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The Mammary Gland: Basic Structure and Molecular Signaling during Development. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073883. [PMID: 35409243 PMCID: PMC8998991 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland is a compound, branched tubuloalveolar structure and a major characteristic of mammals. The mammary gland has evolved from epidermal apocrine glands, the skin glands as an accessory reproductive organ to support postnatal survival of offspring by producing milk as a source of nutrition. The mammary gland development begins during embryogenesis as a rudimentary structure that grows into an elementary branched ductal tree and is embedded in one end of a larger mammary fat pad at birth. At the onset of ovarian function at puberty, the rudimentary ductal system undergoes dramatic morphogenetic change with ductal elongation and branching. During pregnancy, the alveolar differentiation and tertiary branching are completed, and during lactation, the mature milk-producing glands eventually develop. The early stages of mammary development are hormonal independent, whereas during puberty and pregnancy, mammary gland development is hormonal dependent. We highlight the current understanding of molecular regulators involved during different stages of mammary gland development.
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Berryhill GE, Gloviczki JM, Trott JF, Kraft J, Lock AL, Hovey RC. In Utero Exposure to trans-10, cis-12 Conjugated Linoleic Acid Modifies Postnatal Development of the Mammary Gland and its Hormone Responsiveness. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2021; 26:263-276. [PMID: 34617201 PMCID: PMC8566432 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-021-09499-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously showed that dietary trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (10,12 CLA) stimulates estrogen-independent mammary growth in young ovariectomized mice. Here we investigated the effects of in utero or postnatal exposure to cis-9, trans-11 (9,11 CLA) and 10,12 CLA on postnatal development of the mammary gland and its responsiveness to ovarian steroids. In the first experiment we fed dams different CLA prior to and during gestation, then cross fostered female pups onto control fed dams prior to assessing the histomorphology of their mammary glands. Pregnant dams in the second experiment were similarly exposed to CLA, after which their female pups were ovariectomized then treated with 17β-estradiol (E), progesterone (P) or E + P for 5 days. In a third experiment, mature female mice were fed different CLA for 28 days prior to ovariectomy, then treated with E, P or E + P. Our data indicate that 10,12 CLA modifies the responsiveness of the mammary glands to E or E + P when exposure occurs either in utero, or postnatally. These findings underline the sensitivity of the mammary glands to dietary fatty acids and reinforce the potential for maternal nutrition to impact postnatal development of the mammary glands and their risk for developing cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace E Berryhill
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis , 2145 Meyer Hall, Davis, CA, 95616-8521, USA
| | - Julia M Gloviczki
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis , 2145 Meyer Hall, Davis, CA, 95616-8521, USA
| | - Josephine F Trott
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis , 2145 Meyer Hall, Davis, CA, 95616-8521, USA
| | - Jana Kraft
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, 05405-0148, USA
| | - Adam L Lock
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824-1225, USA
| | - Russell C Hovey
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis , 2145 Meyer Hall, Davis, CA, 95616-8521, USA.
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3
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Dawson CA, Visvader JE. The Cellular Organization of the Mammary Gland: Insights From Microscopy. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2021; 26:71-85. [PMID: 33835387 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-021-09483-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite rapid advances in our knowledge of the cellular heterogeneity and molecular regulation of the mammary gland, how these relate to 3D cellular organization remains unclear. In addition to hormonal regulation, mammary gland development and function is directed by para- and juxtacrine signaling among diverse cell-types, particularly the immune and mesenchymal populations. Precise mapping of the cellular landscape of the breast will help to decipher this complex coordination. Imaging of thin tissue sections has provided foundational information about cell positioning in the mammary gland and now technological advances in tissue clearing and subcellular-resolution 3D imaging are painting a more complete picture. In particular, confocal, light-sheet and multiphoton microscopy applied to intact tissue can fully capture cell morphology, position and interactions, and have the power to identify spatially rare events. This review will summarize our current understanding of mammary gland cellular organization as revealed by microscopy. We focus on the mouse mammary gland and cover a broad range of immune and stromal cell types at major developmental stages and give insights into important tissue niches and cellular interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb A Dawson
- Cancer Biology and Stem Cells Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 3052, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, 3010, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
| | - Jane E Visvader
- Cancer Biology and Stem Cells Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 3052, Parkville, VIC, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, 3010, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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Berryhill GE, Lemay DG, Trott JF, Aimo L, Lock AL, Hovey RC. The Transcriptome of Estrogen-Independent Mammary Growth in Female Mice Reveals That Not All Mammary Glands Are Created Equally. Endocrinology 2017; 158:3126-3139. [PMID: 28938404 PMCID: PMC5659702 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-00395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Allometric growth of ducts in the mammary glands (MGs) is widely held to be estrogen dependent. We previously discovered that the dietary fatty acid trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) stimulates estrogen-independent allometric growth and terminal end bud formation in ovariectomized mice. Given the similar phenotype induced by estrogen and CLA, we investigated the shared and/or divergent mechanisms underlying these changes. We confirmed MG growth induced by CLA is temporally distinct from that elicited by estrogen. We then used RNA sequencing to compare the transcriptome of the MG during similar proliferative and morphological states. Both estrogen and CLA affected the genes involved in proliferation. The transcriptome for estrogen-treated mice included canonical estrogen-induced genes, including Pgr, Areg, and Foxa1. In contrast, their expression was unchanged by CLA. However, CLA, but not estrogen, altered expression of a unique set of inflammation-associated genes, consistent with stromal changes. This CLA-altered signature included increased expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway components, consistent with the demonstration that CLA-induced MG growth is EGFR dependent. Our findings highlight a unique role for diet-induced inflammation that underlies estrogen-independent MG development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace E. Berryhill
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Danielle G. Lemay
- UC Davis Genome Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Services, Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California 95616
| | - Josephine F. Trott
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Lucila Aimo
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Adam L. Lock
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1225
| | - Russell C. Hovey
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
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Berryhill GE, Trott JF, Hovey RC. Mammary gland development--It's not just about estrogen. J Dairy Sci 2015; 99:875-83. [PMID: 26506542 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-10105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The mammary gland (MG) is one of a few organs that undergoes most of its growth after birth. Much of this development occurs concurrently with specific reproductive states, such that the ultimate goal of milk synthesis and secretion is coordinated with the nutritional requirements of the neonate. Central to the reproductive-MG axis is its endocrine regulation, and pivotal to this regulation is the ovarian secretion of estrogen (E). Indeed, it is widely accepted that estrogens are essential for growth of the MG to occur, both for ductal elongation during puberty and for alveolar development during gestation. As the factors regulating MG development continually come to light from the fields of developmental biology, lactation physiology, and breast cancer research, a growing body of evidence serves as a reminder that the MG are not as exclusively dependent on estrogens as might have been thought. The objective of this review is to summarize the state of information regarding our understanding of how estrogen (E) has been implicated as the key regulator of MG development, and to highlight some of the alternative E-independent mechanisms that have been discovered. In particular, we review our findings that dietary trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid promotes ductal elongation and that the combination of progesterone (P) and prolactin (PRL) can stimulate branching morphogenesis in the absence of E. Ultimately, these examples stand as a healthy challenge to the question of just how important estrogens are for MG development. Answers to this question, in turn, increase our understanding of MG development across all mammals and the ways in which it can affect milk production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace E Berryhill
- Department of Animal Science, University of California-Davis, 2145 Meyer Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis 95618
| | - Josephine F Trott
- Department of Animal Science, University of California-Davis, 2145 Meyer Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis 95618
| | - Russell C Hovey
- Department of Animal Science, University of California-Davis, 2145 Meyer Hall, One Shields Avenue, Davis 95618.
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Pini M, Touch S, Poirier H, Dalmas E, Niot I, Rouault C, Druart C, Delzenne N, Clément K, André S, Guerre‐Millo M. Adipose tissue adaptive response to
trans
‐10,
cis‐
12‐conjugated linoleic acid engages alternatively activated M2 macrophages. FASEB J 2015; 30:241-51. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.15-276675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pini
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Université Paris 06, Unité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166ParisFrance
- INSERMUnité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166, Nutriomics Team 6ParisFrance
- Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, Pitié‐Salpêtrière HospitalAssistance Publique‐Hôpitaux de ParisParisFrance
| | - Sothea Touch
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Université Paris 06, Unité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166ParisFrance
- INSERMUnité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166, Nutriomics Team 6ParisFrance
- Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, Pitié‐Salpêtrière HospitalAssistance Publique‐Hôpitaux de ParisParisFrance
| | - Helene Poirier
- INSERM, Unité Mixte de Recherche U866Université de Bourgogne, AgroSupDijonDijonFrance
| | - Elise Dalmas
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Université Paris 06, Unité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166ParisFrance
- INSERMUnité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166, Nutriomics Team 6ParisFrance
- Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, Pitié‐Salpêtrière HospitalAssistance Publique‐Hôpitaux de ParisParisFrance
| | - Isabelle Niot
- INSERM, Unité Mixte de Recherche U866Université de Bourgogne, AgroSupDijonDijonFrance
| | - Christine Rouault
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Université Paris 06, Unité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166ParisFrance
- INSERMUnité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166, Nutriomics Team 6ParisFrance
- Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, Pitié‐Salpêtrière HospitalAssistance Publique‐Hôpitaux de ParisParisFrance
| | - Celine Druart
- Louvain Drug Research InstituteMetabolism and Nutrition Research GroupBrusselsBelgium
| | - Nathalie Delzenne
- Louvain Drug Research InstituteMetabolism and Nutrition Research GroupBrusselsBelgium
| | - Karine Clément
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Université Paris 06, Unité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166ParisFrance
- INSERMUnité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166, Nutriomics Team 6ParisFrance
- Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, Pitié‐Salpêtrière HospitalAssistance Publique‐Hôpitaux de ParisParisFrance
| | - Sebastien André
- Sorbonne Universités, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Université Paris 06, Unité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166ParisFrance
- INSERMUnité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166, Nutriomics Team 6ParisFrance
- Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, Pitié‐Salpêtrière HospitalAssistance Publique‐Hôpitaux de ParisParisFrance
| | - Michele Guerre‐Millo
- INSERMUnité Mixte de Recherche en Santé 1166, Nutriomics Team 6ParisFrance
- Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, Pitié‐Salpêtrière HospitalAssistance Publique‐Hôpitaux de ParisParisFrance
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Garofalo JM, Bowers DM, Browne RW, MacQueen BT, Mashtare T, Martin LB, Masso-Welch PA. Mouse mammary gland is refractory to the effects of ethanol after natural lactation. Comp Med 2013; 63:38-47. [PMID: 23561936 PMCID: PMC3567375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Revised: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 08/30/2012] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Ethanol is a dietary factor that dose-dependently increases breast cancer risk in women. We previously have shown that ethanol increases mammary epithelial density through increased branching after dietary exposure during puberty in CD2/F1 mice. To extend these studies to parous mice in a breast cancer model, we used a transgenic mouse model of human parity-associated breast cancer, the FVB-MMTV-Her2/Neu mouse, which overexpresses wildtype EGFR2, resulting in constitutive activation of growth signaling in the mammary epithelium. Here we describe the short-term effects of ethanol feeding on progression through involution. Mice were fed diets supplemented with 0%, 0.5%, 1%, or 2% ethanol for 4, 9, or 14 d starting on day 21 of lactation (that is, at the start of natural postlactational involution). Unlike peripubertal mice exposed to ethanol, postlactational dams showed no changes in body weight; liver, spleen, and kidney weights; and pathology. Ethanol exposure had no effect on mammary gland lobular density and adipocyte size throughout involution. Likewise, the infiltration of inflammatory cells and serum oxidized lipid species were unchanged by diet, suggesting that ethanol feeding had no effect on local inflammation (leukocyte infiltration) or systemic inflammation (oxidized lipids). In conclusion, ethanol exposure of parous dams had no effect on mammary gland structure or the regression of the lactating mammary gland to a resting state. The period of involution that follows natural lactation appears to be refractory to developmental effects of ethanol on mammary epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dawn M Bowers
- Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and
| | - Richard W Browne
- Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and
| | - Brian T MacQueen
- Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and
| | - Terry Mashtare
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health and Health Professions, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York
| | | | - Patricia A Masso-Welch
- Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and
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8
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Immunohistochemical Study of Calretinin in Normal Skin and Cutaneous Adnexal Proliferations. Am J Dermatopathol 2012; 34:491-505. [PMID: 22343111 DOI: 10.1097/dad.0b013e31823aded5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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9
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Masso-Welch PA, Merhige PM, Veeranki OLM, Kuo SM. Loss of IL-10 decreases mouse postpubertal mammary gland development in the absence of inflammation. Immunol Invest 2012; 41:521-37. [PMID: 22594921 DOI: 10.3109/08820139.2012.684193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
IL-10 is a pleiotrophic anti-inflammatory cytokine. Decreased IL-10 expression is associated with an increased breast cancer risk but the mechanism is not clear. This study was designed to test the hypothesis that the loss of IL-10 alters mammary development, even in the absence of inflammation. Wild-type and IL-10-/- mouse littermates were similar in growth, development, and breeding success. Using whole-mounts and paraffin sections, mammary glands from pre-pubertal mice (d21) were found to not be affected by the IL-10 null genotype. However, after the onset of estrous cycling, ductal structure, but not lymph nodes or adipocytes, of IL-10 knockout mice were found to moderately decrease at day 55, 80, and 150 of age. This phenotype was not rescued by lactogenesis. At day 2 of lactation, IL-10 null mice had reduced lobular complexity and glandular area with the retention of adipocytes. These results support the hypothesis that absence of IL-10 reduces glandular development during postnatal development, at maturity, and during the early stages of lactation. Although our study cannot distinguish between a direct IL-10 effect on the epithelial cells and an indirect systemic effect, epithelial cell responses to IL-10 should be considered in the therapeutic applications of cytokines or cytokine ablation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia A Masso-Welch
- Department of Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
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Krishnan S, Russell J, Bodziak M, Koury S, Masso-Welch P. Direct effects of conjugated linoleic acid isomers on P815 mast cells in vitro. Immunol Invest 2012; 41:399-411. [PMID: 22268590 DOI: 10.3109/08820139.2011.647187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a dietary fatty acid which causes extensive remodeling and mast cell recruitment in the mouse mammary gland. Two CLA isomers, 9,11- and 10,12-CLA, have differing effects in vivo, with only 10,12-CLA increasing mast cell number. The purpose of this project is to test the hypothesis that CLA acts directly on the mast cell. The P815 mastocytoma cell line was assayed for the effects of CLA on mast cell number, proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation. Both CLA isomers decreased viable mast cell number, with no effect on membrane integrity, or cell cycle distribution. 10,12-CLA induced an increase in apoptosis, assessed by Annexin-FITC binding. Both isomers increased mast cell granularity, and secretion of MMP-9. The complex effects of CLA isomers on mast cells in the mammary gland are distinct from direct effects on mast cells in vitro, and may require interactions between multiple cell types present in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddharth Krishnan
- Department of Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences, School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA.
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Abstract
The mammary gland undergoes a spectacular series of changes as it develops, and maintains a remarkable capacity to remodel and regenerate for several decades. Mammary morphogenesis has been investigated for over 100 years, motivated by the dairy industry and cancer biologists. Over the past decade, the gland has emerged as a major model system in its own right for understanding the cell biology of tissue morphogenesis. Multiple signalling pathways from several cell types are orchestrated together with mechanical cues and cell rearrangements to establish the pattern of the mammary gland. The integrated mechanical and molecular pathways that control mammary morphogenesis have implications for the developmental regulation of other epithelial organs.
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12
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Gebauer SK, Chardigny JM, Jakobsen MU, Lamarche B, Lock AL, Proctor SD, Baer DJ. Effects of ruminant trans fatty acids on cardiovascular disease and cancer: a comprehensive review of epidemiological, clinical, and mechanistic studies. Adv Nutr 2011; 2:332-54. [PMID: 22332075 PMCID: PMC3125683 DOI: 10.3945/an.111.000521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
There are 2 predominant sources of dietary trans fatty acids (TFA) in the food supply, those formed during the industrial partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils (iTFA) and those formed by biohydrogenation in ruminants (rTFA), including vaccenic acid (VA) and the naturally occurring isomer of conjugated linoleic acid, cis-9, trans-11 CLA (c9,t11-CLA). The objective of this review is to evaluate the evidence base from epidemiological and clinical studies to determine whether intake of rTFA isomers, specifically VA and c9,t11-CLA, differentially affects risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer compared with iTFA. In addition, animal and cell culture studies are reviewed to explore potential pro- and antiatherogenic mechanisms of VA and c9,t11-CLA. Some epidemiological studies suggest that a positive association with coronary heart disease risk exists between only iTFA isomers and not rTFA isomers. Small clinical studies have been conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships between these different sources of TFA and biomarkers or risk factors of CVD with inconclusive results. The lack of detection of treatment effects reported in some studies may be due to insufficient statistical power. Many studies have used doses of rTFA that are not realistically attainable via diet; thus, further clinical studies are warranted. Associations between iTFA intake and cancer have been inconsistent, and associations between rTFA intake and cancer have not been well studied. Clinical studies have not been conducted investigating the cause-and-effect relationship between iTFA and rTFA intake and risk for cancers. Further research is needed to determine the health effects of VA and c9,t11-CLA in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah K. Gebauer
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Beltsville, MD 20705
| | - Jean-Michel Chardigny
- Clermont Université, Université d'Auvergne, Unité de Nutrition Humaine, BP 10448, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
- INRA, UMR 1019, UNH, CRNH Auvergne, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Marianne Uhre Jakobsen
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Benoît Lamarche
- Institute on Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, Laval University, Québec, QC, Canada G1V 0A
| | - Adam L. Lock
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48864
| | - Spencer D. Proctor
- Metabolic and Cardiovascular Laboratory, Alberta Institute for Human Nutrition and Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, AB, Canada T6G2P5
| | - David J. Baer
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Beltsville, MD 20705
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Belda BJ, Lee Y, Vanden Heuvel JP. Conjugated linoleic acids and inflammation: isomer- and tissue-specific responses. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.2217/clp.10.54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Reed JR, Schwertfeger KL. Immune cell location and function during post-natal mammary gland development. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2010; 15:329-39. [PMID: 20730636 PMCID: PMC4204476 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-010-9188-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 08/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Post-natal mammary gland development requires complex interactions between the epithelial cells and various cell types within the stroma. Recent studies have illustrated the importance of immune cells and their mediators during the various stages of mammary gland development. However, the mechanisms by which these immune cells functionally contribute to mammary gland development are only beginning to be understood. This review provides an overview of the localization of immune cells within the mammary gland during the various stages of post-natal mammary gland development. Furthermore, recent studies are summarized that illustrate the mechanisms by which these cells are recruited to the mammary gland and their functional roles in mammary gland development.
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15
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Hovey RC, Aimo L. Diverse and active roles for adipocytes during mammary gland growth and function. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2010; 15:279-90. [PMID: 20717712 PMCID: PMC2941079 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-010-9187-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2010] [Accepted: 08/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland is unique in its requirement to develop in close association with a depot of adipose tissue that is commonly referred to as the mammary fat pad. As discussed throughout this issue, the mammary fat pad represents a complex stromal microenvironment that includes a variety of cell types. In this article we focus on adipocytes as local regulators of epithelial cell growth and their function during lactation. Several important considerations arise from such a discussion. There is a clear and close interrelationship between different stromal tissue types within the mammary fat pad and its adipocytes. Furthermore, these relationships are both stage- and species-dependent, although many questions remain unanswered regarding their roles in these different states. Several lines of evidence also suggest that adipocytes within the mammary fat pad may function differently from those in other fat depots. Finally, past and future technologies present a variety of opportunities to model these complexities in order to more precisely delineate the many potential functions of adipocytes within the mammary glands. A thorough understanding of the role for this cell type in the mammary glands could present numerous opportunities to modify both breast cancer risk and lactation performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell C Hovey
- Department of Animal Science, University of California-Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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16
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Mast cells contribute to the stromal microenvironment in mammary gland branching morphogenesis. Dev Biol 2009; 337:124-33. [PMID: 19850030 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2009] [Revised: 10/12/2009] [Accepted: 10/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The stromal microenvironment regulates mammary gland branching morphogenesis. We have observed that mast cells are present in the mammary gland throughout its postnatal development and, in particular, are found around the terminal end buds and ductal epithelium of the pubertal gland. Mast cells contribute to allergy, inflammatory diseases, and cancer development but have not been implicated in normal development. Genetic and pharmacological disruption of mast cell function in the mammary gland revealed that mast cells are involved in rapid proliferation and normal duct branching during puberty, and this effect is independent of macrophage recruitment, which also regulates mammary gland development. For mast cells to exert their effects on normal morphogenesis required activation of their serine proteases and degranulation. Our observations reveal a novel role for mast cells during normal pubertal development in the mammary gland.
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