Interferon-Induced Macrophage-Derived Exosomes Mediate Antiviral Activity Against Hepatitis B Virus Through miR-574-5p

Exosomes target HBV-host interactions to remodel the hepatic immune microenvironment

Chronic hepatitis B poses a significant global burden, modulating immune cells, leading to chronic inflammation and long-term damage. Due to its hepatotropism, the hepatitis B virus (HBV) cannot infect other cells. The mechanisms underlying the intercellular communication among different liver cells in HBV-infected individuals and the immune microenvironment imbalance remain elusive. Exosomes, as important intercellular communication and cargo transportation tools between HBV-infected hepatocytes and immune cells, have been shown to assist in HBV cargo transportation and regulate the immune microenvironment. However, the role of exosomes in hepatitis B has only gradually received attention in recent years. Minimal literature has systematically elaborated on the role of exosomes in reshaping the immune microenvironment of the liver. This review unfolds sequentially based on the biological processes of exosomes: exosomes' biogenesis, release, transport, uptake by recipient cells, and their impact on recipient cells. We delineate how HBV influences the biogenesis of exosomes, utilizing exosomal covert transmission, and reshapes the hepatic immune microenvironment. And based on the characteristics and functions of exosomes, potential applications of exosomes in hepatitis B are summarized and predicted.

miR-3188 inhibits hepatitis B virus transcription by targeting Bcl-2

Transcription of the covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) of hepatitis B virus (HBV) is subject to dual regulation by host factors and viral proteins. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) can regulate the expression of target genes at the post-transcriptional level. Systematic investigation of miRNA expression in HBV infection and the interaction between HBV and miRNAs may deepen our understanding of the transcription mechanisms of HBV cccDNA, thereby providing opportunities for intervention. miRNA sequencing and real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) were used to analyze miRNA expression after HBV infection of cultured cells. Clinical samples were analyzed for miRNAs and HBV transcription-related indicators, using qRT-PCR, enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA), and Western blot. miRNA mimics or inhibitors were used to study their effects on the HBV life cycle. The target genes of miR-3188 and their roles in HBV cccDNA transcription were also identified. The expression of 10 miRNAs, including miR-3188, which was significantly decreased after HBV infection, was measured in clinical samples from patients with chronic HBV infection. Overexpression of miR-3188 inhibited HBV transcription, whereas inhibition of miR-3188 expression promoted HBV transcription. Further investigation confirmed that miR-3188 inhibited HBV transcription by targeting Bcl-2. miR-3188 is a key miRNA that regulates HBV transcription by targeting the host protein Bcl-2. This observation provides insights into the regulation of cccDNA transcription and suggests new targets for anti-HBV treatment.

The dual role of regulatory T cells in hepatitis B virus infection and related hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major contributor to cancer-related deaths worldwide. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major etiologic factor leading to HCC. While there have been significant advancements in controlling HBV replication, achieving a complete cure for HBV-related HCC (HBV-HCC) remains an intricate challenge. HBV persistence is attributed to a myriad of mechanisms, encompassing both innate and adaptive immune responses. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are pivotal in upholding immune tolerance and modulating excessive immune activation. During HBV infection, Tregs mediate specific T cell suppression, thereby contributing to both persistent infection and the mitigation of liver inflammatory responses. Studies have demonstrated an augmented expression of circulating and intrahepatic Tregs in HBV-HCC, which correlates with impaired CD8+ T cell function. Consequently, Tregs play a dual role in the context of HBV infection and the progression of HBV-HCC. In this comprehensive review, we discuss pertinent studies concerning Tregs in HBV infection, HBV-related cirrhosis and HCC. Furthermore, we summarize Treg responses to antiviral therapy and provide Treg-targeted therapies specific to HBV and HCC.

The Chinese herbal prescription JZ-1 promotes extracellular vesicle production and protects against herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in vitro

Objective

Genital herpes, primarily caused by HSV-2 infection, remains a widespread sexually transmitted ailment. Extracellular vesicles play a pivotal role in host-virus confrontation. Recent research underscores the influence of Chinese herbal prescriptions on extracellular vesicle production and composition. This study aims to probe the impact of JieZe-1 (JZ-1) on extracellular vesicle components, elucidating its mechanisms against HSV-2 infection via extracellular vesicles.

Methods

The JZ-1's anti-HSV-2 effects were assessed using CCK-8 assay. Extracellular vesicles were precisely isolated utilizing ultracentrifugation and subsequently characterized through TEM, NTA, and Western Blot analyses. The anti-HSV-2 activity of extracellular vesicles was gauged using CCK-8, Western Blot, and immunofluorescence. Additionally, high-throughput sequencing was employed to detect miRNAs from extracellular vesicles, unraveling the potential antiviral mechanisms of JZ-1.

Results

Antiviral efficacy of JZ-1 was shown in VK2/E6E7, HeLa, and Vero cells. The samples extracted from cell supernatant by ultracentrifugation were identified as extracellular vesicles. In VK2/E6E7 cells, extracellular vesicles from JZ-1 group enhanced cell survival rates and diminished the expression of intracellular viral protein gD, contrasting with the inert effect of control group vesicles. Extracellular vesicles from JZ-1 treated Vero cells demonstrated a weaker yet discernible anti-HSV-2 effect. Conversely, extracellular vesicles of HeLa cells exhibited no anti-HSV-2 effect from either group. High-throughput sequencing of VK2/E6E7 cell extracellular vesicles unveiled significant upregulation of miRNA-101, miRNA-29a, miRNA-29b, miRNA-29c, and miRNA-637 in JZ-1 group vesicles. KEGG pathway analysis suggested that these miRNAs may inhibit PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and induce autophagy of host cells to protect against HSV-2. Western blot confirmed the induction of autophagy and inhibition of AKT/mTOR in VK2/E6E7 cells with JZ-1 group extracellular vesicles treatment.

Conclusion

JZ-1 had an anti-HSV-2 efficacy. After JZ-1 stimulation, VK2/E6E7 cells secreted extracellular vesicles which protect host cells from HSV-2 infection. High-throughput sequencing showed that these extracellular vesicles contained a large number of miRNAs targeting PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. JZ-1 group extracellular vesicles could inhibit the activation of AKT/mTOR pathway and induce the host cells autophagy.

Correlation Between MicroRNA by Extracellular Vesicle Mediated and Antiviral Effects of Interferon Omega in Feline Peripheral Blood

Feline interferon omega (IFN-ω) has been proven to have high antiviral activity; however, its in-depth antiviral effects remain unknown. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been demonstrated to participate in the regulation of the immune response pathway for the body through various active substances, especially through the microRNA (miRNA) carried by them. In this study, we isolated EVs from feline peripheral blood by differential centrifugation, and further found that the content of IFN-ω in EVs increased continuously within 24 h after IFN-ω treatment, and a large number of miRNAs were significantly downregulated in EVs within 12 h after IFN-ω treatment. These significantly differentially expressed miRNAs were important for regulating changes in antiviral cytokines. This study reveals for the first time the correlation between EVs-mediated miRNA in feline peripheral blood and IFN-ω on antiviral immune response, which may provide strong data support for the development of novel antiviral nanomedicine and the research of the antiviral effects of IFN-ω.

Engineered small extracellular vesicles as a novel platform to suppress human oncovirus-associated cancers

BACKGROUND

Cancer, as a complex, heterogeneous disease, is currently affecting millions of people worldwide. Even if the most common traditional treatments, namely, chemotherapy (CTx) and radiotherapy (RTx), have been so far effective in some conditions, there is still a dire need for novel, innovative approaches to treat types of cancer. In this context, oncoviruses are responsible for 12% of all malignancies, such as human papillomavirus (HPV), Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), as well as hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), and the poorest in the world also account for 80% of all human cancer cases. Against this background, nanomedicine has developed nano-based drug delivery systems (DDS) to meet the demand for drug delivery vectors, e.g., extracellular vesicles (EVs). This review article aimed to explore the potential of engineered small EVs (sEVs) in suppressing human oncovirus-associated cancers.

METHODS

Our search was conducted for published research between 2000 and 2022 using several international databases, including Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. We also reviewed additional evidence from relevant published articles.

RESULTS

In this line, the findings revealed that EV engineering as a new field is witnessing the development of novel sEV-based structures, and it is expected to be advanced in the future. EVs may be further exploited in specialized applications as therapeutic or diagnostic tools. The techniques of biotechnology have been additionally utilized to create synthetic bilayers based on the physical and chemical properties of parent molecules via a top-down strategy for downsizing complicated, big particles into nano-sized sEVs.

CONCLUSION

As the final point, EV-mediated treatments are less toxic to the body than the most conventional ones, making them a safer and even more effective option. Although many in vitro studies have so far tested the efficacy of sEVs, further research is still needed to develop their potential in animal and clinical trials to reap the therapeutic benefits of this promising platform.

Liver cancer cell-secreted exosomes promote bone metastasis of liver cancer by facilitating osteoclast differentiation through the miR-574-5p/BMP2 axis

Bone metastasis of liver cancer leads to a worse prognosis with no appropriate treatment clinically. Exosomes are associated with tumor bone metastasis. This study aimed to investigate the effects of liver cancer cell-derived exosomes on bone metastasis. Exosomes were isolated from Hep3B cells, and the effects of osteoclast differentiation were assessed using TRAP assay. The expression of OPG and RANKL was assessed using qRT-PCR. The interaction of miR-574-5p and BMP2 was analyzed using luciferase reporter analysis, RNA pull-down, and qRT-PCR. We found that Hep3B cells promoted osteoclast differentiation of RANKL-induced Raw264.7 cells by secreting exosomes, with decreased OPG and increased RANKL expression. The exosomes were isolated from Hep3B cells, which promoted osteoclast differentiation. Exosomal miR-574-5p promoted osteoclastogenesis by targeting BMP2. Moreover, exosomes facilitated osteoclast differentiation, promoting bone metastasis by regulating miR-574-3p in vivo. In conclusion, liver cancer cell-derived exosomal miR-574-5p promoted osteoclastogenesis by regulating BMP2, thereby promoting bone metastasis in vivo. The findings suggest that liver cancer cell-released exosomes are the potential therapeutic approach for bone metastatic liver cancer. DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT: The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Cold exposure impairs extracellular vesicle swarm-mediated nasal antiviral immunity

BACKGROUND

The human upper respiratory tract is the first site of contact for inhaled respiratory viruses and elaborates an array of innate immune responses. Seasonal variation in respiratory viral infections and the importance of ambient temperature in modulating immune responses to infections have been well recognized; however, the underlying biological mechanisms remain understudied.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the role of nasal epithelium-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) in innate Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3)-dependent antiviral immunity.

METHODS

We evaluated the secretion and composition of nasal epithelial EVs after TLR3 stimulation in human autologous cells and fresh human nasal mucosal surgical specimens. We also explored the antiviral activity and mechanisms of TLR3-stimulated EVs against respiratory viruses as well as the effect of cool ambient temperature on TLR3-dependent antiviral immunity.

RESULTS

We found that polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid, aka poly(I:C), exposure induced a swarm-like increase in the secretion of nasal epithelial EVs via the TLR3 signaling. EVs participated in TLR3-dependent antiviral immunity, protecting the host from viral infections through both EV-mediated functional delivery of miR-17 and direct virion neutralization after binding to virus ligands via surface receptors, including LDLR and ICAM-1. These potent antiviral immune defense functions mediated by TLR3-stimulated EVs were impaired by cold exposure via a decrease in total EV secretion as well as diminished microRNA packaging and antiviral binding affinity of individual EV.

CONCLUSION

TLR3-dependent nasal epithelial EVs exhibit multiple innate antiviral mechanisms to suppress respiratory viral infections. Furthermore, our study provides a direct quantitative mechanistic explanation for seasonal variation in upper respiratory tract infection prevalence.

Exosomes in chronic liver disease

Chronic liver disease (CLD) is the major cause of mortality and morbidity, particularly in developing countries. Although there has been a significant advancement in the identification and treatment of liver diseases over time, clinical results are not satisfactory in advanced liver disease. Thus, it is crucial to develop certain technology for early detection, and curative therapies and to investigate the molecular mechanisms behind CLD's pathogenesis. The study of exosomes in CLD is a rapidly developing field. They are structurally membrane-derived nano vesicles released by various cells. In CLD, exosomes released from injured hepatic cells affect intercellular communication, creating a microenvironment conducive to the illness's development. They also carry liver cell-specific proteins and miRNAs, which can be used as diagnostic biomarkers and treatment targets for various liver diseases. End-stage liver disease can only be treated by a liver transplant, however, the low availability of compatible organs, high expenses of treatment, and surgical complications significantly lower patient survival rates. Early diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of CLD positively affect the likelihood of curative treatment and high patient survival rates. Considering the possibility that exosomes could be employed as tools for disease diagnostics and clinical intervention, The current study briefly summarizes the roles of exosomes and their cargo in diagnosing and treating liver diseases.

Exosomes in HBV infection

Exosomes have been identified as important mediators of intercellular communication in several physiological and pathological processes. Hepatitis B is caused by infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which impairs hepatocytes, with chronic infection resulting in cirrhosis or liver cancer. We studied the roles and functions of exosomes in HBV infection and found that exosomes could promote HBV spread and development of HBV-related diseases. Exosomes could be used as potential biomarkers for HBV diagnosis. Furthermore, exosomes have potential applications in treatment for HBV infection via inhibition of HBV replication and transcription.

Macrophage cell membrane-based nanoparticles: a new promising biomimetic platform for targeted delivery and treatment

Synthetic nanoparticles with surface bioconjugation are promising platforms for targeted therapy, but their simple biological functionalization is still a challenging task against the complex intercellular environment. Once synthetic nanoparticles enter the body, they are phagocytosed by immune cells by the immune system. Recently, the cell membrane camouflage strategy has emerged as a novel therapeutic tactic to overcome these issues by utilizing the fundamental properties of natural cells. Macrophage, a type of immune system cells, plays critical roles in various diseases, including cancer, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, infection and inflammation, due to the recognition and engulfment function of removing substances and pathogens. Macrophage membranes inherit the surface protein profiles and biointerfacing properties of source cells. Therefore, the macrophage membrane cloaking can protect synthetic nanoparticles from phagocytosis by the immune cells. Meanwhile, the macrophage membrane can make use of the natural correspondence to accurately recognize antigens and target inflamed tissue or tumor sites. In this review, we have summarized the advances in the fabrication, characterization and homing capacity of macrophage membrane cloaking nanoparticles in various diseases, including cancers, immune diseases, cardiovascular diseases, central nervous system diseases, and microbial infections. Although macrophage membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles are currently in the fetal stage of development, there is huge potential and challenge to explore the conversion mode in the clinic.

The Regulatory Mechanism of miR-574-5p Expression in Cancer

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a group of small, single-stranded, non-coding RNAs approximately 22 nucleotides in length. The dysregulation of miRNAs has been widely investigated in various pathological processes, including tumorigenesis, providing a biomarker for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. As a member of the miRNA family, miR-574-5p is located on the human chromosome 4p14 and is highly correlated with a high incidence of human cancers. Functional pathways as well as underlying novel mechanisms upregulate or downregulate miR-574-5p, which plays an important regulatory role in tumorigenesis and progression. In this review, we systematically summarize the context-dependent implications of miR-574-5p and review differences in miR-574-5p expression in cancer. We also investigate the intricate functions exerted by miR-574-5p in diverse pathological processes and highlight regulatory pathways, networks, and other underlying novel mechanisms. The clinical applications of miR-574-5p as a diagnostic biomarker, prognostic biomarker, and therapeutic mechanism are also discussed in this paper. On this basis, we anticipate that miR-574-5p will be a promising and effective biomarker and therapeutic target.

Interferon and interferon-stimulated genes in HBV treatment

Human hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a small enveloped DNA virus with a complex life cycle. It is the causative agent of acute and chronic hepatitis. HBV can resist immune system responses and often causes persistent chronic infections. HBV is the leading cause of liver cancer and cirrhosis. Interferons (IFNs) are cytokines with antiviral, immunomodulatory, and antitumor properties. IFNs are glycoproteins with a strong antiviral activity that plays an important role in adaptive and innate immune responses. They are classified into three categories (type I, II, and III) based on the structure of their cell-surface receptors. As an effective drug for controlling chronic viral infections, Type I IFNs are approved to be clinically used for the treatment of HBV infection. The therapeutic effect of interferon will be enhanced when combined with other drugs. IFNs play a biological function by inducing the expression of hundreds of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) in the host cells, which are responsible for the inhibiting of HBV replication, transcription, and other important processes. Animal models of HBV, such as chimpanzees, are also important tools for studying IFN treatment and ISG regulation. In the present review, we summarized the recent progress in IFN-HBV treatment and focused on its mechanism through the interaction between HBV and ISGs.

Roles of small extracellular vesicles in the development, diagnosis and possible treatment strategies for hepatocellular carcinoma (Review)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common malignancy of hepatocytes accounting for 75-85% of primary hepatic carcinoma cases. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), previously known as exosomes with a diameter of 30-200 nm, can transport a variety of biological molecules between cells, and have been proposed to function in physiological and pathological processes. Recent studies have indicated that the cargos of sEVs are implicated in intercellular crosstalk among HCC cells, paratumor cells and the tumor microenvironment. sEV-encapsulated substances (including DNA, RNA, proteins and lipids) regulate signal transduction pathways in recipient cells and contribute to cancer initiation and progression in HCC. In addition, the differential expression of sEV cargos between patients facilitates the potential utility of sEVs in the diagnosis and prognosis of patients with HCC. Furthermore, the intrinsic properties of low immunogenicity and high stability render sEVs ideal vehicles for targeted drug delivery in the treatment of HCC. The present review article summarizes the carcinogenic and anti-neoplastic capacities of sEVs and discusses the potential and prospective diagnostic and therapeutic applications of sEVs in HCC.

Hepatic exosomes with declined MiR-27b-3p trigger RIG-I/TBK1 signal pathway in macrophages

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Evidence suggests that interferon alpha (IFNα) plays an essential role in decreasing the HBsAg quantification and elevating the rate of clinical cure in chronic hepatitis B (CHB). However, the mechanisms underlying the effects of the exosomes on the expression of host genes in IFNα treatment remain unclear.

METHODS

CHB patients with IFNα treatment were divided into responders and non-responders according to the degree of HBsAg decline. Through microRNA sequencing and a series of molecular biology methods, the key microRNAs in serum exosomes associated with clinical antiviral response of Peg-IFNα treatment in nucleotide analogue-treated CHB patients were investigated. The roles of exosomal miRNAs on the IFNα signal pathway were explored in macrophages.

RESULTS

MicroRNA sequencing and RT-qPCR assays confirmed six distinctly declined miRNAs in serum exosomes of responders at week 12 compared with levels at baseline. Exosomes with declined miR27b-3p in the serum of Peg-IFNα-treated responders activated phosphorylation of interferon regulatory factor 3/7 (IRF3/7) in IFNα synthesis pathway in macrophages. However, miR27b-3p overexpression in HepAD38 cells suppressed IFNα synthesis in macrophages, resulting in insufficient ability to eliminate HBV, whereas the inhibitory effect could be blocked by inhibitors of exosomes release. Luciferase assay showed miR-27b-3p directly suppressed retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) and TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) expressions, and these effects could be abrogated in mutation experiments.

CONCLUSIONS

In IFNα treatment, exosomes with declined miR-27b-3p triggered activation of RIG-I/TBK1 signalling in macrophages against HBV. Serum exosomal miR-27-3p might represent a potential biomarker for patients with CHB.

Immune Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in the Face of Pathogenic Infections

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) are a collection of vesicles released from cells that play an important role in intercellular communication. Microbial infections are known as one of the major problems in the medical field. Considering the increasing resistance of strains to routine drug treatments, the need for new therapies seems to be more than ever. Recent studies have shown that the EVs released from immune cells during microbial infections had anti-microbial effects or were able to induce neighbouring cells to display anti-microbial effects. This mini-review aimed to explore the latest studies on immune cell-derived EVs in viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections. Review of the literature demonstrated that specific cargos in EVs were involved in the fight against pathogenic infections. Additionally, the transport of appropriate bioactive molecules including miRNAs, mRNAs, and proteins via EVs could mediate the anti-microbial process. Thus, it could be a proof-of-principle that therapeutic approaches based on EVs derived from immune cells could offer a promising path forward, which is still in early stages and needs further assessments.

Recent progress of macrophage vesicle-based drug delivery systems

Nanoparticle drug delivery systems (NDDSs) are promising platforms for efficient delivery of drugs. In the past decades, many nanomedicines have received clinical approval and completed translation. With the rapid advance of nanobiotechnology, natural vectors are emerging as novel strategies to carry and delivery nanoparticles and drugs for biomedical applications. Among diverse types of cells, macrophage is of great interest for their essential roles in inflammatory and immune responses. Macrophage-derived vesicles (MVs), including exosomes, microvesicles, and those from reconstructed membranes, may inherit the chemotactic migration ability and high biocompatibility. The unique properties of MVs make them competing candidates as novel drug delivery systems for precision nanomedicine. In this review, the advantages and disadvantages of existing NDDSs and MV-based drug delivery systems (MVDDSs) were compared. Then, we summarized the potential applications of MVDDSs and discuss future perspectives. The development of MVDDS may provide avenues for the treatment of diseases involving an inflammatory process.

The Role of Exosomes in Viral Hepatitis and Its Associated Liver Diseases

Exosomes, the important carriers between cells, can carry proteins, micro ribonucleic acids (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and other molecules to mediate cellular information transduction. They also play an important role in the pathogenesis, prognosis and treatment of viral hepatitis and its associated liver diseases. Several studies have reported that viral hepatitis and its associated liver diseases, including hepatitis A, B, C and E; hepatic fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, were closely associated with exosomes. Exploring the role of exosomes in viral hepatitis and associated liver diseases will enhance our understanding of these diseases. Therefore, this review mainly summarised the role of exosomes in viral hepatitis and its associated liver diseases to identify new strategies for liver diseases in clinical practise.

MiR-574-5P, miR-1827, and miR-4429 as Potential Biomarkers for Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a severe chronic debilitating disorder with millions of affected individuals. Diagnosis is based on clinical presentations, which are made when the progressive disease has appeared. Early diagnosis may help improve the clinical outcomes and response to treatments. Lack of a reliable molecular diagnostic invokes the identification of novel biomarkers. To elucidate the molecular basis of the disease, in this study we used two mRNA expression arrays, including GSE93987 and GSE38485, and one miRNA array, GSE54914, and meta-analysis was conducted for evaluation of mRNA expression arrays via metaDE package. Using WGCNA package, we performed network analysis for both mRNA expression arrays separately. Then, we constructed protein-protein interaction network for significant modules. Limma package was employed to analyze the miRNA array for identification of dysregulated miRNAs (DEMs). Using genes of significant modules and DEMs, a mRNA-miRNA network was constructed and hub genes and miRNAs were identified. To confirm the dysregulated genes, expression values were evaluated through available datasets including GSE62333, GSE93987, and GSE38485. The ability of the detected hub miRNAs to discriminate schizophrenia from healthy controls was evaluated by assessing the receiver-operating curve. Finally, the expression levels of genes and miRNAs were evaluated in 40 schizophrenia patients compared with healthy controls via Real-Time PCR. The results confirmed dysregulation of hsa-miR-574-5P, hsa-miR-1827, hsa-miR-4429, CREBRF, ARPP19, TGFBR2, and YWHAZ in blood samples of schizophrenia patients. In conclusion, three miRNAs including hsa-miR-574-5P, hsa-miR-1827, and hsa-miR-4429 are suggested as potential biomarkers for diagnosis of schizophrenia.

Extracellular vesicles in inflammation: Focus on the microRNA cargo of EVs in modulation of liver diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogeneous nanometer-ranged particles that are released by cells under both normal and pathological conditions. EV cargo comprises of DNA, protein, lipids cargo, metabolites, mRNA, and non-coding RNA that can modulate the immune system by altering inflammatory response. EV associated miRNAs contribute to the pathobiology of alcoholic liver disease, non-alcoholic liver disease, viral hepatitis, acetaminophen-induced liver injury, fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. In context of liver diseases, EVs, via their cargo, alter the inflammatory response by communicating with different cell types within the liver and between liver and other organs. Here, the role of EVs and its associated miRNA in inter-cellular communication in different liver disease and as a potential biomarker and therapeutic target is reviewed.

Interferon and Hepatitis B: Current and Future Perspectives

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains a major health burden worldwide for which there is still no effective curative treatment. Interferon (IFN) consists of a group of cytokines with antiviral activity and immunoregulatory and antitumor effects, that play crucial roles in both innate and adaptive immune responses. IFN-α and its pegylated form have been used for over thirty years to treat chronic hepatitis B (CHB) with advantages of finite treatment duration and sustained virologic response, however, the efficacy is limited and side effects are common. Here, we summarize the status and unique advantages of IFN therapy against CHB, review the mechanisms of IFN-α action and factors affecting IFN response, and discuss the possible improvement of IFN-based therapy and the rationale of combinations with other antiviral agents in seeking an HBV cure.

In Silico Identification of miRNA-lncRNA Interactions in Male Reproductive Disorder Associated with COVID-19 Infection

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a global pandemic, is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the receptor for SARS-CoV-2 and transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) facilitates ACE2-mediated virus entry. Moreover, the expression of ACE2 in the testes of infertile men is higher than normal, which indicates that infertile men may be susceptible to be infected and SARS-CoV-2 may cause reproductive disorder through the pathway induced by ACE2 and TMPRSS2. Little is known about the pathway regulation of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 expression in male reproductive disorder. Since the regulation of gene expression is mediated by microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) at the post-transcriptional level, the aim of this study was to analyze the dysregulated miRNA–lncRNA interactions of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in male reproductive disorder. Using bioinformatics analysis, we speculate that the predicted miRNAs including miR-125a-5p, miR-125b-5p, miR-574-5p, and miR-936 as regulators of ACE2 and miR-204-5p as a modulator of TMPRSS2 are associated with male infertility. The lncRNAs with a tissue-specific expression for testis including GRM7-AS3, ARHGAP26-AS1, BSN-AS1, KRBOX1-AS1, CACNA1C-IT3, AC012361.1, FGF14-IT1, AC012494.1, and GS1-24F4.2 were predicted. The identified miRNAs and lncRNAs are proposed as potential biomarkers to study the possible association between COVID-19 and male infertility. This study encourages further studies of miRNA–lncRNA interactions to explain the molecular mechanisms of male infertility in COVID-19 patients.

Immunopathology of Chronic Hepatitis B Infection: Role of Innate and Adaptive Immune Response in Disease Progression

More than 250 million people are living with chronic hepatitis B despite the availability of highly effective vaccines and oral antivirals. Although innate and adaptive immune cells play crucial roles in controlling hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, they are also accountable for inflammation and subsequently cause liver pathologies. During the initial phase of HBV infection, innate immunity is triggered leading to antiviral cytokines production, followed by activation and intrahepatic recruitment of the adaptive immune system resulting in successful virus elimination. In chronic HBV infection, significant alterations in both innate and adaptive immunity including expansion of regulatory cells, overexpression of co-inhibitory receptors, presence of abundant inflammatory mediators, and modifications in immune cell derived exosome release and function occurs, which overpower antiviral response leading to persistent viral infection and subsequent immune pathologies associated with disease progression towards fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of innate and adaptive immune cells transformations that are associated with immunopathogenesis and disease outcome in CHB patients.

Exosomes in Hepatitis B Virus Transmission and Related Immune Response

The chronicity of Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection relates to both viral factors and host factors. HBV could result in persistent infection and even serious liver disease, including chronic hepatitis B (CHB), cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Although the HBV vaccine can effectively prevent HBV infection, chronic HBV infection still endangers human health and results in a large social burden. Moreover, the mechanisms underlying the HBV-mediated imbalance of the immune response and persistent infection are not fully understood. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles (EVs) 40-160 nm in size that are released from many cells and transfer specific functional RNAs, proteins, lipids and viral components from donor to recipient cells. These exosome nanovesicles are associated with various biological processes, such as cellular homeostasis, immune response and cancer progression. Besides, previous studies on exosomes have shown that they take part in viral pathogenicity due to the similarity in structure and function between exosomes and enveloped viruses. Moreover, exosome as a novel immunomodulatory carrier plays a significant role in viral immunology. In this review, we focus on the latest progress in understanding the role of exosomes in HBV transmission as well as their vital roles in immune regulation during HBV infection. Furthermore, we discuss the potential clinical applications of exosomes in hepatitis B infection, including the use of exosomes in the auxiliary diagnosis and treatment of hepatitis B.