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Shokrollahi B, Lee HJ, Baek YC, Jin S, Jang GS, Moon SJ, Um KH, Jang SS, Park MS. Transcriptomic Analysis of Newborn Hanwoo Calves: Effects of Maternal Overnutrition during Mid- to Late Pregnancy on Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue and Liver. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:704. [PMID: 38927640 PMCID: PMC11202606 DOI: 10.3390/genes15060704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the transcriptomic responses of subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) and liver in newborn Hanwoo calves subjected to maternal overnutrition during mid- to late gestation. Eight Hanwoo cows were randomly assigned to control and treatment groups. The treatment group received a diet of 4.5 kg of concentrate and 6.5 kg of rice straw daily, resulting in intake levels of 8.42 kg DMI, 5.69 kg TDN, and 0.93 kg CP-higher than the control group (6.07 kg DMI, 4.07 kg TDN, and 0.65 kg CP), with respective NEm values of 9.56 Mcal and 6.68 Mcal. Following birth, newly born calves were euthanized humanely as per ethical guidelines, and SAT and liver samples from newborn calves were collected for RNA extraction and analysis. RNA sequencing identified 192 genes that were differentially expressed in the SAT (17 downregulated and 175 upregulated); notably, HSPA6 emerged as the most significantly upregulated gene in the SAT and as the singular upregulated gene in the liver (adj-p value < 0.05). Additionally, differential gene expression analysis highlighted extensive changes across genes associated with adipogenesis, fibrogenesis, and stress response. The functional enrichment pathway and protein-protein interaction (PPI) unraveled the intricate networks and biological processes impacted by overnutrition, including extracellular matrix organization, cell surface receptor signaling, and the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway. These findings underscore maternal overnutrition's substantial influence on developmental pathways, suggesting profound cellular modifications with potential lasting effects on health and productivity. Despite the robust insights that are provided, the study's limitations (sample size) underscore the necessity for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borhan Shokrollahi
- Hanwoo Research Institute, National Institute of Animal Science, Pyeongchang 25340, Republic of Korea; (B.S.); (Y.C.B.); (S.J.); (G.-S.J.); (S.J.M.); (K.-H.U.)
| | - Hyun-Jeong Lee
- Animal Nutrition and Physiology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea;
| | - Youl Chang Baek
- Hanwoo Research Institute, National Institute of Animal Science, Pyeongchang 25340, Republic of Korea; (B.S.); (Y.C.B.); (S.J.); (G.-S.J.); (S.J.M.); (K.-H.U.)
| | - Shil Jin
- Hanwoo Research Institute, National Institute of Animal Science, Pyeongchang 25340, Republic of Korea; (B.S.); (Y.C.B.); (S.J.); (G.-S.J.); (S.J.M.); (K.-H.U.)
| | - Gi-Suk Jang
- Hanwoo Research Institute, National Institute of Animal Science, Pyeongchang 25340, Republic of Korea; (B.S.); (Y.C.B.); (S.J.); (G.-S.J.); (S.J.M.); (K.-H.U.)
| | - Sung Jin Moon
- Hanwoo Research Institute, National Institute of Animal Science, Pyeongchang 25340, Republic of Korea; (B.S.); (Y.C.B.); (S.J.); (G.-S.J.); (S.J.M.); (K.-H.U.)
| | - Kyung-Hwan Um
- Hanwoo Research Institute, National Institute of Animal Science, Pyeongchang 25340, Republic of Korea; (B.S.); (Y.C.B.); (S.J.); (G.-S.J.); (S.J.M.); (K.-H.U.)
| | - Sun Sik Jang
- Hanwoo Research Institute, National Institute of Animal Science, Pyeongchang 25340, Republic of Korea; (B.S.); (Y.C.B.); (S.J.); (G.-S.J.); (S.J.M.); (K.-H.U.)
| | - Myung Sun Park
- Hanwoo Research Institute, National Institute of Animal Science, Pyeongchang 25340, Republic of Korea; (B.S.); (Y.C.B.); (S.J.); (G.-S.J.); (S.J.M.); (K.-H.U.)
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Wang YC, Wang X, Li JZ, Huang PF, Li YL, Ding XQ, Huang J, Zhu MZ, Yin J, Dai CP, Wang QY, Yang HS. The impact of lactating Hu sheep's dietary protein levels on lactation performance, progeny growth and rumen development. Anim Biotechnol 2023; 34:1919-1930. [PMID: 35416756 DOI: 10.1080/10495398.2022.2058006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate whether lactating Hu sheep's dietary protein levels could generate dynamic effects on the performance of their offspring. Twelve ewes with similar parity were fed iso-energy diets which contained different protein levels (P1: 9.82%, P2: 10.99%) (n = 6), and the corresponding offspring were divided into SP1 and SP2 (n = 12). At 60 days, half of the lambs were harvested for further study: the carcass weight (p = 0.043) and dressing percentage (p = 0.004) in the SP2 group were significantly higher than SP1. The acetic acid (p = 0.007), propionic acid (p = 0.003), butyric acid (p < 0.001) and volatile fatty acids (p < 0.001) in rumen fluid of SP2 were significantly lower than SP1. The expression of MCT2 (p = 0.024), ACSS1 (p = 0.039) and NHE3 (p = 0.006) in the rumen of SP2 was lower than SP1, while the HMGCS1 (p = 0.026), HMGCR (p = 0.024) and Na+/K+-ATPase (p = 0.020) was higher than SP1. The three dominant phyla in the rumen are Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria and Firmicutes. The membrane transport, amino acid metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism of SP1 were relatively enhanced, the replication and repair function of SP2 was relatively enhanced. To sum up, the increase of dietary protein level significantly increased the carcass weight and dressing percentage of offspring and had significant effects on rumen volatile fatty acids, acetic acid activation and cholesterol synthesis related genes. HIGHLIGHTSIn the early feeding period, the difference in ADG of lambs was mainly caused by the sucking effect.The increase in dietary protein level of ewes significantly increased the carcass weight and dressing percentage of offspring.The dietary protein level of ewes significantly affected the volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and genes related to acetic acid activation and cholesterol synthesis in the rumen of their offspring.The membrane transport, amino acid metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism of the offspring of ewes fed with a low protein diet were relatively enhanced.The replication and repair function of the offspring of ewes fed with a high protein diet was relatively strengthened.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Can Wang
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Jian-Zhong Li
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Peng-Fei Huang
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Ya-Li Li
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Xue-Qin Ding
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Jing Huang
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Ming-Zhi Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Tea Science of Ministry of Education, National Research Center of Engineering Technology for Utilization of Functional Ingredients from Botanicals, College of Horticulture, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
| | - Jia Yin
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Chun-Peng Dai
- Hubei Zhiqinghe Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Co., Ltd., Yichang, China
| | - Qi-Ye Wang
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
- Hubei Zhiqinghe Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Co., Ltd., Yichang, China
| | - Huan-Sheng Yang
- Hunan International Joint Laboratory of Animal Intestinal Ecology and Health, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Human Health, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Hunan Provincial Engineering Research Center of Healthy Livestock, Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science in South-Central, Ministry of Agriculture, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China
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Diniz WJS, Ward AK, McCarthy KL, Kassetas CJ, Baumgaertner F, Reynolds LP, Borowicz PP, Sedivec KK, Kirsch JD, Dorsam ST, Neville TL, Forcherio JC, Scott R, Caton JS, Dahlen CR. Periconceptual Maternal Nutrition Affects Fetal Liver Programming of Energy- and Lipid-Related Genes. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13040600. [PMID: 36830387 PMCID: PMC9951695 DOI: 10.3390/ani13040600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
During pregnancy, the fetus relies on the dam for its nutrient supply. Nutritional stimuli during fetal organ development can program hepatic metabolism and function. Herein, we investigated the role of vitamin and mineral supplementation (VTM or NoVTM-at least 71 days pre-breeding to day 83 of gestation) and rate of weight gain (low (LG) or moderate (MG)-from breeding to day 83) on the fetal liver transcriptome and the underlying biological pathways. Crossbred Angus beef heifers (n = 35) were randomly assigned to one of four treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial design (VTM_LG, VTM_MG, NoVTM_LG, and NoVTM_MG). Gene expression was measured with RNA-Seq in fetal livers collected on day 83 ± 0.27 of gestation. Our results show that vitamin and mineral supplementation and rate of weight gain led to the differential expression of hepatic genes in all treatments. We identified 591 unique differentially expressed genes across all six VTM-gain contrasts (FDR ≤ 0.1). Over-represented pathways were related to energy metabolism, including PPAR and PI3K-Akt signaling pathways, as well as lipid metabolism, mineral transport, and amino acid transport. Our findings suggest that periconceptual maternal nutrition affects fetal hepatic function through altered expression of energy- and lipid-related genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wellison J. S. Diniz
- Department of Animal Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Alison K. Ward
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Kacie L. McCarthy
- Department of Animal Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - Cierrah J. Kassetas
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | | | - Lawrence P. Reynolds
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Pawel P. Borowicz
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Kevin K. Sedivec
- Central Grasslands Research and Extension Center, North Dakota State University, Streeter, ND 58483, USA
| | - James D. Kirsch
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Sheri T. Dorsam
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Tammi L. Neville
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | | | - Ronald Scott
- Purina Animal Nutrition LLC, Gray Summit, MO 63039, USA
| | - Joel S. Caton
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Carl R. Dahlen
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
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Trotta RJ, Vasquez-Hidalgo MA, Smith BI, Reed SA, Govoni KE, Vonnahme KA, Swanson KC. Timing of maternal nutrient restriction during mid- to late-gestation influences net umbilical uptake of glucose and amino acids in adolescent sheep. J Anim Sci 2023; 101:skad383. [PMID: 37982730 PMCID: PMC10684045 DOI: 10.1093/jas/skad383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous research demonstrated that maternal nutrient restriction during mid- to late-gestation influenced net umbilical uptakes of glucose and amino acids in sheep. However, it is unclear how the timing and duration of nutrient restriction during mid- to late-gestation influences net uterine, uteroplacental, and fetal flux of glucose and amino acids. On day 50 of gestation, 41 adolescent ewe lambs carrying singletons were randomly assigned to one of six dietary treatments: 1) 100% of nutrient requirements from days 50 to 90 of gestation (CON; n = 7); 2) 60% of nutrient requirements (RES; n = 7) from days 50 to 90 of gestation; 3) 100% of nutrient requirements from days 50 to 130 of gestation (CON-CON; n = 6); 4) 100% of nutrient requirements from days 50 to 90 of gestation and 60% of nutrient requirements from days 90 to 130 of gestation (CON-RES; n = 7); 5) 60% of nutrient requirements from days 50 to 90 of gestation and 100% of nutrient requirements from days 90 to 130 of gestation (RES-CON; n = 7); or 6) 60% of nutrient requirements from days 50 to 130 of gestation (RES-RES; n = 7). On day 90 (n = 14) and day 130 (n = 27), intraoperative procedures were performed to evaluate uteroplacental blood flows, collect blood samples, and then ewes were euthanized. Net uterine, uteroplacental, and umbilical fluxes of glucose and amino acids were calculated by multiplying blood flow by the arterial-venous concentration difference. Data from days 90 and 130 were analyzed separately using ANOVA in SAS. Maternal nutrient restriction during mid-gestation increased (P = 0.04) net umbilical glucose uptake but, maternal nutrient restriction during late-gestation decreased (P = 0.02) net umbilical glucose uptake. Net umbilical essential amino acid uptake decreased (P = 0.03) with nutrient restriction during mid-gestation; however, net umbilical uptakes of Phe (P = 0.02), Thr (P = 0.05), Met (P = 0.09), and His (P = 0.08) increased or tended to increase after nutrient restriction during late-gestation. These data demonstrate that net umbilical glucose and amino acid uptakes were influenced by the timing of nutrient restriction during mid- to late-gestation. Elevated net umbilical glucose uptake after mid-gestational nutrient restriction was sustained throughout late-gestation, independent of late-gestational feeding level. Long-term adaptations in umbilical glucose uptake may have implications for prenatal and postnatal growth and development of the offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald J Trotta
- Department of Animal Science, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | | | - Brandon I Smith
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Sarah A Reed
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Kristen E Govoni
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Kimberly A Vonnahme
- Department of Animal Science, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
| | - Kendall C Swanson
- Department of Animal Science, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58108, USA
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Tillquist NM, Reed SA, Kawaida MY, Reiter AS, Smith BI, Jang H, Lee JY, Lee EC, Zinn SA, Govoni KE. Restricted- and over-feeding during gestation decreases growth of offspring throughout maturity. Transl Anim Sci 2023; 7:txad061. [PMID: 37334247 PMCID: PMC10276548 DOI: 10.1093/tas/txad061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
To determine the effects of poor maternal nutrition on the growth and metabolism of offspring into maturity, multiparous Dorset ewes pregnant with twins (n = 46) were fed to either 100% (control; n = 13), 60% (restricted; n = 17), or 140% (over; n = 16) of National Research Council requirements from day 30 ± 0.02 of gestation until parturition. Offspring of these ewes are referred to as CON (n = 10 ewes; 12 rams), RES (n = 13 ewes; 21 rams), or OVER (n = 16 ewes; 13 rams), respectively. Lamb body weights (BW) and blood samples were collected weekly from birth (day 0) to day 28 and then every 14 d until day 252. Intravenous glucose tolerance test (infusion of 0.25 g dextrose/kg BW) was performed at day 133 ± 0.25. At day 167 ± 1.42, individual daily intake was recorded over a 77 d feeding period to determine residual feed intake (RFI). Rams were euthanized at day 282 ± 1.82 and body morphometrics, loin eye area (LEA), back fat thickness, and organ weights were collected. The right leg was collected from rams at necropsy and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry was used to determine bone mineral density (BMD) and length. Averaged from day 0 until day 252, RES and OVER offspring weighed 10.8% and 6.8% less than CON offspring, respectively (P ≤ 0.02). When adjusted for BW, liver and testes weights tended to be increased and decreased, respectively, in RES rams compared with CON rams (P ≤ 0.08). Additionally, RES BMD and bone length were less than CON rams (P ≤ 0.06). Treatment did not influence muscle mass, LEA, or adipose deposition (P ≥ 0.41). Rams (-0.17) were more feed efficient than ewes (0.23; P < 0.01); however, no effect of maternal diet was observed (P ≥ 0.57). At 2 min post glucose infusion, glucose concentrations in OVER offspring were greater than CON and RES offspring (P = 0.04). Concentrations of insulin in CON rams tended to be greater than OVER and RES ewes at 5 min (P ≤ 0.07). No differences were detected in insulin:glucose or area under the curve (AUC) for glucose or insulin (P ≤ 0.29). Maternal diet did not impact offspring triglycerides or cholesterol (P ≤ 0.35). Pre-weaning leptin tended to be 70% greater in OVER offspring than CON (P ≤ 0.07). These data indicate that poor maternal nutrition impairs offspring growth throughout maturity but does not affect RFI. Changes in metabolic factors and glucose tolerance are minimal, highlighting the need to investigate other mechanisms that may contribute to negative impacts of poor maternal diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Tillquist
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Sarah A Reed
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Mia Y Kawaida
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Amanda S Reiter
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Brandon I Smith
- Present address: Amador Bioscience, Ann Arbor, MI, 48108, USA
| | - Hyung Jang
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Ji-Young Lee
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Elaine C Lee
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Steven A Zinn
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
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Reed SA, Balsbaugh J, Li X, Moore TE, Jones AK, Pillai SM, Hoffman ML, Govoni KE, Zinn SA. Poor maternal diet during gestation alters offspring muscle proteome in sheep. J Anim Sci 2022; 100:6652328. [PMID: 35908790 PMCID: PMC9339292 DOI: 10.1093/jas/skac061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Poor maternal nutrition during gestation can result in reduced offspring muscle growth and altered muscle metabolism. We hypothesized that over- or restricted-nutrition during gestation would alter the longissimus dorsi muscle (LM) proteome of offspring. Pregnant ewes were fed 60% (restricted), 100% (control), or 140% (over) of National Research Council requirements for total digestible nutrients from day 30 of gestation until parturition. Fetal (RES, CON, OVER) LM were collected at days 90 and 135 of gestation, or from offspring within 24 h of birth. Sarcoplasmic proteins were isolated, trypsin digested, and subjected to multiplexed, label-based quantitative mass spectrometry analysis integrating tandem mass tag technology. Differential expression of proteins was identified by ANOVA followed by Tukey's HSD post hoc tests, and regularized regression via the elastic net. Significance was set at P < 0.05. Over-represented pathways containing differentially expressed proteins were identified by Reactome and included metabolism of proteins, immune system, cellular response to stress/external stimuli, developmental biology, and infectious disease. As a result of maternal diet, a total of 312 proteins were differentially expressed (day 90 = 89 proteins; day 135 = 115 proteins; birth = 131 proteins). Expression of eukaryotic initiation factor (EIF) 2S3, EIF3L, and EIF4G2 was lower in OVER fetuses at day 90 of gestation (P < 0.05). Calcineurin A and mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 were greater in RES fetuses at day 90 (P < 0.04). At day 135 of gestation, pyruvate kinase and lactate dehydrogenase A expression were greater in OVER fetuses than CON (P < 0.04). Thioredoxin expression was greater in RES fetuses relative to CON at day 135 (P = 0.05). At birth, proteins of the COP9 signalosome complex were greater in RES offspring relative to OVER (P < 0.05). Together, these data indicate that protein degradation and synthesis, metabolism, and oxidative stress are altered in a time and diet-specific manner, which may contribute to the phenotypic and metabolic changes observed during fetal development and postnatal growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Reed
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Jeremy Balsbaugh
- Proteomics and Metabolomics Facility, Center for Open Research Resources and Equipment, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Xiaomeng Li
- Department of Statistics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Timothy E Moore
- Statistical Consulting Services, Center for Open Research Resources & Equipment, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Amanda K Jones
- Department of Cardiometabolic Research, Boehringer Ingelheim, Ridgefield, CT 06879, USA
| | - Sambhu M Pillai
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057, USA
| | - Maria L Hoffman
- Department of Fisheries, Animal & Veterinary Science, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - Kristen E Govoni
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Steven A Zinn
- Department of Animal Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
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