Quantitation of Δ8-THC, Δ9-THC, Cannabidiol, and Ten Other Cannabinoids and Metabolites in Oral Fluid by HPLC-MS/MS

Phytocannabinoids in neuromodulation: From omics to epigenetics

BACKGROUND

Recent developments in metabolomics, transcriptomic and epigenetics open up new horizons regarding the pharmacological understanding of phytocannabinoids as neuromodulators in treating anxiety, depression, epilepsy, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's disease and autism.

METHODS

The present review is an extensive search in public databases, such as Google Scholar, Scopus, the Web of Science, and PubMed, to collect all the literature about the neurobiological roles of cannabis extract, cannabidiol, 9-tetrahydrocannabinol specially focused on metabolomics, transcriptomic, epigenetic, mechanism of action, in different cell lines, induced animal models and clinical trials. We used bioinformatics, network pharmacology and enrichment analysis to understand the effect of phytocannabinoids in neuromodulation.

RESULTS

Cannabidomics studies show wide variability of metabolites across different strains and varieties, which determine their medicinal and abusive usage, which is very important for its quality control and regulation. CB receptors interact with other compounds besides cannabidiol and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, like cannabinol and Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol. Phytocannabinoids interact with cannabinoid and non-cannabinoid receptors (GPCR, ion channels, and PPAR) to improve various neurodegenerative diseases. However, its abuse because of THC is also a problem found across different epigenetic and transcriptomic studies. Network enrichment analysis shows CNR1 expression in the brain and its interacting genes involve different pathways such as Rap1 signalling, dopaminergic synapse, and relaxin signalling. CBD protects against diseases like epilepsy, depression, and Parkinson's by modifying DNA and mitochondrial DNA in the hippocampus. Network pharmacology analysis of 8 phytocannabinoids revealed an interaction with 10 (out of 60) targets related to neurodegenerative diseases, with enrichment of ErbB and PI3K-Akt signalling pathways which helps in ameliorating neuro-inflammation in various neurodegenerative diseases. The effects of phytocannabinoids vary across sex, disease state, and age which suggests the importance of a personalized medicine approach for better success.

CONCLUSIONS

Phytocannabinoids present a range of promising neuromodulatory effects. It holds promise if utilized in a strategic way towards personalized neuropsychiatric treatment. However, just like any drug irrational usage may lead to unforeseen negative effects. Exploring neuro-epigenetics and systems pharmacology of major and minor phytocannabinoid combinations can lead to success.

Progress in the analysis of phytocannabinoids by HPLC and UPLC (or UHPLC) during 2020-2023

INTRODUCTION

Organic molecules that bind to cannabinoid receptors are known as cannabinoids. These molecules possess pharmacological properties similar to those produced by Cannabis sativa L. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC, also known as ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography, UHPLC) have become the most widely used analytical tools for detection and quantification of phytocannabinoids in various matrices. HPLC and UPLC (or UHPLC) are usually coupled to an ultraviolet (UV), photodiode array (PDA), or mass spectrometric (MS) detector.

OBJECTIVE

To critically appraise the literature on the application of HPLC and UPLC (or UHPLC) methods for the analysis of phytocannabinoids published from January 2020 to December 2023.

METHODOLOGY

An extensive literature search was conducted using Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar and published materials including relevant books. In various combinations, using cannabinoid in all combinations, cannabis, hemp, hashish, C. sativa, marijuana, analysis, HPLC, UHPLC, UPLC, and quantitative, qualitative, and quality control were used as the keywords for the literature search.

RESULTS

Several HPLC- and UPLC (or UHPLC)-based methods for the analysis of phytocannabinoids were reported. While simple HPLC-UV or HPLC-PDA-based methods were common, the use of HPLC-MS, HPLC-MS/MS, UPLC (or UHPLC)-PDA, UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS, and UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS/MS was also reported. Applications of mathematical and computational models for optimization of protocols were noted. Pre-analyses included various environmentally friendly extraction protocols.

CONCLUSION

During the last 4 years, HPLC and UPLC (or UHPLC) remained the main analytical tools for phytocannabinoid analysis in different matrices.

Development and validation of a method for analysis of 25 cannabinoids in oral fluid and exhaled breath condensate

Currently, there is a significant demand in forensic toxicology for biomarkers of cannabis exposure that, unlike ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol, can reliably indicate time and frequency of use, be sampled with relative ease, and correlate with impairment. Oral fluid (OF) and exhaled breath condensate (EBC) are alternative, non-invasive sample matrices that hold promise for identifying cannabis exposure biomarkers. OF, produced by salivary glands, is increasingly utilized in drug screening due to its non-invasive collection and is being explored as an alternative matrix for cannabinoid analysis. EBC is an aqueous specimen consisting of condensed water vapor containing water-soluble volatile and non-volatile components present in exhaled breath. Despite potential advantages, there are no reports on the use of EBC for cannabinoid detection. This study developed a supported liquid extraction approach and LC-QqQ-MS dMRM analytical method for quantification of 25 major and minor cannabinoids and metabolites in OF and EBC. The method was validated according to the ANSI/ASB 036 standard and other published guidelines. LOQ ranged from 0.5 to 6.0 ng/mL for all cannabinoids in both matrices. Recoveries for most analytes were 60-90%, with generally higher values for EBC compared to OF. Matrix effects were observed with some cannabinoids, with effects mitigated by use of matrix-matched calibration. Bias and precision were within ± 25%. Method applicability was demonstrated by analyzing ten authentic OF and EBC samples, with positive detections of multiple analytes in both matrices. The method will facilitate comprehensive analysis of cannabinoids in non-invasive sample matrices for the development of reliable cannabis exposure biomarkers.

HPLC Method for Better Separation of THC Isomers to Ensure Safety and Compliance in the Hemp Market

The 2018 Farm Bill dictates that delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) concentrations must not exceed 0.3% in hemp and hemp-derived products in order to be "compliant." This narrow margin of error necessitates very precise testing methods throughout every facet of the hemp industry. Though gas chromatography has become the industry's gold standard, many hemp laboratories still use high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to quantify cannabinoids, and thus there exists a need for HPLC methods that can separate delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC) and Δ9-THC-a notoriously difficult task. This article details one such method, while simultaneously acknowledging the inevitable limits of using HPLC to separate cannabinoids. The method was also used to test Δ8-THC samples that were marketed as compliant, and it was found that all of the samples contained well over 0.3% Δ9-THC. The use of refined testing methodologies is crucial for hemp companies to ensure compliance, prevent adverse health effects, and provide consumers with accurate cannabinoid profiles of the products that they purchase.

Automated extraction and LC-MS-MS analysis of 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol isomers and prevalence in authentic urine specimens

11-Nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THCCOOH) is the most frequently detected illicit drug metabolite in the military drug testing program. An increasing number of specimens containing unresolved Δ8-THCCOOH prompted the addition of this analyte to the Department of Defense drug testing panel. A method was developed and validated for the quantitative confirmation of the carboxylated metabolites of Δ8- and Δ9-THC in urine samples utilizing automated pipette tip dispersive solid-phase extraction and analysis by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). Analytes were separated isocratically over an 8.5-min runtime and detected on an MS-MS equipped with an electrospray ionization source operated in negative mode. A single point calibrator (15 ng/mL) forced through zero demonstrated linearity from 3 to 1,000 ng/mL. Intra- and inter-day precision were ≤9.1%, and bias was within ±14.1% for Δ8-THCCOOH and Δ9-THCCOOH. No interferences were found after challenging the method with different over-the-counter drugs, prescription pharmaceuticals, drugs of abuse and several cannabinoids and cannabinoid metabolites, including Δ10-THCCOOH. Urine specimens presumptively positive by immunoassay (n = 2,939; 50 ng/mL Δ9-THCCOOH cutoff) were confirmed with this analytical method. Δ8-THCCOOH and Δ9-THCCOOH were present together above the 15 ng/mL cutoff in 33% of specimens. However, nearly one-third of the specimens analyzed were positive for Δ8-THCCOOH only. This manuscript describes the first validated automated extraction and confirmation method for Δ8- and Δ9-THCCOOH in urine that provides adequate analyte separation in urine specimens with extreme isomer abundance ratios.

Comprehensive cannabinoid profiling of acid-treated CBD samples and Δ8-THC-infused edibles

Δ8-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC) is increasingly popular as a controversial substitute for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) in cannabinoid-infused edibles. Δ8-THC is prepared from cannabidiol (CBD) by treatment with acids. Side products including Δ9-THC and other isomers that might end up in Δ8-THC edibles are less studied. In this paper, three orthogonal methods, namely reversed-phase (RP)-UHPLC-DAD/HRMS, normal-phase/argentation (silica-Ag(I))-HPLC-DAD/MS, and GC-FID/MS were developed for analysis of cannabinoid isomers, namely Δ8-THC, Δ9-THC, CBD, Δ8-iso-THC, Δ(4)8-iso-THC, and hydrated THC isomers. Eight acid-treated CBD mixtures contained various amounts of Δ8-THC (0-89%, w/w%), high levels of Δ9-THC (up to 49%), Δ8-isoTHC (up to 55%), Δ(4)8-iso-THC (up to 17%), and three hydrated THC isomers. Commercial Δ8-THC gummies were also analyzed, and issues like overclaimed Δ8-THC, excessive Δ9-THC, undeclared Δ8-iso-THC, and Δ(4)8-iso-THC were found. These findings highlight the urgency of improving regulations towards converting CBD to Δ8-THC for use as food ingredients.

Recent advances in the development of portable technologies and commercial products to detect Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in biofluids: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The primary components driving the current commercial fascination with cannabis products are phytocannabinoids, a diverse group of over 100 lipophilic secondary metabolites derived from the cannabis plant. Although numerous phytocannabinoids exhibit pharmacological effects, the foremost attention has been directed towards Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol, the two most abundant phytocannabinoids, for their potential human applications. Despite their structural similarity, THC and cannabidiol diverge in terms of their psychotropic effects, with THC inducing notable psychological alterations. There is a clear need for accurate and rapid THC measurement methods that offer dependable, readily accessible, and cost-effective analytical information. This review presents a comprehensive view of the present state of alternative technologies that could potentially facilitate the creation of portable devices suitable for on-site usage or as personal monitors, enabling non-intrusive THC measurements.

METHOD

A literature survey from 2017 to 2023 on the development of portable technologies and commercial products to detect THC in biofluids was performed using electronic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. A systematic review of available literature was conducted using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic. Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines.

RESULTS

Eighty-nine studies met the selection criteria. Fifty-seven peer-reviewed studies were related to the detection of THC by conventional separation techniques used in analytical laboratories that are still considered the gold standard. Studies using optical (n = 12) and electrochemical (n = 13) portable sensors and biosensors were also identified as well as commercially available devices (n = 7).

DISCUSSION

The landscape of THC detection technology is predominantly shaped by immunoassay tests, owing to their established reliability. However, these methods have distinct drawbacks, particularly for quantitative analysis. Electrochemical sensing technology holds great potential to overcome the challenges of quantification and present a multitude of advantages, encompassing the possibility of miniaturization and diverse modifications to amplify sensitivity and selectivity. Nevertheless, these sensors have considerable limitations, including non-specific interactions and the potential interference of compounds and substances existing in biofluids.

CONCLUSION

The foremost challenge in THC detection involves creating electrochemical sensors that are both stable and long-lasting while exhibiting exceptional selectivity, minimal non-specific interactions, and decreased susceptibility to matrix interferences. These aspects need to be resolved before these sensors can be successfully introduced to the market.

[Cannabidiol (CBD): Analytical and toxicological aspects]

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a phytocannabinoid present in cannabis, obtained either by extraction from the plant or by synthesis. The latter has the advantage of being pure and contains few impurities, unlike CBD of plant origin. It is used by inhalation, ingestion or skin application. In France, the law stipulates that specialties containing CBD may contain up to 0.3% of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive principle of cannabis. From an analytical point of view, it is therefore important to be able to quantify the two compounds as well as their metabolites in the various matrices that can be used clinically or forensically, in particular saliva and blood. The transformation of CBD into THC, which has long been suggested, appears to be an analytical artifact under certain conditions. CBD is not without toxicity, whether acute or chronic, as seems to attest to the serious adverse effects recorded by pharmacovigilance during the experiment currently being conducted in France by the Agence Nationale de Sécurité du Médicament et des Produits de Santé. Although CBD does not seem to modify driving abilities, driving a vehicle after consuming CBD containing up to 0.3% THC, and sometimes much more in products bought on the internet, can lead to a positive result in screening and confirmation tests by law enforcement agencies, whether salivary or blood tests, and therefore lead to a legal sanction.

High Specific and Rapid Detection of Cannabidiol by Gold Nanoparticle-Based Paper Sensor

In order to facilitate monitoring of cannabidiol (CBD), we devised a gold immunochromatographic sensor based on a specific monoclonal antibody (mAb). To prepare the antigen, a novel hapten with CBD moiety and a linear carbon chain was employed. By utilizing hybridoma technology, a specific mAb was screened and identified that exhibited a 50% maximal inhibitory concentration against CBD ranging from 28.97 to 443.97 ng/mL. Extensive optimization led to the establishment of visual limits of detection for CBD, achieving a remarkable sensitivity of 8 μg/mL in the assay buffer. To showcase the accuracy and stability, an analysis of CBD-spiked wine, sparkling water, and sports drink was conducted. The recovery rates observed were as follows: 88.4-109.2% for wine, 89.9-107.8% for sparkling water, and 83.2-95.5% for sports drink. Furthermore, the coefficient of variation remained impressively low, less than 4.38% for wine, less than 2.07% for sparkling water, and less than 6.34% for sports drink. Importantly, the developed sensor exhibited no cross-reaction with tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In conclusion, the proposed paper sensor, employing gold nanoparticles, offers a user-friendly and efficient approach for the precise, rapid, and dependable determination of CBD in products.

Delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol: a scoping review and commentary

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Delta-8 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is a psychoactive substance from the Cannabis plant that has been rising in popularity in the United States since the 2018 US Farm Bill implicitly legalized it. This study reviewed research from peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed (e.g. anecdotal and news) reports related to delta-8 THC to summarize current knowledge and implications for public health and safety.

METHODS

A scoping review was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Google as search engines, leading to the identification of 103 documents that were summarized. The themes that emerged were (1) legality, (2) use (popularity, motives, psychoactivity/potency, benefits/consequences), (3) synthesis (byproducts, laboratory testing) and (4) retail (availability, price, packaging, youth-oriented marketing). A second author independently coded 20% of the documents, which verified the categorization of articles by these emergent themes.

RESULTS

Most research used animal/cell models or focused upon ways to identify the chemical structure of delta-8 THC in various products. Findings suggest that people often use delta-8 THC as a substitute for other substances. Anecdotally, delta-8 THC is a less potent psychoactive than delta-9 THC; however, several negative consequences have been reported. There is no federal age restriction for purchase/possession of delta-8 THC products. Delta-8 THC is readily accessible on-line, is typically less expensive than delta-9 THC and is often marketed in ways that would seemingly appeal to children. There are no regulations on synthesis, resulting in products being contaminated and/or yielding inconsistent effects. There have been thousands of calls to US poison control centers due to accidental delta-8 THC exposure among minors.

CONCLUSIONS

Most research on delta-8 THC is largely anecdotal, not peer-reviewed and does not involve human subjects. Future research should examine delta-8 THC use using nationally representative samples to more clearly understand the prevalence and consequences of use. Laws are needed to mitigate the risks of using delta-8 THC, particularly quality control of synthesis and minimum purchase age.

Analysis of Cannabinoids in Biological Specimens: An Update

Cannabinoids are still the most consumed drugs of abuse worldwide. Despite being considered less harmful to human health, particularly if compared with opiates or cocaine, cannabis consumption has important medico-legal and public health consequences. For this reason, the development and optimization of sensitive analytical methods that allow the determination of these compounds in different biological specimens is important, involving relevant efforts from laboratories. This paper will discuss cannabis consumption; toxicokinetics, the most detected compounds in biological samples; and characteristics of the latter. In addition, a comprehensive review of extraction methods and analytical tools available for cannabinoid detection in selected biological specimens will be reviewed. Important issues such as pitfalls and cut-off values will be considered.

Recent challenges and trends in forensic analysis: Δ9-THC isomers pharmacology, toxicology and analysis

Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) isomers, especially Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC), are increasing in foods, beverages, and e-cigarettes liquids. A major factor is passage of the Agriculture Improvement Act (AIA) that removed hemp containing less than 0.3 % Δ9-THC from the definition of "marijuana" or cannabis. CBD-rich hemp flooded the market resulting in excess product that could be subjected to CBD cyclization to produce Δ8-THC. This process utilizes strong acid and yields toxic byproducts that frequently are not removed prior to sale and are currently inadequately studied. Pharmacological activity is qualitatively similar for Δ8-THC and Δ9-THC, but most preclinical studies in mice, rats, and monkeys documented greater ∆9-THC potency. Both isomers caused graded dose-response effects on euphoria, blurred vision, mental confusion and lethargy, although Δ8-THC was at least 25 % less potent. The most common analytical methodologies providing baseline resolution of ∆8-THC and ∆9-THC in non-biological matrices are liquid-chromatography coupled to diode-array detection (LC-DAD or LC-PDA), while liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry is preferred for biological matrices. Other available analytical methods are gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and quantitative nuclear magnetic resonance (QNMR). Current knowledge on the pharmacology of ∆8-THC and other ∆9-THC isomers are reviewed to raise awareness of the activity of these isomers in cannabis products, as well as analytical methods to discriminate ∆9-THC qualitatively, and quantitatively and ∆8-THC in biological and non-biological matrices.

Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry for clinical diagnostics

Mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical tool used for the analysis of a wide range of substances and matrices; it is increasingly utilized for clinical applications in laboratory medicine. This Primer includes an overview of basic mass spectrometry concepts, focusing primarily on tandem mass spectrometry. We discuss experimental considerations and quality management, and provide an overview of some key applications in the clinic. Lastly, the Primer discusses significant challenges for implementation of mass spectrometry in clinical laboratories and provides an outlook of where there are emerging clinical applications for this technology.

Tandem mass spectrometry is increasingly utilized for clinical applications in laboratory medicine. In this Primer, Thomas et al. discuss experimental considerations and quality management for implementing clinical tandem mass spectrometry in the clinic with an overview of some key applications.

Dried matrix spots in forensic toxicology

Dried matrix spots (DMS) has gained the attention of different professionals in different fields, including toxicology. Investigations have been carried out in order to assess the potential of using DMS for the analysis of illicit substances, the main interest of forensic toxicologists. This technique uses minimal volumes of samples and solvents, resulting in simple and rapid extraction procedures. Furthermore, it has proved to increase analyte stability, improving storage and transportation. However, DMS presents some limitations: the hematocrit influencing accuracy and inconsistencies regarding the means of spotting samples and adding internal standard on paper. Thus, we provide an overview of analytical methodologies with forensic applications focusing on drugs of abuse and discussing the main particularities, limitations and achievements.

A systematic review of quantitative analysis of cannabinoids in oral fluid

Cannabis sativa L. is a substance widely used around the world for recreational and medicinal purposes. Oral fluid has been investigated as an alternative biological matrix for demonstrating the illegal use of cannabis, particularly in situations where its recent use needs to be identified. In the last two decades, many methods have been developed to detect and quantify cannabinoids in oral fluid, especially for Δ⁹ -tetrahydrocannabinol, the primary psychoactive substance of cannabis. However, some aspects must be considered in the use of these techniques, such as cannabinoids recoveries or extraction efficiency from different oral fluid collection devices/containers. Pharmacokinetic studies have shown that the presence of minor cannabinoids and metabolites in the analysis of oral fluid may be valuable in interpreting tests, which indicates the need to improve the sensitivity of detecting low concentrations. The aim of this review is to summarize and to describe the methodologies for the quantitative analysis of cannabinoids in oral fluid that have previously been investigated. A systematic search for articles was performed of four different databases, using the descriptor "cannabinoids and oral fluid". Forty-seven studies that examined quantitative methods were identified. The analytical data described in these articles, including oral fluid collection, sample preparation, cannabinoids recovery and extraction efficiency, detection instruments, and quantification limits, were analyzed. The discussion of these particular features of cannabinoid analysis in oral fluid could help to improve or to develop methods for use in Forensic Toxicology.