The Effect of Route of Administration and Vehicle on the Pharmacokinetics of THC and CBD in Adult, Neonate, and Breastfed Sprague-Dawley Rats

Introduction: Basic pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic models of the phytocannabinoids Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are critical for developing translational models of exposure and toxicity. The neonatal period is a particularly important time to study the effects of cannabinoids, yet there are few studies of cannabinoid PKs by different routes such as direct injection or breast milk ingestion. To study this question, we have developed a translationally relevant rodent model of perinatal cannabinoid administration by measuring plasma levels of THC and CBD after different routes and preparations of these drugs. Materials and Methods: Adult animals and pups were injected with THC or CBD either intraperitoneally or subcutaneously, and plasma was analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to measure cannabinoid levels collected at specified intervals. We also tested the effect of preparation of the drug using an oil-based vehicle (sesame oil) and an aqueous vehicle (Tween). Finally, we measured the plasma levels of cannabinoids in neonatal pups that were transmitted through breast milk after intraperitoneal injection to nursing dams. Results: We observed differences in the PK profiles of cannabinoids in adults and neonatal pups that were dependent on the route of administration and type of vehicle. Cannabinoids prepared in aqueous vehicle, injected intraperitoneally, resulted in a high peak in plasma concentration, which rapidly decreased. In contrast, subcutaneous injections using sesame oil as a vehicle resulted in a slow rise and low plateau in plasma concentration. Intraperitoneal injections with sesame oil as a vehicle resulted in a slower rise compared with aqueous vehicle, but an earlier and higher peak compared with subcutaneous injection. Finally, the levels of THC and CBD that were similar to direct subcutaneous injections were measured in the plasma of pups nursing from intraperitoneally injected dams. Conclusions: The route of administration and the preparation of the drug have important and significant effects on the PK profiles of THC and CBD in rats. These results can be used to create different clinically relevant exposure paradigms in pups and adults, such as short high-dose exposure or a low-chronic exposure, each of which might have significant and varying effects on development.

Recent advances in the chromatographic analysis of endocannabinoids and phytocannabinoids in biological samples

Endocannabinoid system, including endocannabinoid neurotransmitters (eCBs), has gained much attention over the last years due to its involvement with the pathophysiology of diseases and the potential use of Cannabis sativa (marijuana). The identification of eCBs and phytocannabinoids in biological samples for forensic, clinical, or therapeutic drug monitoring purposes constitutes a still significant challenge. In this scoping review, the recent advantages, and limitations of the eCBs and phytocannabinoids quantification in biological samples are described. Published studies from 2018-2023 were searched in 8 databases, and after screening and exclusions, the selected 38 articles had their data tabulated, summarized, and analyzed. The main characteristics of the eCBs and phytocannabinoids analyzed and the potential use of each biological sample were described, indicating gaps in the literature that still need to be explored. Well-established and innovative sample preparation protocols, and chromatographic separations, such as GC, HPLC, and UHPLC, are reviewed highlighting their respective advantages, drawbacks, and challenges. Lastly, future approaches, challenges, and tendencies in the quantification analysis of cannabinoids are discussed.

Electrochemical Oxidation of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol at Nanomolar Concentrations

With increasing marijuana legalization, there is a growing need for technology that can determine if an individual is impaired due to recent marijuana usage. The electrochemical oxidation of Δ9-THC to form its corresponding quinones can be used as a framework to develop an electrochemical sensor for Δ9-THC. This study describes an electrochemical oxidation of Δ9-THC that uses a copper anode, a platinum cathode, and an atmosphere of oxygen. The oxidation is feasible at nanomolar concentrations, which approaches the reactivity that is necessary for developing a real-world marijuana breathalyzer. Moreover, we show that vaporized Δ9-THC can be captured directly in an electrolyte medium and subjected to electrochemical oxidation, thus paving the way for use in future technology development.

Analysis of Cannabinoids in Biological Specimens: An Update

Cannabinoids are still the most consumed drugs of abuse worldwide. Despite being considered less harmful to human health, particularly if compared with opiates or cocaine, cannabis consumption has important medico-legal and public health consequences. For this reason, the development and optimization of sensitive analytical methods that allow the determination of these compounds in different biological specimens is important, involving relevant efforts from laboratories. This paper will discuss cannabis consumption; toxicokinetics, the most detected compounds in biological samples; and characteristics of the latter. In addition, a comprehensive review of extraction methods and analytical tools available for cannabinoid detection in selected biological specimens will be reviewed. Important issues such as pitfalls and cut-off values will be considered.

Vapor pressure measurements on linalool using a rapid and inexpensive method suitable for cannabis-associated terpenes†

Vapor pressure (psat) data are needed to assess the potential use of terpenes as breath markers of recent cannabis use. Herein, a recently introduced gas-saturation method for psat measurements, known as dynamic vapor microextraction (DVME), was used to measure psat for the terpene (±)-3,7-dimethylocta-1,6-dien-3-ol, commonly known as linalool. The DVME apparatus utilizes inexpensive and commercially available components, a low internal volume, and helium carrier gas to minimize nonideal mixture behavior. In the temperature range from 314 K to 354 K, DVME-based measurements of the psat of linalool ranged from 81 Pa to 1250 Pa. With a measurement period of 30 min, the combined standard uncertainty of these measurements ranged from 0.0358·psat to 0.0584·psat, depending on temperature. The DVME-based measurements agree with a Wagner correlation of available literature data. We demonstrate that DVME produces accurate results for values of psat that are 200 times higher than in the DVME validation study with n-eicosane (C20H42). The oxidative stability of linalool was improved by the addition of 0.2 mass % of the antioxidant tert-butylhydroquinone.

A direct mass spectrometry method for cannabinoid quantitation in urine and oral fluid utilizing reactive paper spray ionization

Reactive paper spray mass spectrometry mitigates many of the challenges associated with direct cannabinoid measurements, allowing for rapid, reliable and quantitative measurements in oral fluid and in urine at clinically relevant levels.

Analysis of cannabinoids in conventional and alternative biological matrices by liquid chromatography: Applications and challenges

Cannabis is by far the most widely abused illicit drug globe wide. The analysis of its main psychoactive components in conventional and non-conventional biological matrices has recently gained a great attention in forensic toxicology. Literature states that its abuse causes neurocognitive impairment in the domains of attention and memory, possible macrostructural brain alterations and abnormalities of neural functioning. This suggests the necessity for the development of a sensitive and a reliable analytical method for the detection and quantification of cannabinoids in human biological specimens. In this review, we focus on a number of analytical methods that have, so far, been developed and validated, with particular attention to the new "golden standard" method of forensic analysis, liquid chromatography mass spectrometry or tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, this review provides an overview of the effective and selective methods used for the extraction and isolation of cannabinoids from (i) conventional matrices, such as blood, urine and oral fluid and (ii) alternative biological matrices, such as hair, cerumen and meconium.

Self-Reported Cannabis Use and Markers of Inflammation in Men Who Have Sex With Men With and Without HIV

Background: Chronic inflammation contributes to aging and organ dysfunction in the general population, and is a particularly important determinant of morbidity and mortality among people with HIV (PWH). The effect of cannabis use on chronic inflammation is not well understood among PWH, who use cannabis more frequently than the general population. Materials and Methods: We evaluated participants in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) beginning in 2004 with available data on cannabis use and inflammatory biomarkers. Associations of current cannabis use with plasma concentrations of inflammatory markers were adjusted for hepatitis C, tobacco smoking, and comorbidities. Markers were analyzed individually and in exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Results: We included 1352 men within the MACS. Twenty-seven percent of HIV-negative men, 41% of HIV viremic men, and 35% of virologically suppressed men reported cannabis use at baseline. Among cannabis users, 20-25% in all groups defined by HIV serostatus were daily users, and the same proportion reported weekly use. The remaining ∼50% of users in all groups reported monthly or less frequent use. Four biomarker groupings were identified by EFA: Factor 1: immune activation markers; Factor 2: proinflammatory cytokines; Factor 3: Th1- and Th2-promoting cytokines; and Factor 4: inflammatory chemokines. In EFA, daily users had 30% higher levels of Factor 2 biomarkers than nonusers (p=0.03); this was the only statistically significant difference by cannabis use status. Among individual markers, concentrations of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, and IL-8 (Factor 2); IL-10 (Factor 3); and BAFF (Factor 1) were higher (p<0.05) among daily cannabis users than among nonusers, after adjusting for HIV serostatus and other covariates. Discussion: Associations between daily cannabis use and proinflammatory biomarker levels did not differ by HIV serostatus. Further prospective studies with measured cannabis components are needed to clarify the impact of these compounds on inflammation. Our findings can facilitate for hypothesis generation and selection of biomarkers to include in such studies.

THC detection in the breath

Cannabis legalization and common use has further driven the need for accurate THC detection and analysis for roadside testing. While reliable and accurate techniques, such as mass spectrometry (MS) exist for the analysis of THC, the market lacks technologies that are portable and can be utilized outside of a laboratory setting. Innovations utilizing unique technologies have steadily been increasing. These include carbon nanotubes, specifically semiconductor-enriched single-walled carbon nanotube (s-SWCNT) chemiresistors and carbon nanotubes with integrated molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), giant magnetoresistive (GMR) biosensors, capillary electrophoresis (CE) with ultraviolet light-emitting diode-induced native fluorescence (UV-LEDIF), and electrochemical detection with the use of screen printed carbon electrodes and N-(4-amino-3-methoxyphenyl)-methanesulfonamide. Finally, a novel device has been recently launched to detect THC in the breath with the use of TLC and fluorescent probes. This review highlights the technologies that have been, and are being, explored to ultimately lead to a portable road-side test for THC once further testing in practice has been completed.

Emerging challenges in the extraction, analysis and bioanalysis of cannabidiol and related compounds

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a bioactive terpenophenolic compound isolated from Cannabis sativa L. It is known to possess several properties of pharmaceutical interest, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, neuroprotective and anti-convulsant, being it active as a multi-target compound. From a therapeutic point of view, CBD is most commonly used for seizure disorder in children. CBD is present in both medical and fiber-type C. sativa plants, but, unlike Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), it is a non-psychoactive compound. Non-psychoactive or fiber-type C. sativa (also known as hemp) differs from the medical one, since it contains only low levels of THC and high levels of CBD and related non-psychoactive cannabinoids. In addition to medical Cannabis, which is used for many different therapeutic purposes, a great expansion of the market of hemp plant material and related products has been observed in recent years, due to its usage in many fields, including food, cosmetics and electronic cigarettes liquids (commonly known as e-liquids). In this view, this work is focused on recent advances on sample preparation strategies and analytical methods for the chemical analysis of CBD and related compounds in both C. sativa plant material, its derived products and biological samples. Since sample preparation is considered to be a crucial step in the development of reliable analytical methods for the determination of natural compounds in complex matrices, different extraction methods are discussed. As regards the analysis of CBD and related compounds, the application of both separation and non-separation methods is discussed in detail. The advantages, disadvantages and applicability of the different methodologies currently available are evaluated. The scientific interest in the development of portable devices for the reliable analysis of CBD in vegetable and biological samples is also highlighted.

What the lab can and cannot do: clinical interpretation of drug testing results

Urine drug testing is one of the objective tools available to assess adherence. To monitor adherence, quantitative urinary results can assist in differentiating "new" drug use from "previous" (historical) drug use. "Spikes" in urinary concentration can assist in identifying patterns of drug use. Coupled chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods are capable of identifying very small amounts of analyte and can make clinical interpretation rather challenging, specifically for drugs that have a longer half-life. Polypharmacy is common in treatment and rehabilitation programs because of co-morbidities. Medications prescribed for comorbidities can cause drug-drug interaction and phenoconversion of genotypic extensive metabolizers into phenotypic poor metabolizers of the treatment drug. This can have significant impact on both pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic properties of the treatment drug. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) coupled with PKs can assist in interpreting the effects of phenoconversion. TDM-PKs reflects the cumulative effects of pathophysiological changes in the patient as well as drug-drug interactions and should be considered for treatment medications/drugs used to manage pain and treat substance abuse. Since only a few enzyme immunoassays for TDM are available, this is a unique opportunity for clinical laboratory scientists to develop TDM-PK protocols that can have a significant impact on patient care and personalized medicine. Interpretation of drug screening results should be done with caution while considering pharmacological properties and the presence or absence of the parent drug and its metabolites. The objective of this manuscript is to review and address the variables that influence interpretation of different drugs analyzed from a rehabilitation and treatment programs perspective.

A review on the recent advances in HPLC, UHPLC and UPLC analyses of naturally occurring cannabinoids (2010-2019)

INTRODUCTION

Organic molecules that bind to cannabinoid receptors are called cannabinoids, and they have similar pharmacological properties like the plant, Cannabis sativa L. Hyphenated liquid chromatography (LC), incorporating high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC, also known as ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography, UHPLC), usually coupled to an ultraviolet (UV), UV-photodiode array (PDA) or mass spectrometry (MS) detector, has become a popular analytical tool for the analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids in various matrices.

OBJECTIVE

To review literature on the use of various LC-based analytical methods for the analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids published since 2010.

METHODOLOGY

A comprehensive literature search was performed utilising several databases, like Web of Knowledge, PubMed and Google Scholar, and other relevant published materials including published books. The keywords used, in various combinations, with cannabinoids being present in all combinations, in the search were Cannabis, hemp, cannabinoids, Cannabis sativa, marijuana, analysis, HPLC, UHPLC, UPLC, quantitative, qualitative and quality control.

RESULTS

Since 2010, several LC methods for the analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids have been reported. While simple HPLC-UV or HPLC-UV-PDA-based methods were common in cannabinoids analysis, HPLC-MS, HPLC-MS/MS, UPLC (or UHPLC)-UV-PDA, UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS and UPLC (or UHPLC)-MS/MS, were also used frequently. Applications of mathematical and computational models for optimisation of different protocols were observed, and pre-analyses included various environmentally friendly extraction protocols.

CONCLUSIONS

LC-based analysis of naturally occurring cannabinoids has dominated the cannabinoids analysis during the last 10 years, and UPLC and UHPLC methods have been shown to be superior to conventional HPLC methods.

Validation of a liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method to detect cannabinoids in whole blood and breath

Background

The widespread availability of cannabis raises concerns regarding its effect on driving performance and operation of complex equipment. Currently, there are no established safe driving limits regarding ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentrations in blood or breath. Daily cannabis users build up a large body burden of THC with residual excretion for days or weeks after the start of abstinence. Therefore, it is critical to have a sensitive and specific analytical assay that quantifies THC, the main psychoactive component of cannabis, and multiple metabolites to improve interpretation of cannabinoids in blood; some analytes may indicate recent use.

Methods

A liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed to quantify THC, cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD), 11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC), (±)-11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-THC (THCCOOH), (+)-11-nor-Δ9-THC-9-carboxylic acid glucuronide (THCCOOH-gluc), cannabigerol (CBG), and tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) in whole blood (WB). WB samples were prepared by solid-phase extraction (SPE) and quantified by LC-MS/MS. A rapid and simple method involving methanol elution of THC in breath collected in SensAbues® devices was optimized.

Results

Lower limits of quantification ranged from 0.5 to 2 μg/L in WB. An LLOQ of 80 pg/pad was achieved for THC concentrations in breath. Calibration curves were linear (R2>0.995) with calibrator concentrations within ±15% of their target and quality control (QC) bias and imprecision ≤15%. No major matrix effects or drug interferences were observed.

Conclusions

The methods were robust and adequately quantified cannabinoids in biological blood and breath samples. These methods will be used to identify cannabinoid concentrations in an upcoming study of the effects of cannabis on driving.

Identifying and Quantifying Cannabinoids in Biological Matrices in the Medical and Legal Cannabis Era

Background

Cannabinoid analyses generally included, until recently, the primary psychoactive cannabis compound, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and/or its inactive metabolite, 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC, in blood, plasma, and urine. Technological advances revolutionized the analyses of major and minor phytocannabinoids in diverse biological fluids and tissues. An extensive literature search was conducted in PubMed for articles on cannabinoid analyses from 2000 through 2019. References in acquired manuscripts were also searched for additional articles.

Content

This article summarizes analytical methodologies for identification and quantification of multiple phytocannabinoids (including THC, cannabidiol, cannabigerol, and cannabichromene) and their precursors and/or metabolites in blood, plasma, serum, urine, oral fluid, hair, breath, sweat, dried blood spots, postmortem matrices, breast milk, meconium, and umbilical cord since the year 2000. Tables of nearly 200 studies outline parameters including analytes, specimen volume, instrumentation, and limits of quantification. Important diagnostic and interpretative challenges of cannabinoid analyses are also described. Medicalization and legalization of cannabis and the 2018 Agricultural Improvement Act increased demand for cannabinoid analyses for therapeutic drug monitoring, emergency toxicology, workplace and pain-management drug testing programs, and clinical and forensic toxicology applications. This demand is expected to intensify in the near future, with advances in instrumentation performance, increasing LC-MS/MS availability in clinical and forensic toxicology laboratories, and the ever-expanding knowledge of the potential therapeutic use and toxicity of phytocannabinoids.

Summary

Cannabinoid analyses and data interpretation are complex; however, major and minor phytocannabinoid detection windows and expected concentration ranges in diverse biological matrices improve the interpretation of cannabinoid test results.

Technologies to improve the sensitivity of existing chromatographic methods used for bioanalytical studies

Chromatographic method has long been recognized as the most widely used separation method in bioanalytical research. However, the relatively low sensitivity of existing chromatographic methods remains a significant challenge, as the requirements for experimental procedures become more demanding. This review discusses the main causes for the low sensitivity of chromatographic methods and aims to introduce different technologies for enhancing their sensitivity in the following aspects: (i) different pretreatment methods for improving clean-up efficiency and recovery; (ii) derivatization step for altering the chromatographic behavior of analytes and enhancing MS ionization efficiency; (iii) optimal LC-MS conditions and appropriate separation mechanism; and (iv) applications of other chromatographic methods, including miniaturized LC, 2D-LC, 2D-GC, and supercritical fluid chromatography. Altogether, this review is devoted to summarizing the recent technologies reported in the literature and providing new strategies for the detection of bioanalytes.

Correlation of Breath and Blood Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Concentrations and Release Kinetics Following Controlled Administration of Smoked Cannabis

BACKGROUND

Cannabis use results in impaired driving and an increased risk of motor vehicle crashes. Cannabinoid concentrations in blood and other matrices can remain high long after use, prohibiting the differentiation between acute and chronic exposure. Exhaled breath has been proposed as an alternative matrix in which concentrations may more closely correspond to the window of impairment; however, efficient capture and analytically sensitive detection methods are required for measurement.

METHODS

Timed blood and breath samples were collected from 20 volunteers before and after controlled administration of smoked cannabis. Cannabinoid concentrations were measured using LC-MS/MS to determine release kinetics and correlation between the 2 matrices.

RESULTS

Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) was detected in exhaled breath for all individuals at baseline through 3 h after cannabis use. THC concentrations in breath were highest at the 15-min timepoint (median = 17.8 pg/L) and declined to &lt;5% of this concentration in all participants 3 h after smoking. The decay curve kinetics observed for blood and breath were highly correlated within individuals and across the population.

CONCLUSIONS

THC can be reliably detected throughout the presumed 3-h impairment window following controlled administration of smoked cannabis. The findings support breath THC concentrations as representing a physiological process and are correlated to blood concentrations, albeit with a shorter window of detection.