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Bai X, Wang S, Li N, Xu M, Chen JL, Qian YP, Wang TH. Role of Qufeng Tongqiao Prescription in the protection of cerebral ischemia and associated molecular network mechanism. Chem Biol Drug Des 2024; 103:e14475. [PMID: 38433560 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.14475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 01/06/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
To explore the of Qufeng Tongqiao Prescription in the treatment of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (CIR) and associated molecular network mechanism. Venny diagram, gene ontology (GO) and kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) analysis, protein-protein interaction (PPI), hub genes mining, molecular docking, combined with animal experiments and Nissl stain were performed to determine the molecular network mechanism of Qufeng Tongqiao Prescription for CIR treatment. Fifty three intersecting genes between Qufeng Tongqiao Prescription and cerebral ischemia reperfusion were acquired from Venny analysis. GO analysis showed that the main biological process (BP) was response to lipopolysaccharide, and the main cell localization (CC) process was membrane raft, while the most important molecular function (MF) process is Cytokine receptor binding. Moreover, AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications is the most important signaling pathway in KEGG pathway. Through molecular docking, it was found that Astragalus membranaceus was docked with MAPK14, IL4, FOS, IL6, and JUN; pueraria membranaceus was directly docked with JUN and IL4; Acorus acorus was linked to JUN and MAPK14; Ganoderma ganoderma and human were involved in JUN docking, and Ligusticum chuanqi and pueraria could not be docked with MAPK14, respectively. The results of animal experiments showed that Qufeng Tongqiao Prescription significantly improved behavioral performance and reduced the number of neuronal deaths in rats subjected to CIR, and molecular mechanisms are associated with FOS, IL-6, IL4, JUN, and MAPK14, of there, IL-6, as a vital candidator, which has been confirmed by immunostaining detection. Together, Qufeng Tongqiao Prescription has positive therapeutic effect on CIR, and the underlying mechanism is involved MAPK14, FOS, IL4, and JUN network, while IL-6 may be as a vital target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Bai
- Department of Encephalopathy, Affiliated Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Shen Wang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Na Li
- Animal Center, Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Min Xu
- Department of Anatomy, College of basic medicine, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Ji-Lin Chen
- Animal Center, Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Yan-Ping Qian
- Department of Gynecology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Ting-Hua Wang
- Animal Center, Institute of Neuroscience, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
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2
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Alsbrook DL, Di Napoli M, Bhatia K, Biller J, Andalib S, Hinduja A, Rodrigues R, Rodriguez M, Sabbagh SY, Selim M, Farahabadi MH, Jafarli A, Divani AA. Neuroinflammation in Acute Ischemic and Hemorrhagic Stroke. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2023; 23:407-431. [PMID: 37395873 PMCID: PMC10544736 DOI: 10.1007/s11910-023-01282-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review aims to provide an overview of neuroinflammation in ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, including recent findings on the mechanisms and cellular players involved in the inflammatory response to brain injury. RECENT FINDINGS Neuroinflammation is a crucial process following acute ischemic stroke (AIS) and hemorrhagic stroke (HS). In AIS, neuroinflammation is initiated within minutes of the ischemia onset and continues for several days. In HS, neuroinflammation is initiated by blood byproducts in the subarachnoid space and/or brain parenchyma. In both cases, neuroinflammation is characterized by the activation of resident immune cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, and infiltration of peripheral immune cells, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and reactive oxygen species. These inflammatory mediators contribute to blood-brain barrier disruption, neuronal damage, and cerebral edema, promoting neuronal apoptosis and impairing neuroplasticity, ultimately exacerbating the neurologic deficit. However, neuroinflammation can also have beneficial effects by clearing cellular debris and promoting tissue repair. The role of neuroinflammation in AIS and ICH is complex and multifaceted, and further research is necessary to develop effective therapies that target this process. Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) will be the HS subtype addressed in this review. Neuroinflammation is a significant contributor to brain tissue damage following AIS and HS. Understanding the mechanisms and cellular players involved in neuroinflammation is essential for developing effective therapies to reduce secondary injury and improve stroke outcomes. Recent findings have provided new insights into the pathophysiology of neuroinflammation, highlighting the potential for targeting specific cytokines, chemokines, and glial cells as therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana L Alsbrook
- Department of Neurology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Mario Di Napoli
- Neurological Service, SS Annunziata Hospital, Sulmona, L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Kunal Bhatia
- Department of Neurology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - José Biller
- Department of Neurology, Loyola University Chicago, Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL, USA
| | - Sasan Andalib
- Research Unit of Neurology, Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Archana Hinduja
- Department of Neurology, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Roysten Rodrigues
- Department of Neurology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Miguel Rodriguez
- College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Sara Y Sabbagh
- Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Magdy Selim
- Stroke Division, Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Alibay Jafarli
- Department of Neurology, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Afshin A Divani
- Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA.
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3
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Mohan M, Mannan A, Singh TG. Therapeutic implication of Sonic Hedgehog as a potential modulator in ischemic injury. Pharmacol Rep 2023:10.1007/s43440-023-00505-0. [PMID: 37347388 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-023-00505-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Sonic Hedgehog (SHh) is a homology protein that is involved in the modeling and development of embryonic tissues. As SHh plays both protective and harmful roles in ischemia, any disruption in the transduction and regulation of the SHh signaling pathway causes ischemia to worsen. The SHh signal activation occurs when SHh binds to the receptor complex of Ptc-mediated Smoothened (Smo) (Ptc-smo), which initiates the downstream signaling cascade. This article will shed light on how pharmacological modifications to the SHh signaling pathway transduction mechanism alter ischemic conditions via canonical and non-canonical pathways by activating certain downstream signaling cascades with respect to protein kinase pathways, angiogenic cytokines, inflammatory mediators, oxidative parameters, and apoptotic pathways. The canonical pathway includes direct activation of interleukins (ILs), angiogenic cytokines like hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), and hypoxia-inducible factor alpha (HIF-), which modulate ischemia. The non-canonical pathway includes indirect activation of certain pathways like mTOR, PI3K/Akt, MAPK, RhoA/ROCK, Wnt/-catenin, NOTCH, Forkhead box protein (FOXF), Toll-like receptors (TLR), oxidative parameters such as GSH, SOD, and CAT, and some apoptotic parameters such as Bcl2. This review provides comprehensive insights that contribute to our knowledge of how SHh impacts the progression and outcomes of ischemic injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maneesh Mohan
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, 140401, India
| | - Ashi Mannan
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, 140401, India
| | - Thakur Gurjeet Singh
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab, 140401, India.
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4
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Li X, Yin X, Pang J, Chen Z, Wen J. Hydrogen sulfide inhibits lipopolysaccharide-based neuroinflammation-induced astrocyte polarization after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Eur J Pharmacol 2023; 949:175743. [PMID: 37084816 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.175743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
Abstract
The effect of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-based neuroinflammation following cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) on the genotypic transformation of reactive astrocytes and its relationship with endogenous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) were investigated in present study. We found that LPS promoted the cerebral I/R-induced A1 astrocytes proliferation in mouse hippocampal tissues and deteriorated the reduction of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) content in mouse sera, H2S donor NaHS could inhibitA1 astrocytes proliferation. Similarly, knockout of cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE), one of endogenous H2S synthases, likewise up-regulated the cerebral I/R-induced A1 astrocytes proliferation, which could also be blocked by NaHS. Besides, supplement with H2S promoted the A2 astrocytes proliferation in hippocampal tissues of CSE knockout (CSE KO) mice or LPS-treated mice following cerebral I/R. In the oxygen glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) model of astrocytes, H2S also promoted the transformation of astrocytes into A2 subtype. Moreover, we found that H2S could up-regulate the expression of α-subunit of large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BKCa) channels in astrocytes, and the channel opener BMS-191011 likewise promoted the transformation of astrocyte into A2 subtype. In conclusion, H2S inhibits the proliferation of A1 astrocytes induced by LPS-based neuroinflammation following cerebral I/R and promotes the transformation of astrocytes into A2 subtype, which may be related to up-regulation of BKCa channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyan Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Xiaojiao Yin
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Jiazhuang Pang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Zhiwu Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China.
| | - Jiyue Wen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China.
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5
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Kang R, Gamdzyk M, Luo Y, Tang H, Huang L, Lenahan C, Doycheva D, Li D, Tang J, Tan S, Zhang JH. Three Days Delayed Recanalization Improved Neurological Function in pMCAO Rats by Increasing M2 Microglia-Possible Involvement of the IL-4R/STAT6/PPARγ Pathway. Transl Stroke Res 2023; 14:250-262. [PMID: 35867328 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-022-01032-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Current approved therapies for acute ischemic stroke have a restricted therapeutic time window. Delayed recanalization, which has been utilized clinically in patients who have missed the time window for administration, may be a promising alternative for stroke patients. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain undiscovered. Herein, we hypothesized that delayed recanalization would increase M2 microglial polarization through the IL-4R (interleukin-4 receptor)/STAT6 (signal transducer and activators of transcription 6)/PPARγ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ) pathway, subsequently promoting stroke recovery in rats. The permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO) model was induced via intravascular filament insertion. Recanalization was induced by withdrawing the filament at 3 days after MCAO (rMCAO). Interleukin (IL)-4 was administered intranasally at 3 days after pMCAO. AS1517499, a specific STAT6 inhibitor, was administered intranasally at 3 days after MCAO induction. Immunofluorescence staining, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), western blot analysis, volumetric measurements of brain infarct, and neurological behavior tests were conducted. Delayed recanalization at 3 days after MCAO increased the polarization of M2 microglia, decreased inflammation, and improved neurological behavior. IL-4 treatment administered on the 3rd day after pMCAO increased M2 microglial polarization, improved neurological behavior, and reduced infarction volume of pMCAO rats. The inhibition of STAT6 decreased the level of p-STAT6 and PPARγ in rats treated with delayed recanalization. Delayed recanalization improved neurological function by increasing microglial M2 polarization, possibly involved with the IL-4R/STAT6/PPARγ pathway after MCAO in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruiqing Kang
- Department of Neurology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, Guangdong, China.,Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA
| | - Marcin Gamdzyk
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA
| | - Yujie Luo
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA
| | - Hong Tang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA
| | - Lei Huang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA
| | - Cameron Lenahan
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA
| | - Desislava Doycheva
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA
| | - Dujuan Li
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA
| | - Jiping Tang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA
| | - Sheng Tan
- Department of Neurology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, Guangdong, China.
| | - John H Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA. .,Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA. .,Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11041 Campus Street, Loma Linda, CA, 92354, USA.
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6
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Tang H, Zhang X, Hao X, Dou H, Zou C, Zhou Y, Li B, Yue H, Wang D, Wang Y, Yang C, Fu J. Hepatocyte growth factor-modified hair follicle stem cells ameliorate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats. Stem Cell Res Ther 2023; 14:25. [PMID: 36782269 PMCID: PMC9926795 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-023-03251-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hair follicle stem cells (HFSCs) are considered as a promising cell type in the stem cell transplantation treatment of neurological diseases because of their rich sources, easy access, and the same ectoderm source as the nervous system. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a pleiotropic cytokine that shows neuroprotective function in ischemic stroke. Here we assessed the therapeutic effects of HFSCs on ischemic stroke injury and the synthetic effect of HGF along with HFSCs. METHODS Rat HFSCs were intravenously transplanted into a middle cerebral artery ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) rat model. Neurological scoring and TTC staining were performed to assess the benefits of HFSC transplantation. Inflammatory cytokines, blood-brain barrier integrity and angiogenesis within penumbra were estimated by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. The differentiation of HFSCs was detected by immunofluorescence method 2 weeks after transplantation. RESULTS HFSC transplantation could significantly inhibit the activation of microglia, improve the integrity of blood-brain barrier and reduce brain edema. Moreover, the number of surviving neurons and microvessels density in the penumbra were upregulated by HFSC transplantation, leading to better neurological score. The combination of HFSCs and HGF could significantly improve the therapeutic benefit. CONCLUSION Our results indicate for the first time that HGF modified HFSCs can reduce I/R injury and promote the neurological recovery by inhibiting inflammatory response, protecting blood-brain barrier and promoting angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Tang
- grid.412463.60000 0004 1762 6325Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Xuemei Zhang
- grid.412463.60000 0004 1762 6325Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Xiaojun Hao
- grid.412463.60000 0004 1762 6325Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Haitong Dou
- grid.412463.60000 0004 1762 6325Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Chendan Zou
- grid.410736.70000 0001 2204 9268Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harbin Medical University, No.157 Baojian Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Yinglian Zhou
- grid.412463.60000 0004 1762 6325Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Bing Li
- grid.412463.60000 0004 1762 6325Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Hui Yue
- grid.412463.60000 0004 1762 6325Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Duo Wang
- grid.412463.60000 0004 1762 6325Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Yifei Wang
- grid.412463.60000 0004 1762 6325Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086 Heilongjiang China
| | - Chunxiao Yang
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086, Heilongjiang, China.
| | - Jin Fu
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, No.246 Xuefu Road, Nangang District, Harbin, 150086, Heilongjiang, China.
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7
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Lu W, Wen J. H 2S-mediated inhibition of RhoA/ROCK pathway and noncoding RNAs in ischemic stroke. Metab Brain Dis 2023; 38:163-176. [PMID: 36469178 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-022-01130-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is one of major causes of disability. In the pathological process of ischemic stroke, the up-regulation of Ras homolog gene family, member A (RhoA) and its downstream effector, Ras homolog gene family (Rho)-associated coiled coil-containing kinase (ROCK), contribute to the neuroinflammation, blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction, neuronal apoptosis, axon growth inhibition and astrogliosis. Accumulating evidences have revealed that hydrogen sulphide (H2S) could reduce brain injury in animal model of ischemic stroke via inhibiting the RhoA/ROCK pathway. Recently, noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) such as circular RNAs (circRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) have attracted much attention because of their essential role in adjusting gene expression both in physiological and pathological conditions. Numerous studies have uncovered the role of RhoA/ROCK pathway and ncRNAs in ischemic stroke. In this review, we focused on the role of H2S, RhoA/ROCK pathway and ncRNAs in ischemic stroke and aimed to reveal new strategies for preventing and treating this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhuo Lu
- Medical Branch, Hefei Technology College, Hefei, China
| | - Jiyue Wen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
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8
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Li W, Yang X, Ding M, Shi W, Huang Y, An Q, Qi Z, Zhao Y. Zinc accumulation aggravates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by promoting inflammation. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1065873. [PMID: 36970418 PMCID: PMC10030816 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1065873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracellular zinc accumulation has been shown to be associated with neuronal death after cerebral ischemia. However, the mechanism of zinc accumulation leading to neuronal death in ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) is still unclear. Intracellular zinc signals are required for the production of proinflammatory cytokines. The present study investigated whether intracellular accumulated zinc aggravates I/R injury through inflammatory response, and inflammation-mediated neuronal apoptosis. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with vehicle or zinc chelator TPEN 15 mg/kg before a 90-min middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). The expressions of proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, NF-κB p65, and NF-κB inhibitory protein IκB-α, as well as anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 were assessed at 6 or 24 h after reperfusion. Our results demonstrated that the expression of TNF-α, IL-6, and NF-κB p65 increased after reperfusion, while the expression of IκB-α and IL-10 decreased, suggesting that cerebral ischemia triggers inflammatory response. Furthermore, TNF-α, NF-κB p65, and IL-10 were all colocalized with the neuron-specific nuclear protein (NeuN), suggesting that the ischemia-induced inflammatory response occurs in neurons. Moreover, TNF-α was also colocalized with the zinc-specific dyes Newport Green (NG), suggesting that intracellular accumulated zinc might be associated with neuronal inflammation following cerebral I/R. Chelating zinc with TPEN reversed the expression of TNF-α, NF-κB p65, IκB-α, IL-6, and IL-10 in ischemic rats. Besides, IL-6-positive cells were colocalized with TUNEL-positive cells in the ischemic penumbra of MCAO rats at 24 h after reperfusion, indicating that zinc accumulation following I/R might induce inflammation and inflammation-associated neuronal apoptosis. Taken together, this study demonstrates that excessive zinc activates inflammation and that the brain injury caused by zinc accumulation is at least partially due to specific neuronal apoptosis induced by inflammation, which may provide an important mechanism of cerebral I/R injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Diseases Research, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center, Beijing, China
| | - Xueqi Yang
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Diseases Research, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center, Beijing, China
| | - Mao Ding
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Diseases Research, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wenjuan Shi
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Diseases Research, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center, Beijing, China
| | - Yuyou Huang
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Diseases Research, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Qi An
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Diseases Research, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center, Beijing, China
| | - Zhifeng Qi
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Diseases Research, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Zhifeng Qi Yongmei Zhao
| | - Yongmei Zhao
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Diseases Research, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Zhifeng Qi Yongmei Zhao
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9
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Li Y, Lu J, Wang J, Deng P, Meng C, Tang H. Inflammatory Cytokines and Risk of Ischemic Stroke: A Mendelian Randomization Study. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:779899. [PMID: 35111052 PMCID: PMC8801801 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.779899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Observational studies have revealed the association between some inflammatory cytokines and the occurrence of ischemic stroke, but the causal relationships remain unclear. Methods: We conducted a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to assess the causal effects of thirty inflammatory cytokines and the risk of ischemic stroke. For exposure data, we collected genetic variants associated with inflammatory cytokines as instrumental variables (IVs) from a genome-wide association study (GWAS) meta-analysis from Finland (sample size up to 8,293). For the outcome data, we collected summary data of ischemic stroke from a large-scale GWAS meta-analysis involved 17 studies (34,217 cases and 406,111 controls). We further performed a series of sensitivity analyses as validation of primary MR results. Results: According to the primary MR estimations and further sensitivity analyses, we established one robust association after Bonferroni correction: the odds ratio (95% CI) per unit change in genetically increased IL-4 was 0.84 (0.89–0.95) for ischemic stroke. The chemokine MCP3 showed a nominally significant association with ischemic stroke risk (OR: 0.93, 95% CI: 0.88–0.99, unadjusted p < 0.05). There was no evidence of a causal effect of other inflammatory cytokines and the risk of ischemic stroke. Conclusions: Our study suggested that genetically increased IL-4 levels showed a protective effect on the risk of ischemic stroke, which provides important new insights into the potential therapeutic target for preventing ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yalan Li
- Center of Clinical Pharmacology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Department of Cardiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jun Lu
- School of Medicine, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China
| | - Jie Wang
- Center of Clinical Pharmacology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Department of Cardiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Peizhi Deng
- Center of Clinical Pharmacology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Department of Cardiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Changjiang Meng
- Center of Clinical Pharmacology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Department of Cardiology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Haibo Tang
- Department of Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
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10
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Manjally AV, Tay TL. Attack of the Clones: Microglia in Health and Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:831747. [PMID: 35173585 PMCID: PMC8841846 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.831747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Amritha Vinayak Manjally
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- BrainLinks-BrainTools Centre, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Tuan Leng Tay
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- BrainLinks-BrainTools Centre, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
- Freiburg Institute of Advanced Studies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Tuan Leng Tay
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11
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Hu XH, Li ZH, Muyayalo KP, Wang LL, Liu CY, Mor G, Liao AH. A newly intervention strategy in preeclampsia: Targeting PD-1/Tim-3 signaling pathways to modulate the polarization of decidual macrophages. FASEB J 2021; 36:e22073. [PMID: 34847253 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202101306r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) and T-cell immunoglobulin mucin-3 (Tim-3) are important immune checkpoint receptors that prevent an overreacted maternal immune response to fetal antigens during pregnancy. Disruption of complex immune regulation mechanisms is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, including preeclampsia (PE). Our recent study showed that the Tim-3 pathway was involved in the regulation of decidual macrophage polarization. Decidual macrophages polarized to the M1 phenotype may impair uterine vessel remodeling during placentation, accounting for the occurrence of PE. Co-blockade of the PD-1/Tim-3 pathway was shown to successfully control tumor growth in preclinical cancer models. However, the effects of activating both PD-1 and Tim-3 pathways as a combined intervention strategy in PE are never reported. Herein, we observed the skew of decidual macrophage polarization toward the M1 phenotype in patients with PE and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced PE-like rat model. Moreover, we found that the activation of PD-1/Tim-3 pathway by using PD-L1 and Gal-9 fusion proteins could alleviate the manifestation of the LPS-induced PE-like rats and protect their offspring. Compared with the single intervention, the combination of PD-L1and Gal-9 fusion proteins exhibited obvious advantages in the relief of PE-like symptoms, trophoblast invasion, and fetal vascular development, indicating a synergistic effect of the activated PD-1/Tim-3 pathway. The in vitro study also revealed that the combined intervention using PD-L1 and Gal-9 fusion proteins inhibited the LPS-induced M1 macrophage polarization via the synergic activation of the ERK/GSK3β/β-catenin signaling pathway. Together, our findings provide the first evidence that simultaneous activation of PD-1/Tim-3 signaling pathways may have an optimal protective effect and serve as a new potential target for PE intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Hui Hu
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Center for Reproductive Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhi-Hui Li
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Center for Reproductive Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Kahindo P Muyayalo
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Center for Reproductive Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Li-Ling Wang
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Center for Reproductive Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Chun-Yan Liu
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Center for Reproductive Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Gil Mor
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Center for Reproductive Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, C.S. Mott Center for Human Growth and Development, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Ai-Hua Liao
- Institute of Reproductive Health, Center for Reproductive Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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12
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Wang T, Zhao N, Peng L, Li Y, Huang X, Zhu J, Chen Y, Yu S, Zhao Y. DJ-1 Regulates Microglial Polarization Through P62-Mediated TRAF6/IRF5 Signaling in Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:593890. [PMID: 33392187 PMCID: PMC7773790 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.593890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The polarization of microglia/macrophage, the resident immune cells in the brain, plays an important role in the injury and repair associated with ischemia-reperfusion (I/R). Previous studies have shown that DJ-1 has a protective effect in cerebral I/R. We found that DJ-1 regulates the polarization of microglial cells/macrophages after cerebral I/R and explored the mechanism by which DJ-1 mediates microglial/macrophage polarization in cerebral I/R. Middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) and oxygen and glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) models were used to simulate cerebral I/R in vivo and in vitro, respectively. DJ-1 siRNA and the DJ-1-based polypeptide ND13 were used to produce an effect on DJ-1, and the P62-specific inhibitor XRK3F2 was used to block the effect of P62. Enhancing the expression of DJ-1 induced anti-inflammatory (M2) polarization of microglia/macrophage, and the expression of the anti-inflammatory factors IL-10 and IL-4 increased. Interference with DJ-1 expression induced pro-inflammatory (M1) polarization of microglia/macrophage, and the expression of the proinflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-1β increased. DJ-1 inhibited the expression of P62, impeded the interaction between P62 and TRAF6, and blocked nuclear entry of IRF5. In subsequent experiments, XRK3F2 synergistically promoted the effect of DJ-1 on microglial/macrophage polarization, further attenuating the interaction between P62 and TRAF6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Wang
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Molecular Medical Laboratory, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Na Zhao
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Molecular Medical Laboratory, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Li Peng
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Molecular Medical Laboratory, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yumei Li
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Molecular Medical Laboratory, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiaohuan Huang
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Molecular Medical Laboratory, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jin Zhu
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Molecular Medical Laboratory, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yanlin Chen
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Molecular Medical Laboratory, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shanshan Yu
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Molecular Medical Laboratory, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yong Zhao
- Department of Pathology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Molecular Medical Laboratory, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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13
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Zhang SR, Phan TG, Sobey CG. Targeting the Immune System for Ischemic Stroke. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2020; 42:96-105. [PMID: 33341247 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2020.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is responsible for almost 6 million deaths and more than 10% of all mortalities each year, and two-thirds of stroke survivors remain disabled. With treatments for ischemic stroke still limited to clot lysis and/or mechanical removal, new therapeutic targets are desperately needed. In this review, we provide an overview of the complex mechanisms of innate and adaptive immune cell-mediated inflammatory injury, that exacerbates infarct development for several days after stroke. We also highlight the features of poststroke systemic immunodepression that commonly leads to infections and some mortalities, and argue that safe and effective therapies will need to balance pro- and anti-inflammatory mechanisms in a time-sensitive manner, to maximize the likelihood of an improved long-term outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shenpeng R Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Microbiology, and Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thanh G Phan
- Clinical Trials, Imaging, and Informatics (CTI) Division, Stroke and Ageing Research (STARC), Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christopher G Sobey
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy, and Microbiology, and Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia.
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14
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Neuroprotective epi-drugs quench the inflammatory response and microglial/macrophage activation in a mouse model of permanent brain ischemia. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:361. [PMID: 33246465 PMCID: PMC7694916 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02028-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Activation of NF-kappaB RelA deacetylated at the lysine residues, except the lysine 310, drives pro-apoptotic transcription in noxious brain ischemia. We showed that the sinergistic combination of the histone deacetilase inhibitor MS-275 with the sirtuin 1 activator resveratrol, at very low doses, restores normal RelA acetylation and elicit neuroprotection in mice subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) and primary cortical neurons exposed to oxygen-glucose-deprivation (OGD). The present study aims at corroborating the neuroprotective potential of the epigenetic treatment in a model of permanent brain ischemia and investigate its effect on post-ischemic inflammation and microglia activation. METHODS Male mice subjected to permanent occlusion of the distal MCAO (pMCAO) were treated with vehicle or MS-275 (20 μg/kg) and resveratrol (680 μg/kg) i.p. immediately after the ischemia. Microglia-containing mixed glial cultures were prepared from the brain of 1-3-day-old mice. Primary cortical neurons were prepared from 15-day-old embryonic mice. RESULTS MS-275 and resveratrol in combination, but not individually, reduced infarct volume and neurological deficits evaluated 48 h after the pMCAO. At 24 h, the treatment inhibited the RelA binding to Nos2 promoter, reduced the elevated expression of Nos2, Il6, Il1b, Mrc1 and Ym1 and the leukocytes infiltration in the ischemic area. The effect was nonpermanent. The treatment did not limit the sustained leukocyte infiltration or Nos2 and Il1b transcription observed at 7 days. Though, it induced alternative activation markers of microglia/macrophages, Arg1, Ym1 and Fcgr2b that could be added to Mrc1, Tgfb1 and Trem2 spontaneously increased at 7 days after ischemia. At 24 hours the drug treatment quenched the microglia/macrophages activation in the ischemic cortical sections, as shown by the recovered ramified morphology and lowered iNOS or CD68 immunoreactivity in Iba1-positive cells. Both microglia and astrocytes in mixed glial cultures, but not pure astrocytes, displayed signs of activation and iNOS-immunoreactivity when treated with a conditioned medium (NCM) from OGD-exposed cortical neurons. The epigenetic drugs limited the OGD-NCM-mediated activation. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that single treatment with MS-275 and resveratrol can reduce stroke-mediated brain injury and inflammation observed 2 days after the pMCAO and put the rational to test repeated administration of the drugs. The anti-inflammatory property of MS-275 and resveratrol combination can be ascribed to both primary direct inhibition of microglia/macrophage activation and secondary glial/macrophages inhibition mediated by neuroprotection.
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15
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Wu X, Thylur RP, Dayanand KK, Punnath K, Norbury CC, Gowda DC. IL-4 Treatment Mitigates Experimental Cerebral Malaria by Reducing Parasitemia, Dampening Inflammation, and Lessening the Cytotoxicity of T Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 206:118-131. [PMID: 33239419 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2000779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cytokine responses to malaria play important roles in both protective immunity development and pathogenesis. Although the roles of cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-12, IFN-γ, and IL-10 in immunity and pathogenesis to the blood stage malaria are largely known, the role of IL-4 remains less understood. IL-4 targets many cell types and induces multiple effects, including cell proliferation, gene expression, protection from apoptosis, and immune regulation. Accordingly, IL-4 has been exploited as a therapeutic for several inflammatory diseases. Malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum manifests in many organ-specific fatal pathologies, including cerebral malaria (CM), driven by a high parasite load, leading to parasite sequestration in organs and consequent excessive inflammatory responses and endothelial damage. We investigated the therapeutic potential of IL-4 against fatal malaria in Plasmodium berghei ANKA-infected C57BL/6J mice, an experimental CM model. IL-4 treatment significantly reduced parasitemia, CM pathology, and mortality. The therapeutic effect of IL-4 is mediated through multiple mechanisms, including enhanced parasite clearance mediated by upregulation of phagocytic receptors and increased IgM production, and decreased brain inflammatory responses, including reduced chemokine (CXCL10) production, reduced chemokine receptor (CXCR3) and adhesion molecule (LFA-1) expression by T cells, and downregulation of cytotoxic T cell lytic potential. IL-4 treatment markedly reduced the infiltration of CD8+ T cells and brain pathology. STAT6, PI3K-Akt-NF-κB, and Src signaling mediated the cellular and molecular events that contributed to the IL-4-dependent decrease in parasitemia. Overall, our results provide mechanistic insights into how IL-4 treatment mitigates experimental CM and have implications in developing treatment strategies for organ-specific fatal malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianzhu Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033; and
| | - Ramesh P Thylur
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033; and
| | - Kiran K Dayanand
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033; and
| | - Kishore Punnath
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033; and
| | - Christopher C Norbury
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033
| | - D Channe Gowda
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA 17033; and
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16
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Chen X, Zhang J, Song Y, Yang P, Yang Y, Huang Z, Wang K. Deficiency of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4 leads to neural hyperexcitability and aggravates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Acta Pharm Sin B 2020; 10:1634-1645. [PMID: 33088684 PMCID: PMC7564329 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2020.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Systematic administration of anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin 4 (IL-4) has been shown to improve recovery after cerebral ischemic stroke. However, whether IL-4 affects neuronal excitability and how IL-4 improves ischemic injury remain largely unknown. Here we report the neuroprotective role of endogenous IL-4 in focal cerebral ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury. In multi-electrode array (MEA) recordings, IL-4 reduces spontaneous firings and network activities of mouse primary cortical neurons. IL-4 mRNA and protein expressions are upregulated after I/R injury. Genetic deletion of Il-4 gene aggravates I/R injury in vivo and exacerbates oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) injury in cortical neurons. Conversely, supplemental IL-4 protects Il-4−/− cortical neurons against OGD injury. Mechanistically, cortical pyramidal and stellate neurons common for ischemic penumbra after I/R injury exhibit intrinsic hyperexcitability and enhanced excitatory synaptic transmissions in Il-4−/− mice. Furthermore, upregulation of Nav1.1 channel, and downregulations of KCa3.1 channel and α6 subunit of GABAA receptors are detected in the cortical tissues and primary cortical neurons from Il-4−/− mice. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that IL-4 deficiency results in neural hyperexcitability and aggravates I/R injury, thus activation of IL-4 signaling may protect the brain against the development of permanent damage and help recover from ischemic injury after stroke.
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17
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Cell Therapies under Clinical Trials and Polarized Cell Therapies in Pre-Clinical Studies to Treat Ischemic Stroke and Neurological Diseases: A Literature Review. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21176194. [PMID: 32867222 PMCID: PMC7503631 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21176194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke remains a major cause of serious disability because the brain has a limited capacity to regenerate. In the last two decades, therapies for stroke have dramatically changed. However, half of the patients cannot achieve functional independence after treatment. Presently, cell-based therapies are being investigated to improve functional outcomes. This review aims to describe conventional cell therapies under clinical trial and outline the novel concept of polarized cell therapies based on protective cell phenotypes, which are currently in pre-clinical studies, to facilitate functional recovery after post-reperfusion treatment in patients with ischemic stroke. In particular, non-neuronal stem cells, such as bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem/stromal cells and mononuclear cells, confer no risk of tumorigenesis and are safe because they do not induce rejection and allergy; they also pose no ethical issues. Therefore, recent studies have focused on them as a cell source for cell therapies. Some clinical trials have shown beneficial therapeutic effects of bone marrow-derived cells in this regard, whereas others have shown no such effects. Therefore, more clinical trials must be performed to reach a conclusion. Polarized microglia or peripheral blood mononuclear cells might provide promising therapeutic strategies after stroke because they have pleiotropic effects. In traumatic injuries and neurodegenerative diseases, astrocytes, neutrophils, and T cells were polarized to the protective phenotype in pre-clinical studies. As such, they might be useful therapeutic targets. Polarized cell therapies are gaining attention in the treatment of stroke and neurological diseases.
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18
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Steliga A, Kowiański P, Czuba E, Waśkow M, Moryś J, Lietzau G. Neurovascular Unit as a Source of Ischemic Stroke Biomarkers-Limitations of Experimental Studies and Perspectives for Clinical Application. Transl Stroke Res 2020; 11:553-579. [PMID: 31701356 PMCID: PMC7340668 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-019-00744-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral stroke, which is one of the most frequent causes of mortality and leading cause of disability in developed countries, often leads to devastating and irreversible brain damage. Neurological and neuroradiological diagnosis of stroke, especially in its acute phase, is frequently uncertain or inconclusive. This results in difficulties in identification of patients with poor prognosis or being at high risk for complications. It also makes difficult identification of these stroke patients who could benefit from more aggressive therapies. In contrary to the cardiovascular disease, no single biomarker is available for the ischemic stroke, addressing the abovementioned issues. This justifies the need for identifying of effective diagnostic measures characterized by high specificity and sensitivity. One of the promising avenues in this area is studies on the panels of biomarkers characteristic for processes which occur in different types and phases of ischemic stroke and represent all morphological constituents of the brains' neurovascular unit (NVU). In this review, we present the current state of knowledge concerning already-used or potentially applicable biomarkers of the ischemic stroke. We also discuss the perspectives for identification of biomarkers representative for different types and phases of the ischemic stroke, as well as for different constituents of NVU, which concentration levels correlate with extent of brain damage and patients' neurological status. Finally, a critical analysis of perspectives on further improvement of the ischemic stroke diagnosis is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Steliga
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Pomeranian University of Slupsk, 64 Bohaterów Westerplatte St., 76-200, Slupsk, Poland
| | - Przemysław Kowiański
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Pomeranian University of Slupsk, 64 Bohaterów Westerplatte St., 76-200, Slupsk, Poland.
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Medical University of Gdansk, 1 Debinki St., 80-211, Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Ewelina Czuba
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Medical University of Gdansk, 1 Debinki St., 80-211, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Monika Waśkow
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Pomeranian University of Slupsk, 64 Bohaterów Westerplatte St., 76-200, Slupsk, Poland
| | - Janusz Moryś
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Medical University of Gdansk, 1 Debinki St., 80-211, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Grażyna Lietzau
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Medical University of Gdansk, 1 Debinki St., 80-211, Gdansk, Poland
- Department of Clinical Science and Education, Södersjukhuset, Internal Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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19
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Bai Q, Xue M, Yong VW. Microglia and macrophage phenotypes in intracerebral haemorrhage injury: therapeutic opportunities. Brain 2020; 143:1297-1314. [PMID: 31919518 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awz393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The prognosis of intracerebral haemorrhage continues to be devastating despite much research into this condition. A prominent feature of intracerebral haemorrhage is neuroinflammation, particularly the excessive representation of pro-inflammatory CNS-intrinsic microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages that infiltrate from the circulation. The pro-inflammatory microglia/macrophages produce injury-enhancing factors, including inflammatory cytokines, matrix metalloproteinases and reactive oxygen species. Conversely, the regulatory microglia/macrophages with potential reparative and anti-inflammatory roles are outcompeted in the early stages after intracerebral haemorrhage, and their beneficial roles appear to be overwhelmed by pro-inflammatory microglia/macrophages. In this review, we describe the activation of microglia/macrophages following intracerebral haemorrhage in animal models and clinical subjects, and consider their multiple mechanisms of cellular injury after haemorrhage. We review strategies and medications aimed at suppressing the pro-inflammatory activities of microglia/macrophages, and those directed at elevating the regulatory properties of these myeloid cells after intracerebral haemorrhage. We consider the translational potential of these medications from preclinical models to clinical use after intracerebral haemorrhage injury, and suggest that several approaches still lack the experimental support necessary for use in humans. Nonetheless, the preclinical data support the use of deactivator or inhibitor of pro-inflammatory microglia/macrophages, whilst enhancing the regulatory phenotype, as part of the therapeutic approach to improve the prognosis of intracerebral haemorrhage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Bai
- Department of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Henan Medical Key Laboratory of Translational Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Mengzhou Xue
- Department of Cerebrovascular Diseases, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Henan Medical Key Laboratory of Translational Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - V Wee Yong
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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20
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Zhang B, Zhang HX, Shi ST, Bai YL, Zhe X, Zhang SJ, Li YJ. Interleukin-11 treatment protected against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Biomed Pharmacother 2019; 115:108816. [PMID: 31096144 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2019.108816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Inflammation and immune responses are crucial factors associated with the onset and progression of stroke. Interleukin-11 (IL-11) is a hematopoietic IL-6 family cytokine that functions as an anti-inflammatory agent against various inflammatory diseases. However, its roles in stroke remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the effects of IL-11 on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in a model of focal cerebral ischemia. METHODS Mice were randomly divided into five groups the vehicle group, the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) group, the MCAO plus adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) inhibitor compound C group, the MCAO plus IL-11 treatment group, and the MCAO plus IL-11 treatment and compound C group. Focal cerebral ischemia was induced by occluding the left middle cerebral artery, and reperfusion was achieved by withdrawing the suture 2 h after ischemia. The protein expression levels of IL-11 were measured using Western blot analysis, and its location was detected using immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining. The infarct volume was examined using 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining, and the neurobehavioral progression was assessed using the neurological scoring system. The expression of astrocytes and microglia was detected using immunochemistry, and real-time quantitative PCR was used for the gene quantification of inflammatory cytokines. The extent of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury was tested using Nissl staining and the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. The expression of the apoptotic proteins Bax, Bcl-2 and cleaved caspase-3 were detected using Western blot analysis, and the oxidative stress was also measured. RESULTS The expression of IL-11 mRNA and protein significantly decreased after cerebral ischemia. Immunohistochemical staining showed a large amount of IL-11 in the cerebral cortex of the mice in the vehicle group, whereas the immunoreactivity of IL-11 remained weak for 24 h in the MCAO group. Immunofluorescent staining further confirmed that IL-11 was mainly expressed in the neurons. It was suggested that IL-11 (20 μg/kg) treatment ameliorated infarction and reduced neurological scores. In addition, IL-11 proved to reduce neuropathic damage, glial activation, and the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and increase the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines after cerebral ischemia. IL-11 was also able to alleviate oxidative stress caused by cerebral ischemia, and AMPK inhibition enhanced the alleviation. Moreover, IL-11 was found to inhibit apoptosis caused by cerebral ischemia, which could also be facilitated by AMPK inhibitors. SIGNIFICANCE Our research suggests that IL-11 is decreased during cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury, but IL-11 treatment can improve neurological function and reduce the cerebral infarct volume, which can trigger stroke in mice. AMPK inhibition can further promote the protective effect of IL-11 in stroke. Overall, we demonstrate that IL-11 is of therapeutic interest in controlling stroke and managing cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, 710077, China
| | - Hai-Xiong Zhang
- Otolaryngology Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, 710077, China
| | - Shao-Ting Shi
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, 710077, China
| | - Yu-Lan Bai
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, 710077, China
| | - Xiao Zhe
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, 710077, China
| | - Shi-Jun Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, 710077, China
| | - Ya-Jun Li
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, 710077, China.
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Delayed Galectin-3-Mediated Reprogramming of Microglia After Stroke is Protective. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:6371-6385. [PMID: 30798442 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-1527-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Galectin-3 (Gal-3), a β-galactoside-binding lectin, has recently emerged as a molecule with immunoregulatory functions. We investigated the effects of Gal-3 on microglia morphology, migration, and secretory profile under physiological conditions and in the context of ischemic injury. We show that in the control conditions, exposure to recombinant Gal-3 increases microglial ramification and motility in vitro and in vivo via an IL-4-dependent mechanism. Importantly, after stroke, Gal-3 exerted marked immune-modulatory properties. Delivery of Gal-3 at 24 h after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was associated with an increase in Ym1-positive microglia and decrease in iNOS. Analysis of cytokine profiles at the protein level revealed downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and a marked upregulation of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-4, 24 h after i.c.v. injection of Gal-3. Importantly, the observed shift in cytokines in microglia was associated with a significant decrease in the infarct size. Taken together, our results suggest that when delivered well after ischemic injury, Gal-3 might fine tune innate immunity and induce a therapeutic shift in microglia polarization.
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Inflammatory cytokines are involved in dihydrocapsaicin (DHC) and regional cooling infusion (RCI)-induced neuroprotection in ischemic rat. Brain Res 2018; 1710:173-180. [PMID: 30584925 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2018.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The combination of pharmacological hypothermia - dihydrocapsaicin (DHC) and intra-arterial regional cooling infusions (RCI) was found to enhance the efficiency of hypothermia and efficacy of hypothermia-induced neuroprotection in acute ischemic stroke. The aim of this study was to explore whether the combination could induce a long-term neuroprotective effects, as well as the underlying mechanism. METHODS Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 2 h using intraluminal hollow filament. The ischemic rats were randomized to receive pharmacological hypothermia by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of DHC, physical hypothermia by RCI of 6 ml cold saline (4 °C), the combination, and no treatment. Over a 21-day period, brain damage was determined by infarct volume with MRI, and neurological deficit with grid-walking and beam balance tests. Blood brain barrier (BBB) was assessed by Evans-Blue (EB) contents. Inflammatory cytokines were determined in peri-infarct area by antibody array and ELISA. RESULTS The combination of DHC and RCI reduced (p < 0.05) infarct volume and neurologic deficit after stroke. BBB leakage and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-2, and TNF-α) were significantly decreased (p < 0.05) because of the combination, while protective cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) were increased (p < 0.05) in the peri-infarct area. CONCLUSIONS The combination approach enhanced the efficacy of hypothermia-induced neuroprotection following ischemic stroke. Our findings provide a hint to translate the combination method from bench to bedside.
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Ramiro L, Simats A, García-Berrocoso T, Montaner J. Inflammatory molecules might become both biomarkers and therapeutic targets for stroke management. Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2018; 11:1756286418789340. [PMID: 30093920 PMCID: PMC6080077 DOI: 10.1177/1756286418789340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is the fifth leading cause of death and the most frequent cause of disability worldwide. Currently, stroke diagnosis is based on neuroimaging; therefore, the lack of a rapid tool to diagnose stroke is still a major concern. In addition, therapeutic approaches to combat ischemic stroke are still scarce, since the only approved therapies are directed toward restoring blood flow to the affected brain area. However, due to the reduced time window during which these therapies are effective, few patients benefit from them; therefore, alternative treatments are urgently needed to reduce stroke brain damage in order to improve patients' outcome. The inflammatory response triggered after the ischemic event plays an important role in the progression of stroke; consequently, the study of inflammatory molecules in the acute phase of stroke has attracted increasing interest in recent decades. Here, we provide an overview of the inflammatory processes occurring during ischemic stroke, as well as the potential for these inflammatory molecules to become stroke biomarkers and the possibility that these candidates will become interesting neuroprotective therapeutic targets to be blocked or stimulated in order to modulate inflammation after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Ramiro
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Vall d’Hebron
Institute of Research, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona,
Spain
| | - Alba Simats
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Vall d’Hebron
Institute of Research, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona,
Spain
| | - Teresa García-Berrocoso
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Vall d’Hebron
Institute of Research, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona,
Spain
| | - Joan Montaner
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Vall d’Hebron
Institute of Research, Pg. Vall d’Hebron 119–129, Hospital Universitari Vall
d’Hebron, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
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24
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Lively S, Schlichter LC. Microglia Responses to Pro-inflammatory Stimuli (LPS, IFNγ+TNFα) and Reprogramming by Resolving Cytokines (IL-4, IL-10). Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:215. [PMID: 30087595 PMCID: PMC6066613 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia respond to CNS injuries and diseases with complex reactions, often called "activation." A pro-inflammatory phenotype (also called classical or M1 activation) lies at one extreme of the reactivity spectrum. There were several motivations for this study. First, bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide, LPS) is the most commonly used pro-inflammatory stimulus for microglia, both in vitro and in vivo; however, pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IFNγ, TNFα) rather than LPS will be encountered with sterile CNS damage and disease. We lack direct comparisons of responses between LPS and such cytokines. Second, while transcriptional profiling is providing substantial data on microglial responses to LPS, these studies mainly use mouse cells and models, and there is increasing evidence that responses of rat microglia can differ. Third, the cytokine milieu is dynamic after acute CNS damage, and an important question in microglial biology is: How malleable are their responses? There are very few studies of effects of resolving cytokines, particularly for rat microglia, and much of the work has focused on pro-inflammatory outcomes. Here, we first exposed primary rat microglia to LPS or to IFNγ+TNFα (I+T) and compared hallmark functional (nitric oxide production, migration) and molecular responses (almost 100 genes), including surface receptors that can be considered part of the sensome. Protein changes for exemplary molecules were also quantified: ARG1, CD206/MRC1, COX-2, iNOS, and PYK2. Despite some similarities, there were notable differences in responses to LPS and I+T. For instance, LPS often evoked higher pro-inflammatory gene expression and also increased several anti-inflammatory genes. Second, we compared the ability of two anti-inflammatory, resolving cytokines (IL-4, IL-10), to counteract responses to LPS and I+T. IL-4 was more effective after I+T than after LPS, and IL-10 was surprisingly ineffective after either stimulus. These results should prove useful in modeling microglial reactivity in vitro; and comparing transcriptional responses to sterile CNS inflammation in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Starlee Lively
- Division of Genetics & Development, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lyanne C Schlichter
- Division of Genetics & Development, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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25
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Lively S, Lam D, Wong R, Schlichter LC. Comparing Effects of Transforming Growth Factor β1 on Microglia From Rat and Mouse: Transcriptional Profiles and Potassium Channels. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:115. [PMID: 29780305 PMCID: PMC5946019 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytokine, transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1), is up-regulated after central nervous system (CNS) injuries or diseases involving microglial activation, and it has been proposed as a therapeutic agent for treating neuroinflammation. Microglia can produce and respond to TGFβ1. While rats and mice are commonly used for studying neuroinflammation, very few reports directly compare them. Such studies are important for improving pre-clinical studies and furthering translational progress in developing therapeutic interventions. After intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) in the rat striatum, the TGFβ1 receptor was highly expressed on microglia/macrophages within the hematoma. We recently found species similarities and differences in response to either a pro-inflammatory (interferon-γ, IFN-γ, +tumor necrosis factor, TNF-α) or anti-inflammatory interleukin-4 (IL-4) stimulus. Here, we assessed whether rat and mouse microglia differ in their responses to TGFβ1. Microglia were isolated from Sprague-Dawley rats and C57BL/6 mice and treated with TGFβ1. We quantified changes in expression of >50 genes, in their morphology, proliferation, apoptosis and in three potassium channels that are considered therapeutic targets. Many inflammatory mediators, immune receptors and modulators showed species similarities, but notable differences included that, for some genes, only one species responded (e.g., Il4r, Il10, Tgfbr2, colony-stimulating factor receptor (Csf1r), Itgam, suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (Socs1), toll-like receptors 4 (Tlr4), P2rx7, P2ry12), and opposite responses were seen for others (Tgfb1, Myc, Ifngr1). In rat only, TGFβ1 affected microglial morphology and proliferation, but there was no apoptosis in either species. In both species, TGFβ1 dramatically increased Kv1.3 channel expression and current (no effects on Kir2.1). KCa3.1 showed opposite species responses: the current was low in unstimulated rat microglia and greatly increased by TGFβ1 but higher in control mouse cells and decreased by TGFβ1. Finally, we compared TGFβ1 and IL10 (often considered similar anti-inflammatory stimuli) and found many different responses in both species. Overall, the numerous species differences should be considered when characterizing neuroinflammation and microglial activation in vitro and in vivo, and when targeting potassium channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Starlee Lively
- Krembil Research Institute, Genes and Development Division, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Doris Lam
- Krembil Research Institute, Genes and Development Division, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Raymond Wong
- Krembil Research Institute, Genes and Development Division, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lyanne C Schlichter
- Krembil Research Institute, Genes and Development Division, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Zhu SZ, Szeto V, Bao MH, Sun HS, Feng ZP. Pharmacological approaches promoting stem cell-based therapy following ischemic stroke insults. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2018; 39:695-712. [PMID: 29671416 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2018.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke can lead to long-term neurological deficits. Adult neurogenesis, the continuous generation of newborn neurons in distinct regions of the brain throughout life, has been considered as one of the appoaches to restore the neurological function following ischemic stroke. However, ischemia-induced spontaneous neurogenesis is not suffcient, thus cell-based therapy, including infusing exogenous stem cells or stimulating endogenous stem cells to help repair of injured brain, has been studied in numerous animal experiments and some pilot clinical trials. While the effects of cell-based therapy on neurological function during recovery remains unproven in randomized controlled trials, pharmacological agents have been administrated to assist the cell-based therapy. In this review, we summarized the limitations of ischemia-induced neurogenesis and stem-cell transplantation, as well as the potential proneuroregenerative effects of drugs that may enhance efficacy of cell-based therapies. Specifically, we discussed drugs that enhance proliferation, migration, differentiation, survival and function connectivity of newborn neurons, which may restore neurobehavioral function and improve outcomes in stroke patients.
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27
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Kanazawa M, Ninomiya I, Hatakeyama M, Takahashi T, Shimohata T. Microglia and Monocytes/Macrophages Polarization Reveal Novel Therapeutic Mechanism against Stroke. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18102135. [PMID: 29027964 PMCID: PMC5666817 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18102135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, and consists of two types, ischemic and hemorrhagic. Currently, there is no effective treatment to increase the survival rate or improve the quality of life after ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in the subacute to chronic phases. Therefore, it is necessary to establish therapeutic strategies to facilitate functional recovery in patients with stroke during both phases. Cell-based therapies, using microglia and monocytes/macrophages preconditioned by optimal stimuli and/or any therapies targeting these cells, might be an ideal therapeutic strategy for managing stroke. Microglia and monocytes/macrophages polarize to the classic pro-inflammatory type (M1-like) or alternative protective type (M2-like) by optimal condition. Cell-based therapies using M2-like microglia and monocytes/macrophages might be protective therapeutic strategies against stroke for three reasons. First, M2-like microglia and monocytes/monocytes secrete protective remodeling factors, thus prompting neuronal network recovery via tissue (including neuronal) and vascular remodeling. Second, these cells could migrate to the injured hemisphere through the blood–brain barrier or choroid–plexus. Third, these cells could mitigate the extent of inflammation-induced injuries by suitable timing of therapeutic intervention. Although future translational studies are required, M2-like microglia and monocytes/macrophages therapies are attractive for managing stroke based on their protective functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Kanazawa
- Department of Neurology, Brain Research Institute, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8585, Japan.
| | - Itaru Ninomiya
- Department of Neurology, Brain Research Institute, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8585, Japan.
| | - Masahiro Hatakeyama
- Department of Neurology, Brain Research Institute, Niigata University, Niigata 951-8585, Japan.
| | - Tetsuya Takahashi
- Department of Neurology, Niishi-Niigata Chuo Hospital, Niigata 950-2085, Japan.
| | - Takayoshi Shimohata
- Department of Neurology and Geriatrics, Gifu University Graduate School of Medicine, Gifu 501-1193, Japan.
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28
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Mizuma A, Yenari MA. Anti-Inflammatory Targets for the Treatment of Reperfusion Injury in Stroke. Front Neurol 2017; 8:467. [PMID: 28936196 PMCID: PMC5594066 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2017.00467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
While the mainstay of acute stroke treatment includes revascularization via recombinant tissue plasminogen activator or mechanical thrombectomy, only a minority of stroke patients are eligible for treatment, as delayed treatment can lead to worsened outcome. This worsened outcome at the experimental level has been attributed to an entity known as reperfusion injury (R/I). R/I is occurred when revascularization is delayed after critical brain and vascular injury has occurred, so that when oxygenated blood is restored, ischemic damage is increased, rather than decreased. R/I can increase lesion size and also worsen blood barrier breakdown and lead to brain edema and hemorrhage. A major mechanism underlying R/I is that of poststroke inflammation. The poststroke immune response consists of the aberrant activation of glial cell, infiltration of peripheral leukocytes, and the release of damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) molecules elaborated by ischemic cells of the brain. Inflammatory mediators involved in this response include cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, and several immune molecule effectors such as matrix metalloproteinases-9, inducible nitric oxide synthase, nitric oxide, and reactive oxygen species. Several experimental studies over the years have characterized these molecules and have shown that their inhibition improves neurological outcome. Yet, numerous clinical studies failed to demonstrate any positive outcomes in stroke patients. However, many of these clinical trials were carried out before the routine use of revascularization therapies. In this review, we cover mechanisms of inflammation involved in R/I, therapeutic targets, and relevant experimental and clinical studies, which might stimulate renewed interest in designing clinical trials to specifically target R/I. We propose that by targeting anti-inflammatory targets in R/I as a combined therapy, it may be possible to further improve outcomes from pharmacological thrombolysis or mechanical thrombectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Mizuma
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Midori A Yenari
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, United States
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29
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Lam D, Lively S, Schlichter LC. Responses of rat and mouse primary microglia to pro- and anti-inflammatory stimuli: molecular profiles, K + channels and migration. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:166. [PMID: 28830445 PMCID: PMC5567442 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0941-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute CNS damage is commonly studied using rat and mouse models, but increasingly, molecular analysis is finding species differences that might affect the ability to translate findings to humans. Microglia can undergo complex molecular and functional changes, often studied by in vitro responses to discrete activating stimuli. There is considerable evidence that pro-inflammatory (M1) activation can exacerbate tissue damage, while anti-inflammatory (M2) states help resolve inflammation and promote tissue repair. However, in assessing potential therapeutic targets for controlling inflammation, it is crucial to determine whether rat and mouse microglia respond the same. METHODS Primary microglia from Sprague-Dawley rats and C57BL/6 mice were cultured, then stimulated with interferon-γ + tumor necrosis factor-α (I + T; M1 activation), interleukin (IL)-4 (M2a, alternative activation), or IL-10 (M2c, acquired deactivation). To profile their activation responses, NanoString was used to monitor messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of numerous pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators, microglial markers, immunomodulators, and other molecules. Western analysis was used to measure selected proteins. Two potential targets for controlling inflammation-inward- and outward-rectifier K+ channels (Kir2.1, Kv1.3)-were examined (mRNA, currents) and specific channel blockers were applied to determine their contributions to microglial migration in the different activation states. RESULTS Pro-inflammatory molecules increased after I + T treatment but there were several qualitative and quantitative differences between the species (e.g., iNOS and nitric oxide, COX-2). Several molecules commonly associated with an M2a state differed between species or they were induced in additional activation states (e.g., CD206, ARG1). Resting levels and/or responses of several microglial markers (Iba1, CD11b, CD68) differed with the activation state, species, or both. Transcripts for several Kir2 and Kv1 family members were detected in both species. However, the current amplitudes (mainly Kir2.1 and Kv1.3) depended on activation state and species. Treatment-induced changes in morphology and migratory capacity were similar between the species (migration reduced by I + T, increased by IL-4 or IL-10). In both species, Kir2.1 block reduced migration and Kv1.3 block increased it, regardless of activation state; thus, these channels might affect microglial migration to damage sites. CONCLUSIONS Caution is recommended in generalizing molecular and functional responses of microglia to activating stimuli between species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris Lam
- Genes and Development Division, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Krembil Discovery Tower, Room 7KD417, 60 Leonard Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5T 2S8, Canada.,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Starlee Lively
- Genes and Development Division, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Krembil Discovery Tower, Room 7KD417, 60 Leonard Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5T 2S8, Canada
| | - Lyanne C Schlichter
- Genes and Development Division, Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Krembil Discovery Tower, Room 7KD417, 60 Leonard Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5T 2S8, Canada. .,Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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30
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Lan X, Han X, Li Q, Yang QW, Wang J. Modulators of microglial activation and polarization after intracerebral haemorrhage. Nat Rev Neurol 2017; 13:420-433. [PMID: 28524175 PMCID: PMC5575938 DOI: 10.1038/nrneurol.2017.69] [Citation(s) in RCA: 522] [Impact Index Per Article: 74.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is the most lethal subtype of stroke but currently lacks effective treatment. Microglia are among the first non-neuronal cells on the scene during the innate immune response to ICH. Microglia respond to acute brain injury by becoming activated and developing classic M1-like (proinflammatory) or alternative M2-like (anti-inflammatory) phenotypes. This polarization implies as yet unrecognized actions of microglia in ICH pathology and recovery, perhaps involving microglial production of proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Furthermore, alternatively activated M2-like microglia might promote phagocytosis of red blood cells and tissue debris, a major contribution to haematoma clearance. Interactions between microglia and other cells modulate microglial activation and function, and are also important in ICH pathology. This Review summarizes key studies on modulators of microglial activation and polarization after ICH, including M1-like and M2-like microglial phenotype markers, transcription factors and key signalling pathways. Microglial phagocytosis, haematoma resolution, and the potential crosstalk between microglia and T lymphocytes, neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes in the ICH brain are described. Finally, the clinical and translational implications of microglial polarization in ICH are presented, including the evidence that therapeutic approaches aimed at modulating microglial function might mitigate ICH injury and improve brain repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Lan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Avenue, Ross Building 370B, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
| | - Xiaoning Han
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Avenue, Ross Building 370B, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
| | - Qian Li
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Avenue, Ross Building 370B, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
| | - Qing-Wu Yang
- Department of Neurology, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 183 Xinqiao Main Street, Shapingba District, Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Avenue, Ross Building 370B, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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