1
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Smith HL, Broszczak DA, Bryan SE, Norton RS, Prentis PJ. Molecular Insights into the Low Complexity Secreted Venom of Calliactis polypus. Genome Biol Evol 2024; 16:evae154. [PMID: 39018436 PMCID: PMC11299110 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evae154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Sea anemones are venomous animals that rely on their venom for prey capture, defense against predators, and intraspecific competition. Currently, comprehensive molecular and evolutionary analyses of the toxin repertoire for sea anemones are limited by a lack of proteomic data for most species. In this study, proteo-transcriptomic analysis was used to expand our knowledge of the proteinaceous components of sea anemone venom by determining the secreted venom proteome of Calliactis polypus. Electromechanical stimulation was used to obtain the secreted venom of C. polypus. We identified a low complexity proteome that was dominated by toxins with similarity to known neurotoxins, as well as six novel toxin candidates. The novel putative toxin candidates were found to be taxonomically restricted to species from the superfamily Metridioidea. Furthermore, the secreted venom of C. polypus had only three putative toxins in common with the venom of acontia from the same species and little similarity with the secreted venom of closely related species. Overall, this demonstrates that regionalized and lineage-specific variability in toxin abundance is common among sea anemone species. Moreover, the limited complexity of the toxin repertoire found in C. polypus supports the idea that peptide neurotoxins make up the dominant toxin arsenal found in the venom of sea anemones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayden L Smith
- School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane 4000, Australia
| | - Daniel A Broszczak
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane 4000, Australia
| | - Scott E Bryan
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane 4000, Australia
| | - Raymond S Norton
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
- ARC Centre for Fragment-Based Design, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Peter J Prentis
- School of Biology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane 4000, Australia
- Centre for Agriculture and the Bioeconomy, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane 4000, Australia
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2
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Michálek O, King GF, Pekár S. Prey specificity of predatory venoms. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024. [PMID: 38991997 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 07/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Venom represents a key adaptation of many venomous predators, allowing them to immobilise prey quickly through chemical rather than physical warfare. Evolutionary arms races between prey and a predator are believed to be the main factor influencing the potency and composition of predatory venoms. Predators with narrowly restricted diets are expected to evolve specifically potent venom towards their focal prey, with lower efficacy on alternative prey. Here, we evaluate hypotheses on the evolution of prey-specific venom, focusing on the effect of restricted diet, prey defences, and prey resistance. Prey specificity as a potential evolutionary dead end is also discussed. We then provide an overview of the current knowledge on venom prey specificity, with emphasis on snakes, cone snails, and spiders. As the current evidence for venom prey specificity is still quite limited, we also overview the best approaches and methods for its investigation and provide a brief summary of potential model groups. Finally, possible applications of prey-specific toxins are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Michálek
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, Brno, 611 37, Czech Republic
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3
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Dashevsky D, Harris RJ, Zdenek CN, Benard-Valle M, Alagón A, Portes-Junior JA, Tanaka-Azevedo AM, Grego KF, Sant'Anna SS, Frank N, Fry BG. Red-on-Yellow Queen: Bio-Layer Interferometry Reveals Functional Diversity Within Micrurus Venoms and Toxin Resistance in Prey Species. J Mol Evol 2024; 92:317-328. [PMID: 38814340 PMCID: PMC11168994 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-024-10176-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Snakes in the family Elapidae largely produce venoms rich in three-finger toxins (3FTx) that bind to the α 1 subunit of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), impeding ion channel activity. These neurotoxins immobilize the prey by disrupting muscle contraction. Coral snakes of the genus Micrurus are specialist predators who produce many 3FTx, making them an interesting system for examining the coevolution of these toxins and their targets in prey animals. We used a bio-layer interferometry technique to measure the binding interaction between 15 Micrurus venoms and 12 taxon-specific mimotopes designed to resemble the orthosteric binding region of the muscular nAChR subunit. We found that Micrurus venoms vary greatly in their potency on this assay and that this variation follows phylogenetic patterns rather than previously reported patterns of venom composition. The long-tailed Micrurus tend to have greater binding to nAChR orthosteric sites than their short-tailed relatives and we conclude this is the likely ancestral state. The repeated loss of this activity may be due to the evolution of 3FTx that bind to other regions of the nAChR. We also observed variations in the potency of the venoms depending on the taxon of the target mimotope. Rather than a pattern of prey-specificity, we found that mimotopes modeled after snake nAChRs are less susceptible to Micrurus venoms and that this resistance is partly due to a characteristic tryptophan → serine mutation within the orthosteric site in all snake mimotopes. This resistance may be part of a Red Queen arms race between coral snakes and their prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dashevsky
- Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.
| | - Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Cape Cleveland, QLD, 4810, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Celine Frere Group, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Melisa Benard-Valle
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Region Hovedstaden, Denmark
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 62210, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - José A Portes-Junior
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Anita M Tanaka-Azevedo
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Kathleen F Grego
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Sávio S Sant'Anna
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Nathaniel Frank
- MToxins Venom Lab, 717 Oregon Street, Oshkosh, WI, 54902, USA
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
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4
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Chandrasekara U, Broussard EM, Rokyta DR, Fry BG. High-Voltage Toxin'Roll: Electrostatic Charge Repulsion as a Dynamic Venom Resistance Trait in Pythonid Snakes. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:176. [PMID: 38668601 PMCID: PMC11053703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary interplay between predator and prey has significantly shaped the development of snake venom, a critical adaptation for subduing prey. This arms race has spurred the diversification of the components of venom and the corresponding emergence of resistance mechanisms in the prey and predators of venomous snakes. Our study investigates the molecular basis of venom resistance in pythons, focusing on electrostatic charge repulsion as a defense against α-neurotoxins binding to the alpha-1 subunit of the postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Through phylogenetic and bioactivity analyses of orthosteric site sequences from various python species, we explore the prevalence and evolution of amino acid substitutions that confer resistance by electrostatic repulsion, which initially evolved in response to predatory pressure by Naja (cobra) species (which occurs across Africa and Asia). The small African species Python regius retains the two resistance-conferring lysines (positions 189 and 191) of the ancestral Python genus, conferring resistance to sympatric Naja venoms. This differed from the giant African species Python sebae, which has secondarily lost one of these lysines, potentially due to its rapid growth out of the prey size range of sympatric Naja species. In contrast, the two Asian species Python brongersmai (small) and Python bivittatus (giant) share an identical orthosteric site, which exhibits the highest degree of resistance, attributed to three lysine residues in the orthosteric sites. One of these lysines (at orthosteric position 195) evolved in the last common ancestor of these two species, which may reflect an adaptive response to increased predation pressures from the sympatric α-neurotoxic snake-eating genus Ophiophagus (King Cobras) in Asia. All these terrestrial Python species, however, were less neurotoxin-susceptible than pythons in other genera which have evolved under different predatory pressure as: the Asian species Malayopython reticulatus which is arboreal as neonates and juveniles before rapidly reaching sizes as terrestrial adults too large for sympatric Ophiophagus species to consider as prey; and the terrestrial Australian species Aspidites melanocephalus which occupies a niche, devoid of selection pressure from α-neurotoxic predatory snakes. Our findings underline the importance of positive selection in the evolution of venom resistance and suggest a complex evolutionary history involving both conserved traits and secondary evolution. This study enhances our understanding of the molecular adaptations that enable pythons to survive in environments laden with venomous threats and offers insights into the ongoing co-evolution between venomous snakes and their prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uthpala Chandrasekara
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
| | - Emilie M. Broussard
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; (E.M.B.); (D.R.R.)
| | - Darin R. Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; (E.M.B.); (D.R.R.)
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
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5
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Balchan NR, Smith CF, Mackessy SP. A plethora of rodents: Rattlesnake predators generate unanticipated patterns of venom resistance in a grassland ecosystem. Toxicon X 2024; 21:100179. [PMID: 38144228 PMCID: PMC10746501 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2023.100179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Predation has the potential to impart strong selective pressures on organisms within their environments, resulting in adaptive changes in prey that minimize risk of predation. Pressures from venomous snakes present an exceptional challenge to prey, as venom represents a unique chemical arsenal evolutionarily tailored to incapacitate prey. In response, venom resistance has been detected in various snake prey species, and to varying degrees. This study analyzes venom resistance in an eastern Colorado grassland habitat, where the Prairie Rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) and Desert Massasauga Rattlesnake (Sistrurus tergeminus edwardsii) co-occur with a suite of grassland rodents. We test for venom resistance across rodent and snake pairings using two geographically distant field sites to determine the role of 1) predation pressure and trophic ecology, and 2) sympatric and allopatric patterns of venom resistance. Resistance was measured using serum-based metalloproteinase inhibition assays to determine potential inhibition of proteolytic activity, augmented by median lethal dose (LD50) assays on rodent species to assess toxicity of crude venoms. Resistance is present in several rodent species, with strong resistance present in populations of Eastern Woodrat (Neotoma floridana), Ord's Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys ordii), and Northern Grasshopper Mouse (Onychomys leucogaster). Resistance is less developed in other species, including the House Mouse (Mus musculus) and Plains Pocket Mouse (Perognathus flavescens). An unexpected differential is present, where Lincoln County Kangaroo Rats are highly resistant to venom of co-occurring Prairie Rattlesnakes yet are sensitive to an allopatric population of Prairie Rattlesnakes in Weld County. Lincoln Co. Northern Grasshopper Mice also demonstrate extremely elevated resistance to Weld Co. Prairie Rattlesnake venoms, and they may possess resistance mechanisms for myotoxin a, an abundant component of Weld Co. C. v viridis venoms. This study illustrates the complexity of venom resistance in biological communities that can exist when incorporating multiple species interactions. Future studies aimed at characterizing resistance mechanisms at the molecular level will provide a more detailed physiological context for understanding mechanisms by which resistance to venoms occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil R. Balchan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Cara F. Smith
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, 12801 East 17th Avenue, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Stephen P. Mackessy
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
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Chandrasekara U, Mancuso M, Seneci L, Bourke L, Trembath DF, Sumner J, Zdenek CN, Fry BG. A Russian Doll of Resistance: Nested Gains and Losses of Venom Immunity in Varanid Lizards. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2628. [PMID: 38473875 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The interplay between predator and prey has catalyzed the evolution of venom systems, with predators honing their venoms in response to the evolving resistance of prey. A previous study showed that the African varanid species Varanus exanthematicus has heightened resistance to snake venoms compared to the Australian species V. giganteus, V. komodoensis, and V. mertensi, likely due to increased predation by sympatric venomous snakes on V. exanthematicus. To understand venom resistance among varanid lizards, we analyzed the receptor site targeted by venoms in 27 varanid lizards, including 25 Australian varanids. The results indicate an active evolutionary arms race between Australian varanid lizards and sympatric neurotoxic elapid snakes. Large species preying on venomous snakes exhibit inherited neurotoxin resistance, a trait potentially linked to their predatory habits. Consistent with the 'use it or lose it' aspect of venom resistance, this trait was secondarily reduced in two lineages that had convergently evolved gigantism (V. giganteus and the V. komodoensis/V. varius clade), suggestive of increased predatory success accompanying extreme size and also increased mechanical protection against envenomation due to larger scale osteoderms. Resistance was completely lost in the mangrove monitor V. indicus, consistent with venomous snakes not being common in their arboreal and aquatic niche. Conversely, dwarf varanids demonstrate a secondary loss at the base of the clade, with resistance subsequently re-evolving in the burrowing V. acanthurus/V. storri clade, suggesting an ongoing battle with neurotoxic predators. Intriguingly, within the V. acanthurus/V. storri clade, resistance was lost again in V. kingorum, which is morphologically and ecologically distinct from other members of this clade. Resistance was also re-evolved in V. glebopalma which is terrestrial in contrast to the arboreal/cliff dwelling niches occupied by the other members of its clade (V. glebopalma, V. mitchelli, V. scalaris, V. tristis). This 'Russian doll' pattern of venom resistance underscores the dynamic interaction between dwarf varanids and Australian neurotoxic elapid snakes. Our research, which included testing Acanthophis (death adder) venoms against varanid receptors as models for alpha-neurotoxic interactions, uncovered a fascinating instance of the Red Queen Hypothesis: some death adders have developed more potent toxins specifically targeting resistant varanids, a clear sign of the relentless predator-prey arms race. These results offer new insight into the complex dynamics of venom resistance and highlight the intricate ecological interactions that shape the natural world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uthpala Chandrasekara
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Marco Mancuso
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Lorenzo Seneci
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Lachlan Bourke
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Dane F Trembath
- Herpetology Department, Australian Museum Research Institute, Australian Museum, Sydney, NSW 2010, Australia
| | - Joanna Sumner
- Museums Victoria Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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7
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Serino-Silva C, Bittencourt Rodrigues CF, Miyamoto JG, Hatakeyama DM, Kavazoi VK, Da Rocha MMT, Tanaka AS, Tashima AK, de Morais-Zani K, Grego KF, Tanaka-Azevedo AM. Proteomics and life-history variability of Endogenous Phospholipases A2 Inhibitors (PLIs) in Bothrops jararaca plasma. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0295806. [PMID: 38319909 PMCID: PMC10846723 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0295806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2024] Open
Abstract
In Brazil, the genus Bothrops is responsible for most ophidian accidents. Snake venoms have a wide variety of proteins and peptides exhibiting a broad repertoire of pharmacological and toxic effects that elicit systemic injury and characteristic local effects. The snakes' natural resistance to envenomation caused by the presence of inhibitory compounds on their plasma have been extensively studied. However, the presence of these inhibitors in different developmental stages is yet to be further discussed. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ontogeny of Bothrops jararaca plasma inhibitor composition and, to this end, plasma samples of B. jararaca were obtained from different developmental stages (neonates, youngs, and adults) and sexes (female and male). SDS-PAGE, Western blotting, affinity chromatography, and mass spectrometry were performed to analyze the protein profile and interaction between B. jararaca plasma and venom proteins. In addition, the presence of γBjPLI, a PLA2 inhibitor previously identified and characterized in B. jararaca serum, was confirmed by Western blotting. According to our results, 9-17% of plasma proteins were capable of binding to venom proteins in the three developmental stages. The presence of different endogenous inhibitors and, more specifically, different PLA2 inhibitor (PLI) classes and antihemorrhagic factors were confirmed in specimens of B. jararaca from newborn by mass spectrometry. For the first time, the αPLI and βPLI were detected in B. jararaca plasma, although low or no ontogenetic and sexual correlation were found. The γPLI were more abundant in adult female, than in neonate and young female, but similar to neonate, young and adult male according to the results of mass spectrometry analysis. Our results suggest that there are proteins in the plasma of these animals that can help counteract the effects of self-envenomation from birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Serino-Silva
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades em Biotecnologia (PPIB—IPT, IBU and USP), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Caroline Fabri Bittencourt Rodrigues
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades em Biotecnologia (PPIB—IPT, IBU and USP), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Daniela Miki Hatakeyama
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades em Biotecnologia (PPIB—IPT, IBU and USP), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Victor Koiti Kavazoi
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades em Biotecnologia (PPIB—IPT, IBU and USP), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Aparecida Sadae Tanaka
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Keiji Tashima
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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8
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Hoepner CM, Stewart ZK, Qiao R, Fobert EK, Prentis PJ, Colella A, Chataway T, Burke da Silva K, Abbott CA. Proteotransciptomics of the Most Popular Host Sea Anemone Entacmaea quadricolor Reveals Not All Toxin Genes Expressed by Tentacles Are Recruited into Its Venom Arsenal. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:85. [PMID: 38393163 PMCID: PMC10893224 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16020085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
While the unique symbiotic relationship between anemonefishes and sea anemones is iconic, it is still not fully understood how anemonefishes can withstand and thrive within the venomous environment of their host sea anemone. In this study, we used a proteotranscriptomics approach to elucidate the proteinaceous toxin repertoire from the most common host sea anemone, Entacmaea quadricolor. Although 1251 different toxin or toxin-like RNA transcripts were expressed in E. quadricolor tentacles (0.05% of gene clusters, 1.8% of expression) and 5375 proteins were detected in milked venom, only 4% of proteins detected in venom were putative toxins (230), and they only represent on average 14% of the normalised protein expression in the milked venom samples. Thus, most proteins in milked venom do not appear to have a toxin function. This work raises the perils of defining a dominant venom phenotype based on transcriptomics data alone in sea anemones, as we found that the dominant venom phenotype differs between the transcriptome and proteome abundance data. E. quadricolor venom contains a mixture of toxin-like proteins of unknown and known function. A newly identified toxin protein family, Z3, rich in conserved cysteines of unknown function, was the most abundant at the RNA transcript and protein levels. The venom was also rich in toxins from the Protease S1, Kunitz-type and PLA2 toxin protein families and contains toxins from eight venom categories. Exploring the intricate venom toxin components in other host sea anemones will be crucial for improving our understanding of how anemonefish adapt to the venomous environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassie M. Hoepner
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Zachary K. Stewart
- Centre for Agriculture and Bioeconomy, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Robert Qiao
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Emily K. Fobert
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Peter J. Prentis
- Centre for Agriculture and Bioeconomy, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4001, Australia
| | - Alex Colella
- Flinders Proteomics Facility, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Tim Chataway
- Flinders Proteomics Facility, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Karen Burke da Silva
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
| | - Catherine A. Abbott
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia
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9
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Lane AN, Nash PD, Ellsworth SA, Nystrom GS, Rokyta DR. The arylsulfatase- and phospholipase-rich venom of the plutoniumid centipede Theatops posticus. Toxicon 2023; 233:107231. [PMID: 37517595 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Research on centipede venoms has led to the discovery of a diverse array of novel proteins and peptides, including those with homology to previously discovered toxin families (e.g., phospholipase A2s and pM12a metalloproteases) and novel toxin families not previously detected in venoms (e.g., β-pore forming toxins and scoloptoxins). Most of this research has focused on centipedes in the order Scolopendromorpha, particularly those in the families Scolopendridae, Cryptopidae, and Scolopocryptopidae. To generate the first high-throughput venom characterization for a centipede in the scolopendromorph family Plutoniumidae, we performed venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics on two Theatops posticus. We identified a total of 64 venom toxins, 60 of which were detected in both the venom-gland transcriptome and venom proteome and four of which were only detected transcriptomically. We detected a single highly abundant arylsulfatase B (ARSB) toxin, the first ARSB toxin identified from centipede venoms. As ARSBs have been detected in other venomous species (e.g., scorpions), ARSBs in T. posticus highlights a new case of convergent evolution across venoms. Theatops posticus venom also contained a much higher abundance and diversity of phospholipase A2 toxins compared to other characterized centipede venoms. Conversely, we detected other common centipedes toxins, such as CAPs and scoloptoxins, at relatively low abundances and diversities. Our observation of a diverse set of toxins from T. posticus venom, including those from novel toxin families, emphasizes the importance of studying unexplored centipede taxonomic groups and the continued potential of centipede venoms for novel toxin discovery and unraveling the molecular mechanisms underlying trait evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaliyah N Lane
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Pauline D Nash
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Schyler A Ellsworth
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Gunnar S Nystrom
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA.
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10
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Mancuso M, Zaman S, Maddock ST, Kamei RG, Salazar-Valenzuela D, Wilkinson M, Roelants K, Fry BG. Resistance Is Not Futile: Widespread Convergent Evolution of Resistance to Alpha-Neurotoxic Snake Venoms in Caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona). Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11353. [PMID: 37511112 PMCID: PMC10379402 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Predatory innovations impose reciprocal selection pressures upon prey. The evolution of snake venom alpha-neurotoxins has triggered the corresponding evolution of resistance in the post-synaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors of prey in a complex chemical arms race. All other things being equal, animals like caecilians (an Order of legless amphibians) are quite vulnerable to predation by fossorial elapid snakes and their powerful alpha-neurotoxic venoms; thus, they are under strong selective pressure. Here, we sequenced the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha-1 subunit of 37 caecilian species, representing all currently known families of caecilians from across the Americas, Africa, and Asia, including species endemic to the Seychelles. Three types of resistance were identified: (1) steric hindrance from N-glycosylated asparagines; (2) secondary structural changes due to the replacement of proline by another amino acid; and (3) electrostatic charge repulsion of the positively charged neurotoxins, through the introduction of a positively charged amino acid into the toxin-binding site. We demonstrated that resistance to alpha-neurotoxins convergently evolved at least fifteen times across the caecilian tree (three times in Africa, seven times in the Americas, and five times in Asia). Additionally, as several species were shown to possess multiple resistance modifications acting synergistically, caecilians must have undergone at least 20 separate events involving the origin of toxin resistance. On the other hand, resistance in non-caecilian amphibians was found to be limited to five origins. Together, the mutations underlying resistance in caecilians constitute a robust signature of positive selection which strongly correlates with elapid presence through both space (sympatry with caecilian-eating elapids) and time (Cenozoic radiation of elapids). Our study demonstrates the extent of convergent evolution that can be expected when a single widespread predatory adaptation triggers parallel evolutionary arms races at a global scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Mancuso
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Shabnam Zaman
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Simon T Maddock
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
- School of Life Sciences, University of Wolverhampton, Wulfruna Street, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK
- Island Biodiversity and Conservation Centre, University of Seychelles, Mahé P.O. Box 1348, Seychelles
| | - Rachunliu G Kamei
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
- Amphibians and Reptiles Division, The Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60605, USA
| | - David Salazar-Valenzuela
- Centro de Investigación de la Biodiversidad y Cambio Climático (BioCamb) e Ingeniería en Biodiversidad y Recursos Genéticos, Facultad de Ciencias de Medio Ambiente, Universidad Indoamérica, Machala y Sabanilla, Quito EC170301, Ecuador
| | - Mark Wilkinson
- Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Kim Roelants
- Amphibian Evolution Lab, Biology Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolutionary Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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11
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Mathews J, Chang A(J, Devlin L, Levin M. Cellular signaling pathways as plastic, proto-cognitive systems: Implications for biomedicine. PATTERNS (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 4:100737. [PMID: 37223267 PMCID: PMC10201306 DOI: 10.1016/j.patter.2023.100737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Many aspects of health and disease are modeled using the abstraction of a "pathway"-a set of protein or other subcellular activities with specified functional linkages between them. This metaphor is a paradigmatic case of a deterministic, mechanistic framework that focuses biomedical intervention strategies on altering the members of this network or the up-/down-regulation links between them-rewiring the molecular hardware. However, protein pathways and transcriptional networks exhibit interesting and unexpected capabilities such as trainability (memory) and information processing in a context-sensitive manner. Specifically, they may be amenable to manipulation via their history of stimuli (equivalent to experiences in behavioral science). If true, this would enable a new class of biomedical interventions that target aspects of the dynamic physiological "software" implemented by pathways and gene-regulatory networks. Here, we briefly review clinical and laboratory data that show how high-level cognitive inputs and mechanistic pathway modulation interact to determine outcomes in vivo. Further, we propose an expanded view of pathways from the perspective of basal cognition and argue that a broader understanding of pathways and how they process contextual information across scales will catalyze progress in many areas of physiology and neurobiology. We argue that this fuller understanding of the functionality and tractability of pathways must go beyond a focus on the mechanistic details of protein and drug structure to encompass their physiological history as well as their embedding within higher levels of organization in the organism, with numerous implications for data science addressing health and disease. Exploiting tools and concepts from behavioral and cognitive sciences to explore a proto-cognitive metaphor for the pathways underlying health and disease is more than a philosophical stance on biochemical processes; at stake is a new roadmap for overcoming the limitations of today's pharmacological strategies and for inferring future therapeutic interventions for a wide range of disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanita Mathews
- Allen Discovery Center at Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
| | | | - Liam Devlin
- Allen Discovery Center at Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
| | - Michael Levin
- Allen Discovery Center at Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
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12
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Thill VL, Moniz HA, Teglas MB, Wasley MJ, Feldman CR. Preying dangerously: black widow spider venom resistance in sympatric lizards. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:221012. [PMID: 36277837 PMCID: PMC9579766 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.221012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Lizards and spiders are natural adversaries, yet little is known of adaptations that lizards might possess for dealing with the venomous defences of spider prey. In the Western USA, two lizard species (Elgaria multicarinata and Sceloporus occidentalis) are sympatric with and predate western black widow spiders (Latrodectus hesperus). The consequences of black widow spider venom (BWSV) can be severe, and are well understood for mammals but unknown for reptiles. We evaluated potential resistance to BWSV in the lizards that consume black widows, and a potentially susceptible species (Uta stansburiana) known as prey of widows. We investigated BWSV effects on whole-animal performance (sprint) and muscle tissue at two venom doses compared with control injections. Sprint speed was not significantly decreased in E. multicarinata or S. occidentalis in any treatment, while U. stansburiana suffered significant performance reductions in response to BWSV. Furthermore, E. multicarinata showed minimal tissue damage and immune response, while S. occidentalis and U. stansburiana exhibited increased muscle damage and immune system infiltration in response to BWSV. Our data suggest predator-prey relationships between lizards and spiders are complex, possibly leading to physiological and molecular adaptations that allow some lizards to tolerate or overcome the dangerous defences of their arachnid prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicki L. Thill
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Haley A. Moniz
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Mike B. Teglas
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
- Department of Agriculture, Veterinary and Rangeland Sciences, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - McKenzie J. Wasley
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
- United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Klamath Falls Fish and Wildlife Office, Klamath Falls, OR 97602, USA
| | - Chris R. Feldman
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557, USA
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13
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Schield DR, Perry BW, Adams RH, Holding ML, Nikolakis ZL, Gopalan SS, Smith CF, Parker JM, Meik JM, DeGiorgio M, Mackessy SP, Castoe TA. The roles of balancing selection and recombination in the evolution of rattlesnake venom. Nat Ecol Evol 2022; 6:1367-1380. [PMID: 35851850 PMCID: PMC9888523 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-022-01829-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The origin of snake venom involved duplication and recruitment of non-venom genes into venom systems. Several studies have predicted that directional positive selection has governed this process. Venom composition varies substantially across snake species and venom phenotypes are locally adapted to prey, leading to coevolutionary interactions between predator and prey. Venom origins and contemporary snake venom evolution may therefore be driven by fundamentally different selection regimes, yet investigations of population-level patterns of selection have been limited. Here, we use whole-genome data from 68 rattlesnakes to test hypotheses about the factors that drive genomic diversity and differentiation in major venom gene regions. We show that selection has resulted in long-term maintenance of genetic diversity within and between species in multiple venom gene families. Our findings are inconsistent with a dominant role of directional positive selection and instead support a role of long-term balancing selection in shaping venom evolution. We also detect rapid decay of linkage disequilibrium due to high recombination rates in venom regions, suggesting that venom genes have reduced selective interference with nearby loci, including other venom paralogues. Our results provide an example of long-term balancing selection that drives trans-species polymorphism and help to explain how snake venom keeps pace with prey resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew R Schield
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA.
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
| | - Blair W Perry
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Richard H Adams
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Georgia College and State University, Milledgeville, GA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Cara F Smith
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, USA
| | - Joshua M Parker
- Life Science Department, Fresno City College, Fresno, CA, USA
| | - Jesse M Meik
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tarleton State University, Stephenville, TX, USA
| | - Michael DeGiorgio
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA.
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14
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Ochoa A, Hassinger ATB, Holding ML, Gibbs HL. Genetic characterization of potential venom resistance proteins in California ground squirrels (
Otospermophilus beecheyi
) using transcriptome analyses. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B: MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2022; 340:259-269. [PMID: 35611404 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.23145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the molecular basis of adaptations in coevolving species requires identifying the genes that underlie reciprocally selected phenotypes, such as those involved in venom in snakes and resistance to the venom in their prey. In this regard, California ground squirrels (CGS; Otospermophilus beecheyi) are eaten by northern Pacific rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus oreganus), but individual squirrels may still show substantial resistance to venom and survive bites. A recent study using proteomics identified venom interactive proteins (VIPs) in the blood serum of CGS. These VIPs represent possible resistance proteins, but the sequences of genes encoding them are unknown despite the value of such data to molecular studies of coevolution. To address this issue, we analyzed a de novo assembled transcriptome from CGS liver tissue-where many plasma proteins are synthesized-and other tissues from this species. We then examined VIP sequences in terms of three characteristics that identify them as possible resistance proteins: evidence for positive selection, high liver expression, and nonsynonymous variation across CGS populations. Based on these characteristics, we identified five VIPs (i.e., α-2-macroglobulin, α-1-antitrypsin-like protein GS55-LT, apolipoprotein A-II, hibernation-associated plasma protein HP-20, and hibernation-associated plasma protein HP-27) as the most likely candidates for resistance proteins among VIPs identified to date. Four of these proteins have been previously implicated in conferring resistance to the venom in mammals, validating our approach. When combined with the detailed information available for rattlesnake venom proteins, these results set the stage for future work focused on understanding coevolutionary interactions at the molecular level between these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Ochoa
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology and Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership Ohio State University Columbus Ohio USA
- Department of Biology University of Central Florida Orlando Florida USA
| | - Alyssa T. B. Hassinger
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology and Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership Ohio State University Columbus Ohio USA
| | | | - H. Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology and Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership Ohio State University Columbus Ohio USA
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15
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von Reumont BM, Anderluh G, Antunes A, Ayvazyan N, Beis D, Caliskan F, Crnković A, Damm M, Dutertre S, Ellgaard L, Gajski G, German H, Halassy B, Hempel BF, Hucho T, Igci N, Ikonomopoulou MP, Karbat I, Klapa MI, Koludarov I, Kool J, Lüddecke T, Ben Mansour R, Vittoria Modica M, Moran Y, Nalbantsoy A, Ibáñez MEP, Panagiotopoulos A, Reuveny E, Céspedes JS, Sombke A, Surm JM, Undheim EAB, Verdes A, Zancolli G. Modern venomics-Current insights, novel methods, and future perspectives in biological and applied animal venom research. Gigascience 2022; 11:giac048. [PMID: 35640874 PMCID: PMC9155608 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giac048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms have evolved >100 times in all major animal groups, and their components, known as toxins, have been fine-tuned over millions of years into highly effective biochemical weapons. There are many outstanding questions on the evolution of toxin arsenals, such as how venom genes originate, how venom contributes to the fitness of venomous species, and which modifications at the genomic, transcriptomic, and protein level drive their evolution. These questions have received particularly little attention outside of snakes, cone snails, spiders, and scorpions. Venom compounds have further become a source of inspiration for translational research using their diverse bioactivities for various applications. We highlight here recent advances and new strategies in modern venomics and discuss how recent technological innovations and multi-omic methods dramatically improve research on venomous animals. The study of genomes and their modifications through CRISPR and knockdown technologies will increase our understanding of how toxins evolve and which functions they have in the different ontogenetic stages during the development of venomous animals. Mass spectrometry imaging combined with spatial transcriptomics, in situ hybridization techniques, and modern computer tomography gives us further insights into the spatial distribution of toxins in the venom system and the function of the venom apparatus. All these evolutionary and biological insights contribute to more efficiently identify venom compounds, which can then be synthesized or produced in adapted expression systems to test their bioactivity. Finally, we critically discuss recent agrochemical, pharmaceutical, therapeutic, and diagnostic (so-called translational) aspects of venoms from which humans benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjoern M von Reumont
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Institute for Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Department for Applied Bioinformatics, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Senckenberg Frankfurt, Senckenberganlage 25, 60235 Frankfurt, Germany
- Justus Liebig University Giessen, Institute for Insectbiotechnology, Heinrich Buff Ring 26-32, 35396 Giessen, Germany
| | - Gregor Anderluh
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Agostinho Antunes
- CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450–208 Porto, Portugal
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Naira Ayvazyan
- Orbeli Institute of Physiology of NAS RA, Orbeli ave. 22, 0028 Yerevan, Armenia
| | - Dimitris Beis
- Developmental Biology, Centre for Clinical, Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation Academy of Athens, Athens 11527, Greece
| | - Figen Caliskan
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Letters, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, TR-26040 Eskisehir, Turkey
| | - Ana Crnković
- Department of Molecular Biology and Nanobiotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Maik Damm
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Chemistry, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Lars Ellgaard
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, DK-2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Goran Gajski
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Mutagenesis Unit, Ksaverska cesta 2, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Hannah German
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Beata Halassy
- University of Zagreb, Centre for Research and Knowledge Transfer in Biotechnology, Trg Republike Hrvatske 14, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Benjamin-Florian Hempel
- BIH Center for Regenerative Therapies BCRT, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Tim Hucho
- Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Nasit Igci
- Nevsehir Haci Bektas Veli University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, 50300 Nevsehir, Turkey
| | - Maria P Ikonomopoulou
- Madrid Institute for Advanced Studies in Food, Madrid,E28049, Spain
- The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Izhar Karbat
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Maria I Klapa
- Metabolic Engineering and Systems Biology Laboratory, Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences, Foundation for Research & Technology Hellas (FORTH/ICE-HT), Patras GR-26504, Greece
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Justus Liebig University Giessen, Institute for Insectbiotechnology, Heinrich Buff Ring 26-32, 35396 Giessen, Germany
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tim Lüddecke
- LOEWE Centre for Translational Biodiversity Genomics, Senckenberg Frankfurt, Senckenberganlage 25, 60235 Frankfurt, Germany
- Department of Bioresources, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology, 35392 Gießen, Germany
| | - Riadh Ben Mansour
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Gafsa University, Campus Universitaire Siidi Ahmed Zarrouk, 2112 Gafsa, Tunisia
| | - Maria Vittoria Modica
- Dept. of Biology and Evolution of Marine Organisms (BEOM), Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Po 25c, I-00198 Roma, Italy
| | - Yehu Moran
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
| | - Ayse Nalbantsoy
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
| | - María Eugenia Pachón Ibáñez
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Microbiology, and Preventive Medicine, Virgen del Rocío University Hospital, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alexios Panagiotopoulos
- Metabolic Engineering and Systems Biology Laboratory, Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences, Foundation for Research & Technology Hellas (FORTH/ICE-HT), Patras GR-26504, Greece
- Animal Biology Division, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, GR-26500, Greece
| | - Eitan Reuveny
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Javier Sánchez Céspedes
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, Microbiology, and Preventive Medicine, Virgen del Rocío University Hospital, Institute of Biomedicine of Seville, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andy Sombke
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030 Vienna, Austria
| | - Joachim M Surm
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 9190401, Israel
| | - Eivind A B Undheim
- University of Oslo, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Postboks 1066 Blindern 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Aida Verdes
- Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, José Gutiérrez Abascal 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Giulia Zancolli
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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16
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van Thiel J, Khan MA, Wouters RM, Harris RJ, Casewell NR, Fry BG, Kini RM, Mackessy SP, Vonk FJ, Wüster W, Richardson MK. Convergent evolution of toxin resistance in animals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2022; 97:1823-1843. [PMID: 35580905 PMCID: PMC9543476 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Convergence is the phenomenon whereby similar phenotypes evolve independently in different lineages. One example is resistance to toxins in animals. Toxins have evolved many times throughout the tree of life. They disrupt molecular and physiological pathways in target species, thereby incapacitating prey or deterring a predator. In response, molecular resistance has evolved in many species exposed to toxins to counteract their harmful effects. Here, we review current knowledge on the convergence of toxin resistance using examples from a wide range of toxin families. We explore the evolutionary processes and molecular adaptations driving toxin resistance. However, resistance adaptations may carry a fitness cost if they disrupt the normal physiology of the resistant animal. Therefore, there is a trade‐off between maintaining a functional molecular target and reducing toxin susceptibility. There are relatively few solutions that satisfy this trade‐off. As a result, we see a small set of molecular adaptations appearing repeatedly in diverse animal lineages, a phenomenon that is consistent with models of deterministic evolution. Convergence may also explain what has been called ‘autoresistance’. This is often thought to have evolved for self‐protection, but we argue instead that it may be a consequence of poisonous animals feeding on toxic prey. Toxin resistance provides a unique and compelling model system for studying the interplay between trophic interactions, selection pressures and the molecular mechanisms underlying evolutionary novelties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jory van Thiel
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Muzaffar A Khan
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Roel M Wouters
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072, Australia
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, U.K
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, 4072, Australia
| | - R Manjunatha Kini
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117558, Singapore.,Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117600, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Virginia, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, 23298, U.S.A
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639-0017, U.S.A
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW, U.K
| | - Michael K Richardson
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
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17
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Mason AJ, Holding ML, Rautsaw RM, Rokyta DR, Parkinson CL, Gibbs HL. Venom gene sequence diversity and expression jointly shape diet adaptation in pitvipers. Mol Biol Evol 2022; 39:6567549. [PMID: 35413123 PMCID: PMC9040050 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msac082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the joint roles of protein sequence variation and differential expression during adaptive evolution is a fundamental, yet largely unrealized goal of evolutionary biology. Here, we use phylogenetic path analysis to analyze a comprehensive venom-gland transcriptome dataset spanning three genera of pitvipers to identify the functional genetic basis of a key adaptation (venom complexity) linked to diet breadth (DB). The analysis of gene-family-specific patterns reveals that, for genes encoding two of the most important venom proteins (snake venom metalloproteases and snake venom serine proteases), there are direct, positive relationships between sequence diversity (SD), expression diversity (ED), and increased DB. Further analysis of gene-family diversification for these proteins showed no constraint on how individual lineages achieved toxin gene SD in terms of the patterns of paralog diversification. In contrast, another major venom protein family (PLA2s) showed no relationship between venom molecular diversity and DB. Additional analyses suggest that other molecular mechanisms—such as higher absolute levels of expression—are responsible for diet adaptation involving these venom proteins. Broadly, our findings argue that functional diversity generated through sequence and expression variations jointly determine adaptation in the key components of pitviper venoms, which mediate complex molecular interactions between the snakes and their prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Mason
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.,Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - H Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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18
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OUP accepted manuscript. Syst Biol 2022; 71:1281-1289. [DOI: 10.1093/sysbio/syac021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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19
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Robinson KE, Holding ML, Whitford MD, Saviola AJ, Yates JR, Clark RW. Phenotypic and functional variation in venom and venom resistance of two sympatric rattlesnakes and their prey. J Evol Biol 2021; 34:1447-1465. [PMID: 34322920 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions often lead to the coevolution of adaptations associated with avoiding predation and, for predators, overcoming those defences. Antagonistic coevolutionary relationships are often not simple interactions between a single predator and prey but rather a complex web of interactions between multiple coexisting species. Coevolution between venomous rattlesnakes and small mammals has led to physiological venom resistance in several mammalian taxa. In general, viperid venoms contain large quantities of snake venom metalloproteinase toxins (SVMPs), which are inactivated by SVMP inhibitors expressed in resistant mammals. We explored variation in venom chemistry, SVMP expression, and SVMP resistance across four co-distributed species (California Ground Squirrels, Bryant's Woodrats, Southern Pacific Rattlesnakes, and Red Diamond Rattlesnakes) collected from four different populations in Southern California. Our aim was to understand phenotypic and functional variation in venom and venom resistance in order to compare coevolutionary dynamics of a system involving two sympatric predator-prey pairs to past studies that have focused on single pairs. Proteomic analysis of venoms indicated that these rattlesnakes express different phenotypes when in sympatry, with Red Diamonds expressing more typical viperid venom (with a diversity of SVMPs) and Southern Pacifics expressing a more atypical venom with a broader range of non-enzymatic toxins. We also found that although blood sera from both mammals were generally able to inhibit SVMPs from both rattlesnake species, inhibition depended strongly on the snake population, with snakes from one geographic site expressing SVMPs to which few mammals were resistant. Additionally, we found that Red Diamond venom, rather than woodrat resistance, was locally adapted. Our findings highlight the complexity of coevolutionary relationships between multiple predators and prey that exhibit similar offensive and defensive strategies in sympatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly E Robinson
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA.,Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA.,Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA.,Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Malachi D Whitford
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA.,Ecology Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - John R Yates
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Rulon W Clark
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
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20
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Calvete JJ, Lomonte B, Saviola AJ, Bonilla F, Sasa M, Williams DJ, Undheim EA, Sunagar K, Jackson TN. Mutual enlightenment: A toolbox of concepts and methods for integrating evolutionary and clinical toxinology via snake venomics and the contextual stance. Toxicon X 2021; 9-10:100070. [PMID: 34195606 PMCID: PMC8234350 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2021.100070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that may claim over 100,000 human lives annually worldwide. Snakebite occurs as the result of an interaction between a human and a snake that elicits either a defensive response from the snake or, more rarely, a feeding response as the result of mistaken identity. Snakebite envenoming is therefore a biological and, more specifically, an ecological problem. Snake venom itself is often described as a "cocktail", as it is a heterogenous mixture of molecules including the toxins (which are typically proteinaceous) responsible for the pathophysiological consequences of envenoming. The primary function of venom in snake ecology is pre-subjugation, with defensive deployment of the secretion typically considered a secondary function. The particular composition of any given venom cocktail is shaped by evolutionary forces that include phylogenetic constraints associated with the snake's lineage and adaptive responses to the snake's ecological context, including the taxa it preys upon and by which it is predated upon. In the present article, we describe how conceptual frameworks from ecology and evolutionary biology can enter into a mutually enlightening relationship with clinical toxinology by enabling the consideration of snakebite envenoming from an "ecological stance". We detail the insights that may emerge from such a perspective and highlight the ways in which the high-fidelity descriptive knowledge emerging from applications of -omics era technologies - "venomics" and "antivenomics" - can combine with evolutionary explanations to deliver a detailed understanding of this multifactorial health crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J. Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Unidad de Proteómica, Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Anthony J. Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Fabián Bonilla
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Animales Peligrosos (LIAP), Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mahmood Sasa
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Animales Peligrosos (LIAP), Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Museo de Zoología, Centro de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Ecología Tropical, Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica
| | | | - Eivind A.B. Undheim
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Timothy N.W. Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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21
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Rodrigues CFB, Zdenek CN, Serino-Silva C, de Morais-Zani K, Grego KF, Bénard-Valle M, Neri-Castro E, Alagón A, Tanaka-Azevedo AM, Fry BG. BoaγPLI from Boa constrictor Blood is a Broad-Spectrum Inhibitor of Venom PLA 2 Pathophysiological Actions. J Chem Ecol 2021; 47:907-914. [PMID: 34165686 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-021-01289-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The use of venom in predation exerts a corresponding selection pressure for the evolution of venom resistance. One of the mechanisms related to venom resistance in animals (predators or prey of snakes) is the presence of molecules in the blood that can bind venom toxins, and inhibit their pharmacological effects. One such toxin type are venom phospholipase A2s (PLA2s), which have diverse effects including anticoagulant, myotoxic, and neurotoxic activities. BoaγPLI isolated from the blood of Boa constrictor has been previously shown to inhibit venom PLA2s that induced myotoxic and edematogenic activities. Recently, in addition to its previously described and very potent neurotoxic effect, the venoms of American coral snakes (Micrurus species) have been shown to have anticoagulant activity via PLA2 toxins. As coral snakes eat other snakes as a major part of their diet, neonate Boas could be susceptible to predation by this sympatric species. Thus, this work aimed to ascertain if BoaγPLI provided a protective effect against the anticoagulant toxicity of venom from the model species Micrurus laticollaris in addition to its ability shown previously against other toxin types. Using a STA R Max coagulation analyser robot to measure the effect upon clotting time, and TEG5000 thromboelastographers to measure the effect upon clot strength, we evaluated the ability of BoaγPLI to inhibit M. laticollaris venom. Our results indicate that BoaγPLI is efficient at inhibiting the M. laticollaris anticoagulant effect, reducing the time of coagulation (restoring them closer to non-venom control values) and increasing the clot strength (restoring them closer to non-venom control values). These findings demonstrate that endogenous PLA2 inhibitors in the blood of non-venomous snakes are multi-functional and provide broad resistance against a myriad of venom PLA2-driven toxic effects including coagulotoxicity, myotoxicity, and neurotoxicity. This novel form of resistance could be evidence of selective pressures caused by predation from venomous snakes and stresses the need for field-based research aimed to expand our understanding of the evolutionary dynamics of such chemical arms race.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Fabri Bittencourt Rodrigues
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades Em Biotecnologia, USP, IPT e Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Caroline Serino-Silva
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades Em Biotecnologia, USP, IPT e Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Karen de Morais-Zani
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades Em Biotecnologia, USP, IPT e Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Melisa Bénard-Valle
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, 62210, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, 62210, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, 62210, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Anita Mitico Tanaka-Azevedo
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Interunidades Em Biotecnologia, USP, IPT e Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bryan Grieg Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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22
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Holding ML, Strickland JL, Rautsaw RM, Hofmann EP, Mason AJ, Hogan MP, Nystrom GS, Ellsworth SA, Colston TJ, Borja M, Castañeda-Gaytán G, Grünwald CI, Jones JM, Freitas-de-Sousa LA, Viala VL, Margres MJ, Hingst-Zaher E, Junqueira-de-Azevedo ILM, Moura-da-Silva AM, Grazziotin FG, Gibbs HL, Rokyta DR, Parkinson CL. Phylogenetically diverse diets favor more complex venoms in North American pitvipers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2015579118. [PMID: 33875585 PMCID: PMC8092465 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2015579118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of natural selection in the evolution of trait complexity can be characterized by testing hypothesized links between complex forms and their functions across species. Predatory venoms are composed of multiple proteins that collectively function to incapacitate prey. Venom complexity fluctuates over evolutionary timescales, with apparent increases and decreases in complexity, and yet the causes of this variation are unclear. We tested alternative hypotheses linking venom complexity and ecological sources of selection from diet in the largest clade of front-fanged venomous snakes in North America: the rattlesnakes, copperheads, cantils, and cottonmouths. We generated independent transcriptomic and proteomic measures of venom complexity and collated several natural history studies to quantify dietary variation. We then constructed genome-scale phylogenies for these snakes for comparative analyses. Strikingly, prey phylogenetic diversity was more strongly correlated to venom complexity than was overall prey species diversity, specifically implicating prey species' divergence, rather than the number of lineages alone, in the evolution of complexity. Prey phylogenetic diversity further predicted transcriptomic complexity of three of the four largest gene families in viper venom, showing that complexity evolution is a concerted response among many independent gene families. We suggest that the phylogenetic diversity of prey measures functionally relevant divergence in the targets of venom, a claim supported by sequence diversity in the coagulation cascade targets of venom. Our results support the general concept that the diversity of species in an ecological community is more important than their overall number in determining evolutionary patterns in predator trait complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L Holding
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634;
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634
| | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634
| | - Erich P Hofmann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634
| | - Andrew J Mason
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Michael P Hogan
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306
| | - Gunnar S Nystrom
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306
| | - Schyler A Ellsworth
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306
| | - Timothy J Colston
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306
| | - Miguel Borja
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, C.P. 35010 Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | - Gamaliel Castañeda-Gaytán
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, C.P. 35010 Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | | | - Jason M Jones
- HERP.MX A.C., Villa del Álvarez, Colima 28973, Mexico
| | | | - Vincent Louis Viala
- Laboratório de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
- Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Mark J Margres
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138
| | | | - Inácio L M Junqueira-de-Azevedo
- Laboratório de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
- Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Ana M Moura-da-Silva
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
- Instituto de Pesquisa Clínica Carlos Borborema, Fundação de Medicina Tropical Doutor Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus 69040, Brazil
| | - Felipe G Grazziotin
- Laboratório de Coleções Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil
| | - H Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634;
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634
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23
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Mouchbahani-Constance S, Sharif-Naeini R. Proteomic and Transcriptomic Techniques to Decipher the Molecular Evolution of Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:154. [PMID: 33669432 PMCID: PMC7920473 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Nature's library of venoms is a vast and untapped resource that has the potential of becoming the source of a wide variety of new drugs and therapeutics. The discovery of these valuable molecules, hidden in diverse collections of different venoms, requires highly specific genetic and proteomic sequencing techniques. These have been used to sequence a variety of venom glands from species ranging from snakes to scorpions, and some marine species. In addition to identifying toxin sequences, these techniques have paved the way for identifying various novel evolutionary links between species that were previously thought to be unrelated. Furthermore, proteomics-based techniques have allowed researchers to discover how specific toxins have evolved within related species, and in the context of environmental pressures. These techniques allow groups to discover novel proteins, identify mutations of interest, and discover new ways to modify toxins for biomimetic purposes and for the development of new therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reza Sharif-Naeini
- Department of Physiology and Cell Information Systems Group, Alan Edwards Center for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada;
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24
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Minutti-Zanella C, Gil-Leyva EJ, Vergara I. Immunomodulatory properties of molecules from animal venoms. Toxicon 2021; 191:54-68. [PMID: 33417946 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The immune system can amplify or decrease the strength of its response when it is stimulated by chemical or biological substances that act as immunostimulators, immunosuppressants, or immunoadjuvants. Immunomodulation is a progressive approach to treat a diversity of pathologies with promising results, including autoimmune disorders and cancer. Animal venoms are a mixture of chemical compounds that include proteins, peptides, amines, salts, polypeptides, enzymes, among others, which produce the toxic effect. Since the discovery of captopril in the early 1980s, other components from snakes, spiders, scorpions, and marine animal venoms have been demonstrated to be useful for treating several human diseases. The valuable progress in fields such as venomics, molecular biology, biotechnology, immunology, and others has been crucial to understanding the interaction of toxins with the immune system and its application on immune pathologies. More in-depth knowledge of venoms' components and multi-disciplinary studies could facilitate their transformation into effective novel immunotherapies. This review addresses advances and research of molecules from venoms that have immunomodulatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Minutti-Zanella
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Universidad de Las Américas Puebla, ExHda. Sta. Catarina Mártir s/n, San Andrés Cholula, 72820, Puebla, Mexico
| | - E J Gil-Leyva
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Universidad de Las Américas Puebla, ExHda. Sta. Catarina Mártir s/n, San Andrés Cholula, 72820, Puebla, Mexico
| | - I Vergara
- Departamento de Ciencias Químico-Biológicas, Universidad de Las Américas Puebla, ExHda. Sta. Catarina Mártir s/n, San Andrés Cholula, 72820, Puebla, Mexico.
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25
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Holding ML, Sovic MG, Colston TJ, Gibbs HL. The scales of coevolution: comparative phylogeography and genetic demography of a locally adapted venomous predator and its prey. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blaa192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Coevolutionary theory predicts that differences in the genetic demography of interacting species can influence patterns of local adaptation by affecting the potential of local populations to respond to selection. We conducted a comparative phylogeographical study of venomous rattlesnakes and their venom-resistant ground squirrel prey across California, and assessed how effective population size (Ne) estimates correspond with a previously documented pattern of rattlesnake local adaptation. Using RAD sequencing markers, we detected lineage relationships among both the rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus ssp.) and ground squirrels (Otospermophilus sp.) that are incongruent with previous phylogenetic hypotheses. Both rattlesnakes and squirrels share a deep divergence at the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta. At this broad phylogeographical scale, we found that the locally adapted rattlesnakes had higher Ne than squirrels. At the population scale, snakes also had larger Ne accompanied by larger values of several metrics of population genetic diversity. However, the specific magnitude of local adaptation of venom activity to ground squirrel venom resistance was not significantly correlated with local differences in Ne or other diversity statistics between predator and prey populations, suggesting that other factors in the geographic mosaic of coevolution contribute to the specific local-scale outcomes of this interaction. These results suggest an evolutionary mechanism that may explain some (but clearly not all) of rattlesnake local adaptation in this coevolutionary interaction – larger population sizes raise the adaptive potential of rattlesnakes compared to ground squirrels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L Holding
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Michael G Sovic
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Timothy J Colston
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - H Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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26
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Physiological Stress Integrates Resistance to Rattlesnake Venom and the Onset of Risky Foraging in California Ground Squirrels. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100617. [PMID: 32992585 PMCID: PMC7601495 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Using venom for predation often leads to the evolution of resistance in prey. Understanding individual variation in venom resistance is key to unlocking basic mechanisms by which antagonistic coevolution can sustain variation in traits under selection. For prey, the opposing challenges of predator avoidance and resource acquisition often lead to correlated levels of risk and reward, which in turn can favor suites of integrated morphological, physiological and behavioral traits. We investigate the relationship between risk-sensitive behaviors, physiological resistance to rattlesnake venom, and stress in a population of California ground squirrels. For the same individuals, we quantified foraging decisions in the presence of snake predators, fecal corticosterone metabolites (a measure of “stress”), and blood serum inhibition of venom enzymatic activity (a measure of venom resistance). Individual responses to snakes were repeatable for three measures of risk-sensitive behavior, indicating that some individuals were consistently risk-averse whereas others were risk tolerant. Venom resistance was lower in squirrels with higher glucocorticoid levels and poorer body condition. Whereas resistance failed to predict proximity to and interactions with snake predators, individuals with higher glucocorticoid levels and in lower body condition waited the longest to feed when near a snake. We compared alternative structural equation models to evaluate alternative hypotheses for the relationships among stress, venom resistance, and behavior. We found support for stress as a shared physiological correlate that independently lowers venom resistance and leads to squirrels that wait longer to feed in the presence of a snake, whereas we did not find evidence that resistance directly facilitates latency to forage. Our findings suggest that stress may help less-resistant squirrels avoid a deadly snakebite, but also reduces feeding opportunities. The combined lethal and non-lethal effects of stressors in predator–prey interactions simultaneously impact multiple key traits in this system, making environmental stress a potential contributor to geographic variation in trait expression of toxic predators and resistant prey.
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27
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Gibbs HL, Sanz L, Pérez A, Ochoa A, Hassinger ATB, Holding ML, Calvete JJ. The molecular basis of venom resistance in a rattlesnake-squirrel predator-prey system. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:2871-2888. [PMID: 32593182 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how interspecific interactions mould the molecular basis of adaptations in coevolving species is a long-sought goal of evolutionary biology. Venom in predators and venom resistance proteins in prey are coevolving molecular phenotypes, and while venoms are highly complex mixtures it is unclear if prey respond with equally complex resistance traits. Here, we use a novel molecular methodology based on protein affinity columns to capture and identify candidate blood serum resistance proteins ("venom interactive proteins" [VIPs]) in California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi) that interact with venom proteins from their main predator, Northern Pacific Rattlesnakes (Crotalus o. oreganus). This assay showed that serum-based resistance is both population- and species-specific, with serum proteins from ground squirrels showing higher binding affinities for venom proteins of local snakes compared to allopatric individuals. Venom protein specificity assays identified numerous and diverse candidate prey resistance VIPs but also potential targets of venom in prey tissues. Many specific VIPs bind to multiple snake venom proteins and, conversely, single venom proteins bind multiple VIPs, demonstrating that a portion of the squirrel blood serum "resistome" involves broad-based inhibition of nonself proteins and suggests that resistance involves a toxin scavenging mechanism. Analyses of rates of evolution of VIP protein homologues in related mammals show that most of these proteins evolve under purifying selection possibly due to molecular constraints that limit the evolutionary responses of prey to rapidly evolving snake venom proteins. Our method represents a general approach to identify specific proteins involved in co-evolutionary interactions between species at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Libia Sanz
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alicia Pérez
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alexander Ochoa
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Alyssa T B Hassinger
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
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28
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Drabeck DH, Rucavado A, Hingst-Zaher E, Cruz YP, Dean AM, Jansa SA. Resistance of South American opossums to vWF-binding venom C-type lectins. Toxicon 2020; 178:92-99. [PMID: 32135198 PMCID: PMC8522506 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Opossums in the clade Didelphini are well known to be resistant to snake venom due to endogenous circulating inhibitors which target metalloproteinases and phospholipases. However, the mechanisms through which these opossums cope with a variety of other damaging venom proteins are unknown. A protein involved in blood clotting (von Willebrand Factor) has been found to have undergone rapid adaptive evolution in venom-resistant opossums. This protein is a known target for a subset of snake venom C-type lectins (CTLs), which bind it and then induce it to bind platelets, causing hemostatic disruption. Several amino acid changes in vWF unique to these opossums could explain their resistance; however, experimental evidence that these changes disrupt venom CTL binding was lacking. We used platelet aggregation assays to quantify resistance to a venom-induced platelet response in two species of venom-resistant opossums (Didelphis virginiana, Didelphis aurita), and one venom-sensitive opossum (Monodelphis domestica). We found that all three species have lost nearly all their aggregation response to the venom CTLs tested. Using washed platelet assays we showed that this loss of aggregation response is not due to inhibitors in the plasma, but rather to the failure of either vWF or platelets (or both) to respond to venom CTLs. These results demonstrate the potential adaptive function of a trait previously shown to be evolving under positive selection. Surprisingly, these findings also expand the list of potentially venom tolerant species to include Monodelphis domestica and suggest that an ecological relationship between opossums and vipers may be a broader driver of adaptive evolution across South American marsupials than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle H Drabeck
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, 1479 Gortner Ave., St Paul, MN, 55108, USA; Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota, 1987 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA.
| | - Alexandra Rucavado
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Erika Hingst-Zaher
- Museu Biológico, Instituto Butantan, CEP 05503-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Yolanda P Cruz
- Department of Biology, Oberlin College, Oberlin, OH, 44074, USA
| | - Antony M Dean
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, 1479 Gortner Ave., St Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Sharon A Jansa
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, 1479 Gortner Ave., St Paul, MN, 55108, USA; Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota, 1987 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
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Niermann CN, Tate TG, Suto AL, Barajas R, White HA, Guswiler OD, Secor SM, Rowe AH, Rowe MP. Defensive Venoms: Is Pain Sufficient for Predator Deterrence? Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12040260. [PMID: 32316477 PMCID: PMC7232307 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pain, though unpleasant, is adaptive in calling an animal’s attention to potential tissue damage. A long list of animals representing diverse taxa possess venom-mediated, pain-inducing bites or stings that work by co-opting the pain-sensing pathways of potential enemies. Typically, such venoms include toxins that cause tissue damage or disrupt neuronal activity, rendering painful stings honest indicators of harm. But could pain alone be sufficient for deterring a hungry predator? Some venomologists have argued “no”; predators, in the absence of injury, would “see through” the bluff of a painful but otherwise benign sting or bite. Because most algogenic venoms are also toxic (although not vice versa), it has been difficult to disentangle the relative contributions of each component to predator deterrence. Southern grasshopper mice (Onychomys torridus) are voracious predators of arthropods, feeding on a diversity of scorpion species whose stings vary in painfulness, including painful Arizona bark scorpions (Centruroides sculpturatus) and essentially painless stripe-tailed scorpions (Paravaejovis spinigerus). Moreover, southern grasshopper mice have evolved resistance to the lethal toxins in bark scorpion venom, rendering a sting from these scorpions painful but harmless. Results from a series of laboratory experiments demonstrate that painful stings matter. Grasshopper mice preferred to prey on stripe-tailed scorpions rather than bark scorpions when both species could sting; the preference disappeared when each species had their stingers blocked. A painful sting therefore appears necessary for a scorpion to deter a hungry grasshopper mouse, but it may not always be sufficient: after first attacking and consuming a painless stripe-tailed scorpion, many grasshopper mice went on to attack, kill, and eat a bark scorpion even when the scorpion was capable of stinging. Defensive venoms that result in tissue damage or neurological dysfunction may, thus, be required to condition greater aversion than venoms causing pain alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal N. Niermann
- Department of Biology, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77340, USA; (C.N.N.); (T.G.T.)
| | - Travis G. Tate
- Department of Biology, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX 77340, USA; (C.N.N.); (T.G.T.)
| | - Amber L. Suto
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (A.L.S.); (O.D.G.)
| | - Rolando Barajas
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (R.B.); (H.A.W.)
| | - Hope A. White
- Neuroscience Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (R.B.); (H.A.W.)
| | - Olivia D. Guswiler
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; (A.L.S.); (O.D.G.)
| | - Stephen M. Secor
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA;
| | - Ashlee H. Rowe
- Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA;
| | - Matthew P. Rowe
- Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-405-325-6539
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Fangs for the Memories? A Survey of Pain in Snakebite Patients Does Not Support a Strong Role for Defense in the Evolution of Snake Venom Composition. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12030201. [PMID: 32235759 PMCID: PMC7150919 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12030201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals use venoms for multiple purposes, most prominently for prey acquisition and self-defense. In snakes, venom composition often evolves as a result of selection for optimization for local diet. However, whether selection for a defensive function has also played a role in driving the evolution of venom composition has remained largely unstudied. Here, we use an online survey of snakebite victims to test a key prediction of a defensive function, that envenoming should result in the rapid onset of severe pain. From the analysis of 584 snakebite reports, involving 192 species of venomous snake, we find that the vast majority of bites do not result in severe early pain. Phylogenetic comparative analysis shows that where early pain after a bite evolves, it is often lost rapidly. Our results, therefore, do not support the hypothesis that natural selection for antipredator defense played an important role in the origin of venom or front-fanged delivery systems in general, although there may be intriguing exceptions to this rule.
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31
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American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) Serum Inhibits Pitviper Venom Metalloproteinases. J HERPETOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1670/19-027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Smiley-Walters SA, Farrell TM, Gibbs HL. High levels of functional divergence in toxicity towards prey among the venoms of individual pigmy rattlesnakes. Biol Lett 2019; 15:20180876. [PMID: 30958133 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2018.0876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom is a complex molecular phenotype that shows high levels of variation in expressed proteins between individuals within and between populations. However, the functional significance of this variation in terms of toxicity towards prey is largely unknown. Here, we assessed the relative toxicity of venom from individual pygmy rattlesnakes ( Sistrurus miliarius) on brown anoles ( Anolis sagrei) using a novel assay involving tests of fixed doses of venom from individual snakes on individual lizards. We found high levels of functional variation between individual venoms within populations with individual differences (nested within population) explaining 3.6 times more variation in toxicity than population differences. Our results suggest a previously unappreciated adaptive significance to within-population variation in venom. They argue that selective mechanisms that maintain variation within populations may be of equal or greater importance to divergent selection leading to local adaption between populations as evolutionary explanations of venom variation within species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Smiley-Walters
- 1 Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University , Columbus, OH 43210 , USA.,3 Department of Biology, Stetson University , DeLand, FL 32723 , USA
| | - Terence M Farrell
- 3 Department of Biology, Stetson University , DeLand, FL 32723 , USA
| | - H Lisle Gibbs
- 1 Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University , Columbus, OH 43210 , USA.,2 Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership, Ohio State University , Columbus, OH 43210 , USA
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Jackson TNW, Jouanne H, Vidal N. Snake Venom in Context: Neglected Clades and Concepts. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
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Goetz SM, Piccolomini S, Hoffman M, Bogan J, Holding ML, Mendonça MT, Steen DA. Serum-based inhibition of pitviper venom by eastern indigo snakes ( Drymarchon couperi). Biol Open 2019; 8:bio.040964. [PMID: 30824421 PMCID: PMC6451346 DOI: 10.1242/bio.040964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
When organisms possess chemical defenses, their predators may eventually evolve resistance to their toxins. Eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon couperi; EIS) prey on pitvipers and are suspected to possess physiological resistance to their venom. In this study, we formally investigated this hypothesis using microassays that measured the ability of EIS blood sera to inhibit (A) hemolytic and (B) snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP) activity of copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) venom. To serve as controls, we also tested the inhibitory ability of sera from house mice (Mus musculus) and checkered gartersnakes (Thamnophis marcianus), a snake that does not feed on pitvipers. Sera from both EIS and gartersnakes inhibited over 60% of SVMP activity, while only EIS sera also inhibited venom hemolytic activity (78%). Our results demonstrate that EIS serum is indeed capable of inhibiting two of the primary classes of toxins found in copperhead venom, providing the first empirical evidence suggesting that EIS possess physiological resistance to venom upon injection. Because we documented resistance to hemolytic components of pitviper venom within EIS but not gartersnakes, we speculate this resistance may be driven by selection from feeding on pitvipers while resistance to SVMP may be relatively widespread among snakes. Summary: We confirm eastern indigo snakes possess a physiological resistance to pitviper venom and speculate that venom resistance in snakes may be a product of antagonistic interactions and phylogenetically conserved traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Goetz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Sara Piccolomini
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Michelle Hoffman
- Orianne Center for Indigo Conservation, Central Florida Zoo & Botanical Gardens, Eustis, FL 32736, USA
| | - James Bogan
- Orianne Center for Indigo Conservation, Central Florida Zoo & Botanical Gardens, Eustis, FL 32736, USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32304, USA
| | - Mary T Mendonça
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - David A Steen
- Georgia Sea Turtle Center, Jekyll Island Authority, Jekyll Island, GA 31527, USA
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Evidence for divergent patterns of local selection driving venom variation in Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus). Sci Rep 2018; 8:17622. [PMID: 30514908 PMCID: PMC6279745 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35810-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venoms represent an enriched system for investigating the evolutionary processes that lead to complex and dynamic trophic adaptations. It has long been hypothesized that natural selection may drive geographic variation in venom composition, yet previous studies have lacked the population genetic context to examine these patterns. We leverage range-wide sampling of Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus) and use a combination of venom, morphological, phylogenetic, population genetic, and environmental data to characterize the striking dichotomy of neurotoxic (Type A) and hemorrhagic (Type B) venoms throughout the range of this species. We find that three of the four previously identified major lineages within C. scutulatus possess a combination of Type A, Type B, and a ‘mixed’ Type A + B venom phenotypes, and that fixation of the two main venom phenotypes occurs on a more fine geographic scale than previously appreciated. We also find that Type A + B individuals occur in regions of inferred introgression, and that this mixed phenotype is comparatively rare. Our results support strong directional local selection leading to fixation of alternative venom phenotypes on a fine geographic scale, and are inconsistent with balancing selection to maintain both phenotypes within a single population. Our comparisons to biotic and abiotic factors further indicate that venom phenotype correlates with fang morphology and climatic variables. We hypothesize that links to fang morphology may be indicative of co-evolution of venom and other trophic adaptations, and that climatic variables may be linked to prey distributions and/or physiology, which in turn impose selection pressures on snake venoms.
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandë Holford
- Hunter College and CUNY Graduate Center, New York, NY, USA.
| | | | - Glenn F King
- The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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Ogawara H. Comparison of Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance: Learning from Various Kingdoms. Molecules 2018; 23:E1476. [PMID: 29912169 PMCID: PMC6100412 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23061476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug resistance, especially antibiotic resistance, is a growing threat to human health. To overcome this problem, it is significant to know precisely the mechanisms of drug resistance and/or self-resistance in various kingdoms, from bacteria through plants to animals, once more. This review compares the molecular mechanisms of the resistance against phycotoxins, toxins from marine and terrestrial animals, plants and fungi, and antibiotics. The results reveal that each kingdom possesses the characteristic features. The main mechanisms in each kingdom are transporters/efflux pumps in phycotoxins, mutation and modification of targets and sequestration in marine and terrestrial animal toxins, ABC transporters and sequestration in plant toxins, transporters in fungal toxins, and various or mixed mechanisms in antibiotics. Antibiotic producers in particular make tremendous efforts for avoiding suicide, and are more flexible and adaptable to the changes of environments. With these features in mind, potential alternative strategies to overcome these resistance problems are discussed. This paper will provide clues for solving the issues of drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Ogawara
- HO Bio Institute, Yushima-2, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0034, Japan.
- Department of Biochemistry, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Noshio-2, Kiyose, Tokyo 204-8588, Japan.
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38
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Aird SD, Arora J, Barua A, Qiu L, Terada K, Mikheyev AS. Population Genomic Analysis of a Pitviper Reveals Microevolutionary Forces Underlying Venom Chemistry. Genome Biol Evol 2018; 9:2640-2649. [PMID: 29048530 PMCID: PMC5737360 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evx199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms are among the most biologically active secretions known, and are commonly believed to evolve under extreme positive selection. Many venom gene families, however, have undergone duplication, and are often deployed in doses vastly exceeding the LD50 for most prey species, which should reduce the strength of positive selection. Here, we contrast these selective regimes using snake venoms, which consist of rapidly evolving protein formulations. Though decades of extensive studies have found that snake venom proteins are subject to strong positive selection, the greater action of drift has been hypothesized, but never tested. Using a combination of de novo genome sequencing, population genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics, we compare the two modes of evolution in the pitviper, Protobothrops mucrosquamatus. By partitioning selective constraints and adaptive evolution in a McDonald–Kreitman-type framework, we find support for both hypotheses: venom proteins indeed experience both stronger positive selection, and lower selective constraint than other genes in the genome. Furthermore, the strength of selection may be modulated by expression level, with more abundant proteins experiencing weaker selective constraint, leading to the accumulation of more deleterious mutations. These findings show that snake venoms evolve by a combination of adaptive and neutral mechanisms, both of which explain their extraordinarily high rates of molecular evolution. In addition to positive selection, which optimizes efficacy of the venom in the short term, relaxed selective constraints for deleterious mutations can lead to more rapid turnover of individual proteins, and potentially to exploration of a larger venom phenotypic space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven D Aird
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
| | - Jigyasa Arora
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
| | - Agneesh Barua
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
| | - Lijun Qiu
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
| | - Kouki Terada
- Okinawa Prefectural Institute of Health and the Environment, Biology and Ecology Group, Nanjo-shi, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Alexander S Mikheyev
- Ecology and Evolution Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Kunigami-gun, Okinawa-ken, Japan
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39
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Coevolution takes the sting out of it: Evolutionary biology and mechanisms of toxin resistance in animals. Toxicon 2017; 140:118-131. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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40
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Lister C, Arbuckle K, Jackson TNW, Debono J, Zdenek CN, Dashevsky D, Dunstan N, Allen L, Hay C, Bush B, Gillett A, Fry BG. Catch a tiger snake by its tail: Differential toxicity, co-factor dependence and antivenom efficacy in a procoagulant clade of Australian venomous snakes. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 202:39-54. [PMID: 28757215 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A paradigm of venom research is adaptive evolution of toxins as part of a predator-prey chemical arms race. This study examined differential co-factor dependence, variations relative to dietary preference, and the impact upon relative neutralisation by antivenom of the procoagulant toxins in the venoms of a clade of Australian snakes. All genera were characterised by venoms rich in factor Xa which act upon endogenous prothrombin. Examination of toxin sequences revealed an extraordinary level of conservation, which indicates that adaptive evolution is not a feature of this toxin type. Consistent with this, the venoms did not display differences on the plasma of different taxa. Examination of the prothrombin target revealed endogenous blood proteins are under extreme negative selection pressure for diversification, this in turn puts a strong negative selection pressure upon the toxins as sequence diversification could result in a drift away from the target. Thus this study reveals that adaptive evolution is not a consistent feature in toxin evolution in cases where the target is under negative selection pressure for diversification. Consistent with this high level of toxin conservation, the antivenom showed extremely high-levels of cross-reactivity. There was however a strong statistical correlation between relative degree of phospholipid-dependence and clotting time, with the least dependent venoms producing faster clotting times than the other venoms even in the presence of phospholipid. The results of this study are not only of interest to evolutionary and ecological disciplines, but also have implications for clinical toxinology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum Lister
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2, 8PP, UK
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia; Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | | | | | - Chris Hay
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Brian Bush
- Snakes Harmful & Harmless, 9 Birch Place, Stoneville, WA 6081, Australia
| | - Amber Gillett
- Fauna Vet Wildlife Veterinary Consultancy, Beerwah, QLD, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.
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41
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Ainsworth S, Petras D, Engmark M, Süssmuth RD, Whiteley G, Albulescu LO, Kazandjian TD, Wagstaff SC, Rowley P, Wüster W, Dorrestein PC, Arias AS, Gutiérrez JM, Harrison RA, Casewell NR, Calvete JJ. The medical threat of mamba envenoming in sub-Saharan Africa revealed by genus-wide analysis of venom composition, toxicity and antivenomics profiling of available antivenoms. J Proteomics 2017; 172:173-189. [PMID: 28843532 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 08/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Mambas (genus Dendroaspis) are among the most feared of the medically important elapid snakes found in sub-Saharan Africa, but many facets of their biology, including the diversity of venom composition, remain relatively understudied. Here, we present a reconstruction of mamba phylogeny, alongside genus-wide venom gland transcriptomic and high-resolution top-down venomic analyses. Whereas the green mambas, D. viridis, D. angusticeps, D. j. jamesoni and D. j. kaimosae, express 3FTx-predominant venoms, black mamba (D. polylepis) venom is dominated by dendrotoxins I and K. The divergent terrestrial ecology of D. polylepis compared to the arboreal niche occupied by all other mambas makes it plausible that this major difference in venom composition is due to dietary variation. The pattern of intrageneric venom variability across Dendroaspis represented a valuable opportunity to investigate, in a genus-wide context, the variant toxicity of the venom, and the degree of paraspecific cross-reactivity between antivenoms and mamba venoms. To this end, the immunological profiles of the five mamba venoms were assessed against a panel of commercial antivenoms generated for the sub-Saharan Africa market. This study provides a genus-wide overview of which available antivenoms may be more efficacious in neutralising human envenomings caused by mambas, irrespective of the species responsible. The information gathered in this study lays the foundations for rationalising the notably different potency and pharmacological profiles of Dendroaspis venoms at locus resolution. This understanding will allow selection and design of toxin immunogens with a view to generating a safer and more efficacious pan-specific antivenom against any mamba envenomation. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE The mambas (genus Dendroaspis) comprise five especially notorious medically important venomous snakes endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. Their highly potent venoms comprise a high diversity of pharmacologically active peptides, including extremely rapid-acting neurotoxins. Previous studies on mamba venoms have focused on the biochemical and pharmacological characterisation of their most relevant toxins to rationalize the common neurological and neuromuscular symptoms of envenomings caused by these species, but there has been little work on overall venom composition or comparisons between them. Only very recently an overview of the composition of the venom of two Dendroaspis species, D. angusticeps and D. polylepis, has been unveiled through venomics approaches. Here we present the first genus-wide transcriptomic-proteomic analysis of mamba venom composition. The transcriptomic analyses described in this paper have contributed 29 (D. polylepis), 23 (D. angusticeps), 40 (D. viridis), 25 (D. j. jamesoni) and 21 (D. j. kaimosae), novel full-length toxin sequences to the non-redundant Dendroaspis sequence database. The mamba genus-wide venomic analysis demonstrated that major D. polylepis venom components are Kunitz-fold family toxins. This feature is unique in relation to the relatively conserved three-finger toxin (3FTx)-dominated venom compositions of the green mambas. Venom variation was interpreted in the context of dietary variation due to the divergent terrestrial ecology of D. polylepis compared to the arboreal niche occupied by all other mambas. Additionally, the degree of cross-reactivity conservation of mamba venoms was assessed by antivenomics against a panel of commercial antivenoms generated for the sub-Saharan Africa market. This study provides a genus-wide overview to infer which available antivenoms may be capable of neutralising human envenomings caused by mambas, irrespective of the species responsible. The information gathered in this study lays the foundations for rationalising the pharmacological profiles of mamba venoms at locus resolution. This understanding will contribute to the generation of a safer and more efficacious pan-Dendroaspis therapeutic antivenom against any mamba envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Ainsworth
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Petras
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17.Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mikael Engmark
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Bio and Health Informatics, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17.Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gareth Whiteley
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Taline D Kazandjian
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Simon C Wagstaff
- Bioinformatics Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Rowley
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, United Kingdom
| | - Pieter C Dorrestein
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Ana Silvia Arias
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José M Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom.
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010, Valencia, Spain.
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Venomics: integrative venom proteomics and beyond*. Biochem J 2017; 474:611-634. [DOI: 10.1042/bcj20160577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Venoms are integrated phenotypes that evolved independently in, and are used for predatory and defensive purposes by, a wide phylogenetic range of organisms. The same principles that contribute to the evolutionary success of venoms, contribute to making the study of venoms of great interest in such diverse fields as evolutionary ecology and biotechnology. Evolution is profoundly contingent, and nature also reinvents itself continuosly. Changes in a complex phenotypic trait, such as venom, reflect the influences of prior evolutionary history, chance events, and selection. Reconstructing the natural history of venoms, particularly those of snakes, which will be dealt with in more detail in this review, requires the integration of different levels of knowledge into a meaningful and comprehensive evolutionary framework for separating stochastic changes from adaptive evolution. The application of omics technologies and other disciplines have contributed to a qualitative and quantitative advance in the road map towards this goal. In this review we will make a foray into the world of animal venoms, discuss synergies and complementarities of the different approaches used in their study, and identify current bottlenecks that prevent inferring the evolutionary mechanisms and ecological constraints that molded snake venoms to their present-day variability landscape.
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Integrating Perspectives on Animal Venom Diversity: An Introduction to the Symposium. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:934-937. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
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