’s protective effects were likely mediated through the autophagy-lysosomal pathway. In control neurons, an excitotoxic dose of NMDA stimulated autophagy, and inhibiting autophagy with 3-methyladenine reduced excitotoxic cell death. L-PGRN blunted the autophagic response to NMDA and occluded the protective effect of 3-methyladenine. This was not due to a general impairment of autophagy, as L-PGRN increased basal autophagy and did not alter autophagy after nutrient starvation. These data show that progranulin’s protection against excitotoxicity does not require extracellular progranulin, but is mediated through lysosomes, providing a mechanistic link between progranulin’s lysosomal and neurotrophic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skylar E Davis
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Jonathan R Roth
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Qays Aljabi
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Ahmad R Hakim
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Katherine E Savell
- Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Jeremy J Day
- Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Andrew E Arrant
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA.
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31
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Root J, Merino P, Nuckols A, Johnson M, Kukar T. Lysosome dysfunction as a cause of neurodegenerative diseases: Lessons from frontotemporal dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 154:105360. [PMID: 33812000 PMCID: PMC8113138 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are fatal neurodegenerative disorders that are thought to exist on a clinical and pathological spectrum. FTD and ALS are linked by shared genetic causes (e.g. C9orf72 hexanucleotide repeat expansions) and neuropathology, such as inclusions of ubiquitinated, misfolded proteins (e.g. TAR DNA-binding protein 43; TDP-43) in the CNS. Furthermore, some genes that cause FTD or ALS when mutated encode proteins that localize to the lysosome or modulate endosome-lysosome function, including lysosomal fusion, cargo trafficking, lysosomal acidification, autophagy, or TFEB activity. In this review, we summarize evidence that lysosomal dysfunction, caused by genetic mutations (e.g. C9orf72, GRN, MAPT, TMEM106B) or toxic-gain of function (e.g. aggregation of TDP-43 or tau), is an important pathogenic disease mechanism in FTD and ALS. Further studies into the normal function of many of these proteins are required and will help uncover the mechanisms that cause lysosomal dysfunction in FTD and ALS. Mutations or polymorphisms in genes that encode proteins important for endosome-lysosome function also occur in other age-dependent neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's (e.g. APOE, PSEN1, APP) and Parkinson's (e.g. GBA, LRRK2, ATP13A2) disease. A more complete understanding of the common and unique features of lysosome dysfunction across the spectrum of neurodegeneration will help guide the development of therapies for these devastating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Root
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia; Center for Neurodegenerative Disease, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia
| | - Paola Merino
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia; Center for Neurodegenerative Disease, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia
| | - Austin Nuckols
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia; Center for Neurodegenerative Disease, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia
| | - Michelle Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia; Center for Neurodegenerative Disease, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia
| | - Thomas Kukar
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia; Center for Neurodegenerative Disease, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia; Department of Neurology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta 30322, Georgia.
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32
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Du H, Wong MY, Zhang T, Santos MN, Hsu C, Zhang J, Yu H, Luo W, Hu F. A multifaceted role of progranulin in regulating amyloid-beta dynamics and responses. Life Sci Alliance 2021; 4:e202000874. [PMID: 34103390 PMCID: PMC8200295 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202000874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Haploinsufficiency of progranulin (PGRN) is a leading cause of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). PGRN polymorphisms are associated with Alzheimer's disease. PGRN is highly expressed in the microglia near Aβ plaques and influences plaque dynamics and microglial activation. However, the detailed mechanisms remain elusive. Here we report that PGRN deficiency reduces human APP and Aβ levels in the young male but not female mice. PGRN-deficient microglia exhibit increased expression of markers associated with microglial activation, including CD68, galectin-3, TREM2, and GPNMB, specifically near Aβ plaques. In addition, PGRN loss leads to up-regulation of lysosome proteins and an increase in the nuclear localization of TFE3, a transcription factor involved in lysosome biogenesis. Cultured PGRN-deficient microglia show enhanced nuclear translocation of TFE3 and inflammation in response to Aβ fibril treatment. Taken together, our data revealed a sex- and age-dependent effect of PGRN on APP metabolism and a role of PGRN in regulating lysosomal activities and inflammation in plaque-associated microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Du
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Man Ying Wong
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tingting Zhang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Mariela Nunez Santos
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Charlene Hsu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Junke Zhang
- Department of Computational Biology, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Haiyuan Yu
- Department of Computational Biology, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Wenjie Luo
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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33
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Chemical and genetic rescue of in vivo progranulin-deficient lysosomal and autophagic defects. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2022115118. [PMID: 34140407 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2022115118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2006, GRN mutations were first linked to frontotemporal dementia (FTD), the leading cause of non-Alzheimer dementias. While much research has been dedicated to understanding the genetic causes of the disease, our understanding of the mechanistic impacts of GRN deficiency has only recently begun to take shape. With no known cure or treatment available for GRN-related FTD, there is a growing need to rapidly advance genetic and/or small-molecule therapeutics for this disease. This issue is complicated by the fact that, while lysosomal dysfunction seems to be a key driver of pathology, the mechanisms linking a loss of GRN to a pathogenic state remain unclear. In our attempt to address these key issues, we have turned to the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, to model, study, and find potential therapies for GRN-deficient FTD. First, we show that the loss of the nematode GRN ortholog, pgrn-1, results in several behavioral and molecular defects, including lysosomal dysfunction and defects in autophagic flux. Our investigations implicate the sphingolipid metabolic pathway in the regulation of many of the in vivo defects associated with pgrn-1 loss. Finally, we utilized these nematodes as an in vivo tool for high-throughput drug screening and identified two small molecules with potential therapeutic applications against GRN/pgrn-1 deficiency. These compounds reverse the biochemical, cellular, and functional phenotypes of GRN deficiency. Together, our results open avenues for mechanistic and therapeutic research into the outcomes of GRN-related neurodegeneration, both genetic and molecular.
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34
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Wang XM, Zeng P, Fang YY, Zhang T, Tian Q. Progranulin in neurodegenerative dementia. J Neurochem 2021; 158:119-137. [PMID: 33930186 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Long-term or severe lack of protective factors is important in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative dementia. Progranulin (PGRN), a neurotrophic factor expressed mainly in neurons and microglia, has various neuroprotective effects such as anti-inflammatory effects, promoting neuron survival and neurite growth, and participating in normal lysosomal function. Mutations in the PGRN gene (GRN) have been found in several neurodegenerative dementias, including frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Herein, PGRN deficiency and PGRN hydrolytic products (GRNs) in the pathological changes related to dementia, including aggregation of tau and TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43), amyloid-β (Aβ) overproduction, neuroinflammation, lysosomal dysfunction, neuronal death, and synaptic deficit have been summarized. Furthermore, as some therapeutic strategies targeting PGRN have been developed in various models, we highlighted PGRN as a potential anti-neurodegeneration target in dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ming Wang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Key Laboratory of Neurological Disease of National Education Ministry, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Peng Zeng
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Key Laboratory of Neurological Disease of National Education Ministry, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Ying-Yan Fang
- Hubei Key Laboratory for Kidney Disease Pathogenesis and Intervention, Hubei Polytechnic University School of Medicine, Huangshi, China
| | - Teng Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Shanxian Central Hospital, The Affiliated Huxi Hospital of Jining Medical College, Heze, China
| | - Qing Tian
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Key Laboratory of Neurological Disease of National Education Ministry, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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Sirkis DW, Bonham LW, Yokoyama JS. The Role of Microglia in Inherited White-Matter Disorders and Connections to Frontotemporal Dementia. Appl Clin Genet 2021; 14:195-207. [PMID: 33833548 PMCID: PMC8020808 DOI: 10.2147/tacg.s245029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia play a critical but poorly understood role in promoting white-matter homeostasis. In this review, we leverage advances in human genetics and mouse models of leukodystrophies to delineate our current knowledge and identify outstanding questions regarding the impact of microglia on central nervous system white matter. We first focus on the role of pathogenic mutations in genes, such as TREM2, TYROBP, and CSF1R, that cause leukodystrophies in which the primary deficit is thought to originate in microglia. We next discuss recent advances in disorders such as adrenoleukodystrophy and Krabbe disease, in which microglia play an increasingly recognized role. We conclude by reviewing the roles of GRN and related genes, such as TMEM106B, PSAP, and SORT1, that affect microglial biology and associate with several types of disease, including multiple leukodystrophies as well as forms of frontotemporal dementia (FTD) presenting with white-matter abnormalities. Taken together, mouse and human data support the notion that loss of microglia-facilitated white-matter homeostasis plays an important role in the development of leukodystrophies and suggest novel mechanisms contributing to FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W Sirkis
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Luke W Bonham
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA.,Department of Radiology & Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Jennifer S Yokoyama
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA.,Department of Radiology & Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
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36
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Senkevich KA, Kopytova AE, Usenko TS, Emelyanov AK, Pchelina SN. Parkinson's Disease Associated with GBA Gene Mutations: Molecular Aspects and Potential Treatment Approaches. Acta Naturae 2021; 13:70-78. [PMID: 34377557 PMCID: PMC8327146 DOI: 10.32607/actanaturae.11031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disease. To date, genome-wide association studies have identified more than 70 loci associated with the risk of PD. Variants in the GBA gene encoding glucocerebrosidase are quite often found in PD patients in all populations across the world, which justifies intensive investigation of this gene. A number of biochemical features have been identified in patients with GBA-associated Parkinson's disease (GBA-PD). In particular, these include decreased activity of glucocerebrosidase and accumulation of the glucosylceramide substrate. These features were the basis for putting forward a hypothesis about treatment of GBA-PD using new strategies aimed at restoring glucocerebrosidase activity and reducing the substrate concentration. This paper discusses the molecular and genetic mechanisms of GBA-PD pathogenesis and potential approaches to the treatment of this form of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. A. Senkevich
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute named by B.P. Konstantinov of National Research Centre «Kurchatov Institute», Saint-Petersburg, 188300 Russia
- First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg, Saint-Petersburg, 197022 Russia
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - A. E. Kopytova
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute named by B.P. Konstantinov of National Research Centre «Kurchatov Institute», Saint-Petersburg, 188300 Russia
- First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg, Saint-Petersburg, 197022 Russia
| | - T. S. Usenko
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute named by B.P. Konstantinov of National Research Centre «Kurchatov Institute», Saint-Petersburg, 188300 Russia
- First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg, Saint-Petersburg, 197022 Russia
| | - A. K. Emelyanov
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute named by B.P. Konstantinov of National Research Centre «Kurchatov Institute», Saint-Petersburg, 188300 Russia
- First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg, Saint-Petersburg, 197022 Russia
| | - S. N. Pchelina
- Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute named by B.P. Konstantinov of National Research Centre «Kurchatov Institute», Saint-Petersburg, 188300 Russia
- First Pavlov State Medical University of St. Petersburg, Saint-Petersburg, 197022 Russia
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, 197376 Russia
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37
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Lee JY, Marian OC, Don AS. Defective Lysosomal Lipid Catabolism as a Common Pathogenic Mechanism for Dementia. Neuromolecular Med 2021; 23:1-24. [PMID: 33550528 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-021-08644-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Dementia poses an ever-growing burden to health care and social services as life expectancies have grown across the world and populations age. The most common forms of dementia are Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia (FTD), and Lewy body dementia, which includes Parkinson's disease (PD) dementia and dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). Genomic studies over the past 3 decades have identified variants in genes regulating lipid transporters and endosomal processes as major risk determinants for AD, with the most significant being inheritance of the ε4 allele of the APOE gene, encoding apolipoprotein E. A recent surge in research on lipid handling and metabolism in glia and neurons has established defective lipid clearance from endolysosomes as a central driver of AD pathogenesis. The most prevalent genetic risk factors for DLB are the APOE ε4 allele, and heterozygous loss of function mutations in the GBA gene, encoding the lysosomal catabolic enzyme glucocerebrosidase; whilst heterozygous mutations in the GRN gene, required for lysosomal catabolism of sphingolipids, are responsible for a significant proportion of FTD cases. Homozygous mutations in the GBA or GRN genes produce the lysosomal storage diseases Gaucher disease and neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. Research from mouse and cell culture models, and neuropathological evidence from lysosomal storage diseases, has established that impaired cholesterol or sphingolipid catabolism is sufficient to produce the pathological hallmarks of dementia, indicating that defective lipid catabolism is a common mechanism in the etiology of dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Yup Lee
- Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Oana C Marian
- Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Anthony S Don
- Centenary Institute, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia. .,NHMRC Clinical Trials Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2006, Australia.
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Thomas R, Moloney EB, Macbain ZK, Hallett PJ, Isacson O. Fibroblasts from idiopathic Parkinson's disease exhibit deficiency of lysosomal glucocerebrosidase activity associated with reduced levels of the trafficking receptor LIMP2. Mol Brain 2021; 14:16. [PMID: 33468204 PMCID: PMC7816505 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-020-00712-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Lysosomal dysfunction is a central pathway associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) pathogenesis. Haploinsufficiency of the lysosomal hydrolase GBA (encoding glucocerebrosidase (GCase)) is one of the largest genetic risk factors for developing PD. Deficiencies in the activity of the GCase enzyme have been observed in human tissues from both genetic (harboring mutations in the GBA gene) and idiopathic forms of the disease. To understand the mechanisms behind the deficits of lysosomal GCase enzyme activity in idiopathic PD, this study utilized a large cohort of fibroblast cells from control subjects and PD patients with and without mutations in the GBA gene (N370S mutation) (control, n = 15; idiopathic PD, n = 31; PD with GBA N370S mutation, n = 6). The current data demonstrates that idiopathic PD fibroblasts devoid of any mutations in the GBA gene also exhibit reduction in lysosomal GCase activity, similar to those with the GBA N370S mutation. This reduced GCase enzyme activity in idiopathic PD cells was accompanied by decreased expression of the GBA trafficking receptor, LIMP2, and increased ER retention of the GBA protein in these cells. Importantly, in idiopathic PD fibroblasts LIMP2 protein levels correlated significantly with GCase activity, which was not the case in control subjects or in genetic PD GBA N370S cells. In conclusion, idiopathic PD fibroblasts have decreased GCase activity primarily driven by altered LIMP2-mediated transport of GBA to lysosome and the reduced GCase activity exhibited by the genetic GBA N370S derived PD fibroblasts occurs through a different mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ria Thomas
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - Elizabeth B Moloney
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - Zachary K Macbain
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA
| | - Penelope J Hallett
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA.
| | - Ole Isacson
- Neuroregeneration Research Institute, Harvard Medical School/McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA.
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Burbulla LF, Mc Donald JM, Valdez C, Gao F, Bigio EH, Krainc D. Modeling Brain Pathology of Niemann-Pick Disease Type C Using Patient-Derived Neurons. Mov Disord 2021; 36:1022-1027. [PMID: 33438272 DOI: 10.1002/mds.28463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Niemann-Pick disease type C (NPC) is a rare autosomal-recessive lysosomal storage disease that is also associated with progressive neurodegeneration. NPC shares many pathological features with Alzheimer's disease, including neurofibrillary tangles, axonal spheroids, β-amyloid deposition, and dystrophic neurites. Here, we examined if these pathological features could be detected in induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neurons from NPC patients. METHODS Brain tissues from 8 NPC patients and 5 controls were analyzed for histopathological and biochemical markers of pathology. To model disease in culture, iPSCs from NPC patients and controls were differentiated into cortical neurons. RESULTS We found hyperphosphorylated tau, altered processing of amyloid precursor protein, and increased Aβ42 in NPC postmortem brains and in iPSC-derived cortical neurons from NPC patients. CONCLUSION Our findings demonstrated that the main pathogenic phenotypes typically found in NPC brains were also observed in patient-derived neurons, providing a useful model for further mechanistic and therapeutic studies of NPC. © 2021 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena F Burbulla
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Jessica M Mc Donald
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Clarissa Valdez
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Fanding Gao
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Eileen H Bigio
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Mesulam Center for Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer's Disease, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Dimitri Krainc
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Perez-Canamas A, Takahashi H, Lindborg JA, Strittmatter SM. Fronto-temporal dementia risk gene TMEM106B has opposing effects in different lysosomal storage disorders. Brain Commun 2020; 3:fcaa200. [PMID: 33796852 PMCID: PMC7990118 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcaa200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
TMEM106B is a transmembrane protein localized to the endo-lysosomal compartment. Genome-wide association studies have identified TMEM106B as a risk modifier of Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration, especially with progranulin haploinsufficiency. We recently demonstrated that TMEM106B loss rescues progranulin null mouse phenotypes including lysosomal enzyme dysregulation, neurodegeneration and behavioural alterations. However, the reason whether TMEM106B is involved in other neurodegenerative lysosomal diseases is unknown. Here, we evaluate the potential role of TMEM106B in modifying the progression of lysosomal storage disorders using progranulin-independent models of Gaucher disease and neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. To study Gaucher disease, we employ a pharmacological approach using the inhibitor conduritol B epoxide in wild-type and hypomorphic Tmem106b-/- mice. TMEM106B depletion ameliorates neuronal degeneration and some behavioural abnormalities in the pharmacological model of Gaucher disease, similar to its effect on certain progranulin null phenotypes. In order to examine the role of TMEM106B in neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, we crossbred Tmem106b-/- mice with Ppt1-/-, a genetic model of the disease. In contrast to its conduritol B epoxide-rescuing effect, TMEM106B loss exacerbates Purkinje cell degeneration and motor deficits in Ppt1-/- mice. Mechanistically, TMEM106B is known to interact with subunits of the vacuolar ATPase and influence lysosomal acidification. In the pharmacological Gaucher disease model, the acidified lysosomal compartment is enhanced and TMEM106B loss rescues in vivo phenotypes. In contrast, gene-edited neuronal loss of Ppt1 causes a reduction in vacuolar ATPase levels and impairment of the acidified lysosomal compartment, and TMEM106B deletion exacerbates the mouse Ppt1-/- phenotype. Our findings indicate that TMEM106B differentially modulates the progression of the lysosomal storage disorders Gaucher disease and neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. The effect of TMEM106B in neurodegeneration varies depending on vacuolar ATPase state and modulation of lysosomal pH. These data suggest TMEM106B as a target for correcting lysosomal pH alterations, and in particular for therapeutic intervention in Gaucher disease and neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azucena Perez-Canamas
- Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Hideyuki Takahashi
- Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jane A Lindborg
- Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Stephen M Strittmatter
- Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Neurology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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41
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Huang M, Modeste E, Dammer E, Merino P, Taylor G, Duong DM, Deng Q, Holler CJ, Gearing M, Dickson D, Seyfried NT, Kukar T. Network analysis of the progranulin-deficient mouse brain proteome reveals pathogenic mechanisms shared in human frontotemporal dementia caused by GRN mutations. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2020; 8:163. [PMID: 33028409 PMCID: PMC7541308 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-020-01037-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous, loss-of-function mutations in the granulin gene (GRN) encoding progranulin (PGRN) are a common cause of frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Homozygous GRN mutations cause neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis-11 (CLN11), a lysosome storage disease. PGRN is a secreted glycoprotein that can be proteolytically cleaved into seven bioactive 6 kDa granulins. However, it is unclear how deficiency of PGRN and granulins causes neurodegeneration. To gain insight into the mechanisms of FTD pathogenesis, we utilized Tandem Mass Tag isobaric labeling mass spectrometry to perform an unbiased quantitative proteomic analysis of whole-brain tissue from wild type (Grn+/+) and Grn knockout (Grn-/-) mice at 3- and 19-months of age. At 3-months lysosomal proteins (i.e. Gns, Scarb2, Hexb) are selectively increased indicating lysosomal dysfunction is an early consequence of PGRN deficiency. Additionally, proteins involved in lipid metabolism (Acly, Apoc3, Asah1, Gpld1, Ppt1, and Naaa) are decreased; suggesting lysosomal degradation of lipids may be impaired in the Grn-/- brain. Systems biology using weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) of the Grn-/- brain proteome identified 26 modules of highly co-expressed proteins. Three modules strongly correlated to Grn deficiency and were enriched with lysosomal proteins (Gpnmb, CtsD, CtsZ, and Tpp1) and inflammatory proteins (Lgals3, GFAP, CD44, S100a, and C1qa). We find that lysosomal dysregulation is exacerbated with age in the Grn-/- mouse brain leading to neuroinflammation, synaptic loss, and decreased markers of oligodendrocytes, myelin, and neurons. In particular, GPNMB and LGALS3 (galectin-3) were upregulated by microglia and elevated in FTD-GRN brain samples, indicating common pathogenic pathways are dysregulated in human FTD cases and Grn-/- mice. GPNMB levels were significantly increased in the cerebrospinal fluid of FTD-GRN patients, but not in MAPT or C9orf72 carriers, suggesting GPNMB could be a biomarker specific to FTD-GRN to monitor disease onset, progression, and drug response. Our findings support the idea that insufficiency of PGRN and granulins in humans causes neurodegeneration through lysosomal dysfunction, defects in autophagy, and neuroinflammation, which could be targeted to develop effective therapies.
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42
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Tayebi N, Lopez G, Do J, Sidransky E. Pro-cathepsin D, Prosaposin, and Progranulin: Lysosomal Networks in Parkinsonism. Trends Mol Med 2020; 26:913-923. [PMID: 32948448 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2020.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in GBA1, the gene encoding the lysosomal hydrolase glucocerebrosidase (GCase), are a risk factor for parkinsonism. Pursuing the potential mechanisms underlying this risk in aging neurons, we propose a new network uniting three major lysosomal proteins: (i) cathepsin D (CTSD), which plays a major role in α-synuclein (SNCA) degradation and prosaposin (PSAP) cleavage; (ii) PSAP, essential for GCase activation and progranulin (PGRN) transport; and (iii) PGRN, impacting lysosomal biogenesis, PSAP trafficking, and CTSD maturation. We hypothesize that alterations to this network and associated receptors modify lysosomal function and subsequently impact both SNCA degradation and GCase activity. By exploring the interactions between this protein trio and each of their respective transporters and receptors, we may identify secondary risk factors that provide insight into the relationship between these lysosomal proteins, GCase, and SNCA, and reveal novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nahid Tayebi
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genetics Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Grisel Lopez
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genetics Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jenny Do
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genetics Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ellen Sidransky
- Medical Genetics Branch, National Human Genetics Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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43
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Feng T, Mai S, Roscoe JM, Sheng RR, Ullah M, Zhang J, Katz II, Yu H, Xiong W, Hu F. Loss of TMEM106B and PGRN leads to severe lysosomal abnormalities and neurodegeneration in mice. EMBO Rep 2020; 21:e50219. [PMID: 32852886 PMCID: PMC7534636 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202050219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Haploinsufficiency of progranulin (PGRN) is a leading cause of frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Loss of PGRN leads to lysosome dysfunction during aging. TMEM106B, a gene encoding a lysosomal membrane protein, is the main risk factor for FTLD with PGRN haploinsufficiency. But how TMEM106B affects FTLD disease progression remains to be determined. Here, we report that TMEM106B deficiency in mice leads to accumulation of lysosome vacuoles at the distal end of the axon initial segment in motor neurons and the development of FTLD‐related pathology during aging. Ablation of both PGRN and TMEM106B in mice results in severe neuronal loss and glial activation in the spinal cord, retina, and brain. Enlarged lysosomes are frequently found in both microglia and astrocytes. Loss of both PGRN and TMEM106B results in an increased accumulation of lysosomal vacuoles in the axon initial segment of motor neurons and enhances the manifestation of FTLD phenotypes with a much earlier onset. These results provide novel insights into the role of TMEM106B in the lysosome, in brain aging, and in FTLD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuancheng Feng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Shuyi Mai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jenn Marie Roscoe
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Rory R Sheng
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Mohammed Ullah
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Junke Zhang
- Department of Computational Biology, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Isabel Iscol Katz
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Haiyuan Yu
- Department of Computational Biology, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Wenjun Xiong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Fenghua Hu
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Weill Institute for Cell and Molecular Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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44
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Zhou X, Brooks M, Jiang P, Koga S, Zuberi AR, Baker MC, Parsons TM, Castanedes-Casey M, Phillips V, Librero AL, Kurti A, Fryer JD, Bu G, Lutz C, Dickson DW, Rademakers R. Loss of Tmem106b exacerbates FTLD pathologies and causes motor deficits in progranulin-deficient mice. EMBO Rep 2020; 21:e50197. [PMID: 32761777 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202050197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Progranulin (PGRN) and transmembrane protein 106B (TMEM106B) are important lysosomal proteins implicated in frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and other neurodegenerative disorders. Loss-of-function mutations in progranulin (GRN) are a common cause of FTLD, while TMEM106B variants have been shown to act as disease modifiers in FTLD. Overexpression of TMEM106B leads to lysosomal dysfunction, while loss of Tmem106b ameliorates lysosomal and FTLD-related pathologies in young Grn-/- mice, suggesting that lowering TMEM106B might be an attractive strategy for therapeutic treatment of FTLD-GRN. Here, we generate and characterize older Tmem106b-/- Grn-/- double knockout mice, which unexpectedly show severe motor deficits and spinal cord motor neuron and myelin loss, leading to paralysis and premature death at 11-12 months. Compared to Grn-/- , Tmem106b-/- Grn-/- mice have exacerbated FTLD-related pathologies, including microgliosis, astrogliosis, ubiquitin, and phospho-Tdp43 inclusions, as well as worsening of lysosomal and autophagic deficits. Our findings confirm a functional interaction between Tmem106b and Pgrn and underscore the need to rethink whether modulating TMEM106B levels is a viable therapeutic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolai Zhou
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Mieu Brooks
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Peizhou Jiang
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Shunsuke Koga
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Aamir R Zuberi
- The Rare and Orphan Disease Center, JAX Center for Precision Genetics, Bar Harbor, ME, USA
| | - Matthew C Baker
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Aishe Kurti
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - John D Fryer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Cathleen Lutz
- The Rare and Orphan Disease Center, JAX Center for Precision Genetics, Bar Harbor, ME, USA
| | | | - Rosa Rademakers
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.,Applied and Translational Neurogenomics, VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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45
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Arrant AE, Roth JR, Boyle NR, Kashyap SN, Hoffmann MQ, Murchison CF, Ramos EM, Nana AL, Spina S, Grinberg LT, Miller BL, Seeley WW, Roberson ED. Impaired β-glucocerebrosidase activity and processing in frontotemporal dementia due to progranulin mutations. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2019; 7:218. [PMID: 31870439 PMCID: PMC6929503 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-019-0872-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in progranulin (GRN) are a major autosomal dominant cause of frontotemporal dementia. Most pathogenic GRN mutations result in progranulin haploinsufficiency, which is thought to cause frontotemporal dementia in GRN mutation carriers. Progranulin haploinsufficiency may drive frontotemporal dementia pathogenesis by disrupting lysosomal function, as patients with GRN mutations on both alleles develop the lysosomal storage disorder neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, and frontotemporal dementia patients with GRN mutations (FTD-GRN) also accumulate lipofuscin. The specific lysosomal deficits caused by progranulin insufficiency remain unclear, but emerging data indicate that progranulin insufficiency may impair lysosomal sphingolipid-metabolizing enzymes. We investigated the effects of progranulin insufficiency on sphingolipid-metabolizing enzymes in the inferior frontal gyrus of FTD-GRN patients using fluorogenic activity assays, biochemical profiling of enzyme levels and posttranslational modifications, and quantitative neuropathology. Of the enzymes studied, only β-glucocerebrosidase exhibited impairment in FTD-GRN patients. Brains from FTD-GRN patients had lower activity than controls, which was associated with lower levels of mature β-glucocerebrosidase protein and accumulation of insoluble, incompletely glycosylated β-glucocerebrosidase. Immunostaining revealed loss of neuronal β-glucocerebrosidase in FTD-GRN patients. To investigate the effects of progranulin insufficiency on β-glucocerebrosidase outside of the context of neurodegeneration, we investigated β-glucocerebrosidase activity in progranulin-insufficient mice. Brains from Grn-/- mice had lower β-glucocerebrosidase activity than wild-type littermates, which was corrected by AAV-progranulin gene therapy. These data show that progranulin insufficiency impairs β-glucocerebrosidase activity in the brain. This effect is strongest in neurons and may be caused by impaired β-glucocerebrosidase processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew E Arrant
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
- , 1825 University Blvd., SHEL 1106, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA.
| | - Jonathan R Roth
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Nicholas R Boyle
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Shreya N Kashyap
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Madelyn Q Hoffmann
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Charles F Murchison
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Eliana Marisa Ramos
- Department of Psychiatry, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alissa L Nana
- Department of Neurology, Memory & Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Salvatore Spina
- Department of Neurology, Memory & Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Lea T Grinberg
- Department of Neurology, Memory & Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Bruce L Miller
- Department of Neurology, Memory & Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - William W Seeley
- Department of Neurology, Memory & Aging Center, UCSF Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Erik D Roberson
- Departments of Neurology and Neurobiology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, Alzheimer's Disease Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
- , 1825 University Blvd., SHEL 1110, Birmingham, AL, 35294, USA.
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