Five-fraction CyberKnife radiotherapy for large brain metastases in critical areas: impact on the surrounding brain volumes circumscribed with a single dose equivalent of 14 Gy (V14) to avoid radiation necrosis

Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Residual, Recurrent, and Metastatic Hemangiopericytomas: A Single-Institution Retrospective Experience

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Hemangiopericytomas are infrequent vascular tumors originating from Zimmermann pericytes. The conventional treatment involves gross total resection, followed by adjuvant radiotherapy. Nevertheless, their tendency to infiltrate dural sinuses, high vascularity, and anatomic complexity pose challenges for radical resection, leading to a significant risk of recurrence. Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) has emerged as a promising adjuvant therapy to address these challenges. Our study provides the largest single-institutional retrospective, aiming to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of SRS as a treatment modality for residual, recurrent, and metastatic hemangiopericytomas.

METHODS

From 1998 to 2023, 27 patients with 101 tumors underwent CyberKnife SRS at Stanford University Medical Center. The median age was 51 years at the time of treatment. The median follow-up period from SRS was 103 months (range: 6-250). All patients underwent upfront surgical resection. The median tumor volume was 1.5 cc. The median single-fraction equivalent dose was 19 Gy. The SRS was administered at the 76% of the median isodose line (range: 64-89).

RESULTS

Of the 101 treated tumors, 24 (23.8%) progressed with a median time to recurrence of 30 months. At 10 years, the rates of local tumor control (LTC), overall survival (OS), and progression-free survival (PFS) were 74.3%, 80.8%, and 67%, respectively. In patients with metastatic lesions, the LTC rates were significantly greater when compared with those with residual or recurrent tumors. There was no significant difference between patients with residual, recurrent, and metastatic hemangiopericytomas in OS and PFS. Notably, no cases of radiation-induced adverse events were detected.

CONCLUSION

SRS leads to excellent LTC, PFS, and OS at 10 years with negligible risk for adverse events. Therefore, it is an effective and safe management modality for patients with residual, recurrent, and metastatic hemangiopericytomas.

Stereotactic Radiosurgery in the Management of Brain Metastases: A Case-Based Radiosurgery Society Practice Guideline

Purpose

Brain metastases are common among adult patients with solid malignancies and are increasingly being treated with stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS). As more patients with brain metastases are becoming eligible for SRS, there is a need for practical review of patient selection and treatment considerations.

Methods and Materials

Two patient cases were identified to use as the foundation for a discussion of a wide and representative range of management principles: (A) SRS alone for 5 to 15 lesions and (B) a large single metastasis to be treated with pre- or postoperative SRS. Patient selection, fractionation, prescription dose, treatment technique, and dose constraints are discussed. Literature relevant to these cases is summarized to provide a framework for treatment of similar patients.

Results

Treatment of brain metastases with SRS requires many considerations including optimal patient selection, fractionation selection, and plan optimization.

Conclusions

Case-based practice guidelines developed by the Radiosurgery Society provide a practical guide to the common scenarios noted above affecting patients with metastatic brain tumors.

Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Cranial and Spinal Hemangioblastomas: A Single-Institution Retrospective Series

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) has been an attractive treatment modality for both cranial and spinal hemangioblastomas, especially for multiple lesions commonly associated with von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease. This study aims to provide the largest long-term analysis of treatment efficacy and adverse effects of SRS for cranial and spinal hemangioblastomas at a single institution.

METHODS

We evaluated the clinical and radiological outcomes of patients with hemangioblastomas treated with CyberKnife SRS at our institute from 1998 to 2022. The follow-up data were available for 135 hemangioblastomas in 35 patients. Twenty-eight patients had 123 hemangioblastomas associated with VHL, and 7 had 12 sporadic hemangioblastomas. The median age was 36 years, and the median tumor volume accounted for 0.4 cc. The SRS was administered with the median single-fraction equivalent dose of 18 Gy to the 77% median isodose line.

RESULTS

At a median follow-up of 57 months (range: 3-260), only 20 (16.2%) of the VHL-associated and 1 (8.3%) sporadic hemangioblastomas progressed. The 5-year local tumor control rate was 91.3% for all hemangioblastomas, 91.7% among the sporadic lesions, and 92.9% in patients with VHL. SRS improved tumor-associated symptoms of 98 (74.8%) of 131 symptomatic hemangioblastomas, including headache, neck pain, dizziness, visual disturbances, dysesthesia, ataxia, motor impairment, seizures, and dysphagia. Two patients developed radiation necrosis (5.7%), and 1 of them required surgical resection.

CONCLUSION

SRS is a safe and effective treatment option for patients with hemangioblastomas in critical locations, such as the brainstem, cervicomedullary junction, and spinal cord, and in patients with multiple hemangioblastomas associated with VHL disease.

Robust and optimal dose distribution for brain metastases with robotic radiosurgery system: recipe for an inflection point

Purpose.This study aims to establish a robust dose prescription methodology in stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and stereotactic radiotherapy (SRT) for brain metastases, considering geometrical uncertainty and minimising dose exposure to the surrounding normal brain tissue.Methods and Materials.Treatment plans employing 40%-90% isodose lines (IDL) at 10% IDL intervals were created for variously sized brain metastases. The plans were constructed to deliver 21 Gy in SRS. Robustness of each plan was analysed using parameters such as the near minimum dose to the tumour, the near maximum dose to the normal brain, and the volume of normal brain irradiated above 14 Gy.Results.Plans prescribed at 60% IDL demonstrated the least variation in the near minimum dose to the tumour and the near maximum dose to the normal brain under conditions of minimal geometrical uncertainty relative to tumour radius. When the IDL-percentage prescription was below 60%, geometrical uncertainties led to increases in these doses. Conversely, they decreased with IDL-percentage prescriptions above 60%. The volume of normal brain irradiated above 14 Gy was lowest at 60% IDL, regardless of geometrical uncertainty.Conclusions.To enhance robustness against geometrical uncertainty and to better spare healthy brain tissue, a 60% IDL prescription is recommended in SRS and SRT for brain metastases using a robotic radiosurgery system.

CyberKnife Radiosurgery for Treatment of Residual or Recurrent Grade 1 Choroid Plexus Papilloma: A Single-Institution Experience

BACKGROUND

Choroid plexus papillomas (CPPs) are rare intraventricular brain tumors derived from the epithelium of the choroid plexus. Gross total resection has traditionally been considered curative, but residual tumor or recurrence remains possible. Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) has become a more important strategy for subtotally resected and recurrent tumors. The evidence-based rationale of SRS treatment for residual or recurrent CPP in adult patients is still lacking because of the rarity of the disease.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the cases of histopathologically confirmed patients with residual or recurrent CPP treated with SRS at our institute in the adult population between 2005 and 2022. Three patients, with 5 lesions, were identified, with a median age of 63 years. Patients presented initially with hydrocephalus-related symptoms, although ventriculomegaly was noted in only 1 patient radiographically. The tumor location was most commonly in the fourth ventricle or along the foramen of Luschka. Treatment was delivered in a single fraction in 4 lesions and in 3 fractions in 1 patient. The median follow-up was 26 months.

RESULTS

The local tumor control rate for the lesions was 80%. One patient developed a new lesion outside the SRS field, and 1 lesion developed progression without the need for subsequent treatment. There was no significant shrinkage of the lesions radiographically. None of the patients showed radiation-related adverse events. No patients required surgical management after SRS treatment at our institution. Based on the literature review, our case series was the second largest retrospective series from a single institution on SRS for recurrent or residual CPP.

CONCLUSIONS

SRS for patients with recurrent or residual CPP was a safe and effective treatment modality in this case series. Larger studies are encouraged to validate the role of SRS in the treatment of recurrent or residual CPP.

Practical Guideline for Prevention of Patchy Hair Loss following CyberKnife Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Calvarial or Scalp Tumors: Retrospective Analysis of a Single Institution Experience

INTRODUCTION

Patchy alopecia is a common adverse effect of stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) on the calvarium and/or scalp, yet no guidelines exist for its prevention. This study aims to investigate the incidence and outcomes of patchy alopecia following SRS for patients with calvarial or scalp lesions and establish preventive guidelines.

METHODS

The study included 20 patients who underwent CyberKnife SRS for calvarial or scalp lesions, resulting in a total of 30 treated lesions. SRS was administered as a single fraction for 8 lesions and hypofractionated for 22 lesions. The median SRS target volume was 9.85 cc (range: 0.81-110.7 cc), and the median prescription dose was 27 Gy (range: 16-40 Gy), delivered in 1-5 fractions (median: 3). The median follow-up was 15 months.

RESULTS

Among the 30 treated lesions, 11 led to patchy alopecia, while 19 did not. All cases of alopecia resolved within 12 months, and no patients experienced other adverse radiation effects. Lesions resulting in alopecia exhibited significantly higher biologically effective dose (BED) and single-fraction equivalent dose (SFED) on the overlying scalp compared to those without alopecia. Patients with BED and SFED exceeding 60 Gy and 20 Gy, respectively, were 9.3 times more likely to experience patchy alopecia than those with lower doses. The 1-year local tumor control rate for the treated lesions was 93.3%. Chemotherapy was administered for 26 lesions, with 11 lesions receiving radiosensitizing agents. However, no statistically significant difference was found.

CONCLUSION

In summary, SRS is a safe and effective treatment for patients with calvarial/scalp masses regarding patchy alopecia near the treated area. Limiting the BED under 60 Gy and SFED under 20 Gy for the overlying scalp can help prevent patchy alopecia during SRS treatment of the calvarial/scalp mass. Clinicians can use this information to inform patients about the risk of alopecia and the contributing factors.

Local Control Failure After Five-Fraction Stereotactic Radiosurgery Alone for Symptomatic Brain Metastasis From Squamous Cell Lung Carcinoma Despite 43 Gy to Gross Tumor Margin With Internal Steep Dose Increase and Tumor Shrinkage During Irradiation

Five-fraction (fr) stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) is increasingly being applied to large brain metastases (BMs) >2-3 cm in diameter, for which 30-35 Gy is the commonly prescribed dose. Since 2018, to further enhance both safety and efficacy, we have limited the five-fr SRS to approximately ≤3 cm BMs and adopted our own modified dose prescription and distribution: 43 and 31 Gy cover the boundaries of the gross tumor volume (GTV) and 2 mm outside the GTV, respectively, along with a steep dose increase inside the GTV boundary, that is, an intentionally very inhomogeneous GTV dose. Herein, we describe a case of symptomatic BM treated with five-fr SRS using the above policy, which resulted in a maximum tumor response with nearly complete remission (nCR) followed by gradual tumor regrowth despite obvious tumor shrinkage during irradiation. A 71-year-old man who had previously undergone surgery for squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the lungs presented with right-sided hemiparesis attributed to the para-falcine BM (27 mm in maximum diameter, 5.38 cm³). The BM was treated with five-fr SRS, with 99.2% of the GTV covered with 43 Gy and 59% isodose. Neurological symptoms improved during SRS, and obvious tumor shrinkage and mitigation of perilesional edema were observed upon completion of SRS. No subsequent anti-cancer pharmacotherapy was administered due to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Despite a maximum response with nCR at four months, the tiny residual enhancing lesion gradually enlarged from 7.7 months to 22.7 months without neurological worsening. Although a consistent T1/T2 mismatch suggested the dominance of brain radionecrosis, ¹¹C-methionine positron emission tomography showed increased uptake in the enhancing lesion. Pathological examination after total lesionectomy at 24.6 months revealed viable tumor tissue. Post-SRS administration of nintedanib for IPF may have provided some anti-tumor efficacy for lung SCC and may mitigate the adverse effects of SRS. The present case suggests that even ≥43 Gy with ≤60% isodose to the GTV boundary and ≥31-35 Gy to the 2 mm outside the GTV are insufficient to achieve long-term local tumor control by five-fr SRS alone in some large BM from lung SCC.

Five-Fraction Stereotactic Radiosurgery With Non-Contrast-Enhanced MRI-Based Target Definition and Moderate Dose Spillage Margin for Limited Brain Metastases With Impaired Renal Function

In stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) planning for brain metastases (BMs), the target volume is usually defined as an enhancing lesion based on contrast-enhanced (CE) magnetic resonance images (MRI) and/or computed tomography (CT) images. However, contrast media (CM) are unsuitable for certain patients with impaired renal function. Herein, we describe two limited BM cases not amenable to CM, which were treated with five-fraction (fr) SRS, without whole brain radiotherapy (WBRT), through a target definition based on non-CE-MRI. These included synchronous and partly symptomatic four BMs from esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (Case 1) and one presymptomatic regrowing lesion after WBRT for BMs from lung adenocarcinoma (Case 2). In both cases, all BMs were visualized as well-demarcated mass lesions almost distinguishable from the affected parenchyma on non-CE-MRI, particularly on T2-weighted images (WI). The gross tumor volume (GTV) was defined mainly based on T2-WI under a comprehensive comparison of non-CE-T1/T2-WIs and CT for SRS planning under image co-registration and fusion. Stereotactic radiosurgery was implemented with volumetric modulated arcs using a 5-mm leaf width multileaf collimator, for both of which 5 fr was selected, considering the maximum tumor volume and the effects from WBRT, respectively. Dose distribution was designed to ensure a moderate dose attenuation margin outside the GTV boundary and a concentrically-laminated steep dose increase inside the GTV boundary. Specifically, the peripheries of the GTV and 2 mm outside the GTV boundary were covered by ≥43 Gy with <70% isodose relative to the maximum dose and ≥31 Gy, respectively. The not-too-steep dose spillage margin can cover potentially invisible tumor invasion outside the GTV and other inherent uncertainties regarding target definition and irradiation accuracy. Post-SRS tumor responses were excellent clinically and/or radiographically with mild adverse radiation effects in Case 2. In limited BM cases unsuitable to CM, multi-fraction SRS with non-CE-MRI-based GTV definition and sufficient GTV dose along with moderate dose spillage margin would be a valuable treatment option for selected cases, with the entire GTV boundaries being almost visible on non-CE-MRI.

Precision Radiation for Brain Metastases With a Focus on Hypofractionated Stereotactic Radiosurgery

There are multiple published randomized controlled trials supporting single-fraction stereotactic radiosurgery (SF-SRS) for patients presenting with 1 to 4 brain metastases, with the benefit of minimizing radiation-induced neurocognitive sequelae as compared to whole brain radiotherapy . More recently, the dogma of SF-SRS as the only means of delivering an SRS treatment has been challenged by hypofractionated SRS (HF-SRS). The ability to deliver 25-35 Gy in 3-5 HF-SRS fractions is a direct consequence of the evolution of radiation technologies to allow image guidance, specialized treatment planning, robotic delivery and/or patient positioning corrections in all 6 degrees-of-freedom, and frameless head immobilization. The intent is to mitigate the potentially devastating complication of radiation necrosis and improve rates of local control for larger metastases. This narrative review provides an overview of outcomes specific to HF-SRS in addition to the more recent developments of staged SRS, preoperative SRS, and hippocampal avoidance-whole brain radiotherapy with simultaneous integrated boost.

Clinical Outcomes of Stereotactic Radiosurgery-Related Radiation Necrosis in Patients with Intracranial Metastasis from Melanoma

Background:

Radiation necrosis (RN) is a clinically relevant complication of stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for intracranial metastasis (ICM) treatments. Radiation necrosis development is variable following SRS. It remains unclear if risk factors for and clinical outcomes following RN may be different for melanoma patients. We reviewed patients with ICM from metastatic melanoma to understand the potential impact of RN in this patient population.

Methods:

Patients who received SRS for ICM from melanoma at Mayo Clinic Arizona between 2013 and 2018 were retrospectively reviewed. Data collected included demographics, tumor characteristics, radiation parameters, prior surgical and systemic treatments, and patient outcomes. Radiation necrosis was diagnosed by clinical evaluation including brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and, in some cases, tissue evaluation.

Results:

Radiation necrosis was diagnosed in 7 (27%) of 26 patients at 1.6 to 38 months following initial SRS. Almost 92% of all patients received systemic therapy and 35% had surgical resection prior to SRS. Patients with RN trended toward having larger ICM and a prior history of surgical resection, although statistical significance was not reached. Among patients with resection, those who developed RN had a longer period between surgery and SRS start (mean 44 vs 33 days). Clinical improvement following treatment for RN was noted in 2 (29%) patients.

Conclusions:

Radiation necrosis is relatively common following SRS for treatment of ICM from metastatic melanoma and clinical outcomes are poor. Further studies aimed at mitigating RN development and identifying novel approaches for treatment are warranted.

Radiation necrosis and therapeutic outcomes in patients treated with linear accelerator-based hypofractionated stereotactic radiosurgery for intact intracranial metastases

INTRODUCTION

Balancing disease control and treatment-related toxicities can be challenging when treating higher-risk brain metastases (BMs) that are larger in size or eloquent anatomical locations. Hypofractionated stereotactic radiosurgery (hfSRS) is expected to offer superior or equal efficacy with lower toxicity profile compared with single-fraction SRS (sfSRS). We report the efficacy and toxicity profiles of hfSRS in a consecutive cohort of patients to support this predicted benefit from hfSRS for high-risk BMs.

METHODS

We retrospectively analysed 185 consecutive individual lesions from 152 patients with intact BMs treated with hfSRS between 1 July 2016 and 31 October 2019 and followed up to 30 April 2022 with serial brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The primary endpoint was the event of radiation necrosis (RN). Local control (LC) rate and distant brain failure (DBF) were reported as secondary outcomes. Kaplan-Meier method was used to report the cumulative incidence of RN and overall survival and the incidence of DBF. Potential risk factors for RN were assessed using univariable Cox regression analysis.

RESULTS

The median follow-up was 38.0 months, and the median survival post-SRS was 9.5 months. The cumulative incidence rate of RN was 13.2% (95% CI: 7.0-24.7%), and 18.1% of patients with confirmed RN were symptomatic. Higher mean dose delivered to planning target volume (PTV) (HR 1.22, 95% CI: 1.05-1.42, P = 0.01), higher mean BED₁₀ (biological equivalent dose assuming a tissue α / β $$ \alpha /\beta $$ ratio of 10) (HR 1.12, 95% CI: 1.04-1.2, P < 0.001), and higher mean BED₂ (HR 1.02, 95% CI: 1-1.04, P = 0.04) delivered to the lesion was associated with increased risk of RN. LC rate was 86% and the cumulative incidence of DBF was 36% with a median onset of 28.4 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support the predicted radiobiological benefit of the use of hfSRS in high-risk BMs to limit treatment-related toxicity with low risk for symptomatic RN comparable with lower risk population receiving sfSRS while achieving satisfactory local disease control.

Dosimetric Impact of Lesion Number, Size, and Volume on Mean Brain Dose with Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Multiple Brain Metastases

We evaluated the effect of lesion number and volume for brain metastasis treated with SRS using GammaKnife^® ICON™ (GK) and CyberKnife^® M6™ (CK). Four sets of lesion sizes (<5 mm, 5-10 mm, >10-15 mm, and >15 mm) were contoured and prescribed a dose of 20 Gy/1 fraction. The number of lesions was increased until a threshold mean brain dose of 8 Gy was reached; then individually optimized to achieve maximum conformity. Across GK plans, mean brain dose was linearly proportional to the number of lesions and total GTV for all sizes. The numbers of lesions needed to reach this threshold for GK were 177, 57, 29, and 10 for each size group, respectively; corresponding total GTVs were 3.62 cc, 20.37 cc, 30.25 cc, and 57.96 cc, respectively. For CK, the threshold numbers of lesions were 135, 35, 18, and 8, with corresponding total GTVs of 2.32 cc, 12.09 cc, 18.24 cc, and 41.52 cc respectively. Mean brain dose increased linearly with number of lesions and total GTV while V8 Gy, V10 Gy, and V12 Gy showed quadratic correlations to the number of lesions and total GTV. Modern dedicated intracranial SRS systems allow for treatment of numerous brain metastases especially for ≤10 mm; clinical evidence to support this practice is critical to expansion in the clinic.

Radiation Therapy for Brain Metastases: An ASTRO Clinical Practice Guideline

PURPOSE

This guideline provides updated evidence-based recommendations addressing recent developments in the management of patients with brain metastases, including advanced radiation therapy techniques such as stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and hippocampal avoidance whole brain radiation therapy and the emergence of systemic therapies with central nervous system activity.

METHODS

The American Society for Radiation Oncology convened a task force to address 4 key questions focused on the radiotherapeutic management of intact and resected brain metastases from nonhematologic solid tumors. The guideline is based on a systematic review provided by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Recommendations were created using a predefined consensus-building methodology and system for grading evidence quality and recommendation strength.

RESULTS

Strong recommendations are made for SRS for patients with limited brain metastases and Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status 0 to 2. Multidisciplinary discussion with neurosurgery is conditionally recommended to consider surgical resection for all tumors causing mass effect and/or that are greater than 4 cm. For patients with symptomatic brain metastases, upfront local therapy is strongly recommended. For patients with asymptomatic brain metastases eligible for central nervous system-active systemic therapy, multidisciplinary and patient-centered decision-making to determine whether local therapy may be safely deferred is conditionally recommended. For patients with resected brain metastases, SRS is strongly recommended to improve local control. For patients with favorable prognosis and brain metastases receiving whole brain radiation therapy, hippocampal avoidance and memantine are strongly recommended. For patients with poor prognosis, early introduction of palliative care for symptom management and caregiver support are strongly recommended.

CONCLUSIONS

The task force has proposed recommendations to inform best clinical practices on the use of radiation therapy for brain metastases with strong emphasis on multidisciplinary care.

The Incidence and Its Associated Factors Relevant to Brain Radionecrosis That Requires Intervention Following Single or Fractionated Stereotactic Radiosurgery Using Vero4DRT for Brain Metastases

Purpose: Several factors, including the surrounding brain volume receiving specific doses, have hitherto been reported to correlate with brain radionecrosis (BR) after single or fractionated stereotactic radiosurgery (sSRS or fSRS) for brain metastases (BMs); however, those, especially for fSRS, have not yet been fully elucidated. Furthermore, the clinical outcome data of patients with BM treated with SRS using Vero4DRT are extremely limited. Therefore, this study aimed to demonstrate the incidence of BR requiring intervention (BRRI) and its highly correlated factors.

Materials and Methods: Patients with BMs treated with sSRS or fSRS using Vero4DRT at Toyohashi Municipal Hospital between July 2017 and June 2021 were retrospectively reviewed, of whom patients were available for at least 20 weeks of magnetic resonance imaging follow-up from SRS were included, and analyzed. The prescribed dose fractionation schemes to the planning target volume (PTV) boundary included 24 Gy (sSRS), 35 Gy (5 fractions [fr]), 42 Gy (10 fr), and 30 Gy (3 fr), according to the tumor volume and location. The volume of the surrounding normal brain receiving 84 Gy (V84 Gy, biologically effective dose [BED₂] based on a linear-quadratic model with an alpha/beta ratio of 2, single-dose equivalent [SDE] to 12 Gy), V112 Gy (BED₂, SDE to 14 Gy) for all lesions, and all irradiated volume, including gross tumor volume (GTV) receiving 81.6 Gy (81.6 Gy vol., BED₂) for fSRS were calculated, for which cerebrospinal fluid and bone volumes were cautiously excluded. The diagnosis of tumor progression or BR dominance was based on serial T1/T2 matching.

Results: Sixty patients with 120 lesions (65 treated with sSRS and 55 treated with fSRS) were included in the final analysis, with a median follow-up period of 65 weeks. The local control rate at one year was 87.5%. The cumulative incidence of BRRI within two years was 11.5%. The risk of symptomatic BR was significantly higher for V84 Gy >10 cc (p <0.001) and V112 Gy >5 cc (p = 0.021). In the fSRS group, the cumulative incidence of Grade 3 BR and those requiring resection was significantly higher for 81.6 Gy vol. >14 cc (p = 0.003 and p = 0.004, respectively). The coexistence of viable tumor tissue and BR could not be ruled out for enlarging lesions after the nadir response, especially for fSRS, due to a lower BED₁₀ to GTV margin (<80 Gy, BED₁₀).

Conclusions: Stereotactic irradiation with Vero4DRT provided efficacy and safety comparable to previous linear accelerator series, and most of the dose-volume thresholds for BRRI presented in this study were notably lower than those reported in previous studies. This study suggests that the indication of single and up to 5 frSRS should be limited to far smaller tumors than previously acknowledged to ensure long-term safety and efficacy.

Stereotactic radiotherapy for brain oligometastases

Brain metastases, the most common metastases in adults, will develop in up to 40% of cancer patients, accounting for more than one-half of all intracranial tumors. They are most associated with breast and lung cancer, melanoma and, less frequently, colorectal and kidney carcinoma.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the gold standard for diagnosis. For the treatment plan, computed tomography (CT ) images are co-registered and fused with a gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted MRI where tumor volume and organs at risk are contoured. Alternatively, plain and contrast-enhanced CT scans are co-registered. Single-fraction stereotactic radiotherapy (SRT ) is used to treat patients with good performance status and up to 4 lesions with a diameter of 30 mm or less that are distant from crucial brain function areas. Fractionated SRT (2–5 fractions) is used for larger lesions, in eloquent areas or in proximity to crucial or surgically inaccessible areas and to reduce treatment-related neurotoxicity. The single-fraction SRT dose, which depends on tumor diameter, impacts local control. Fractionated SRT may encompass different schedules. No randomized trial data compared the safety and efficacy of single and multiple fractions. Both single-fraction and fractionated SRT provide satisfactory local control rates, tolerance, a low risk of transient acute adverse events and of radiation necrosis the incidence of which correlated with the irradiated brain volume.

Clinical Outcomes and Prognostic Factors of Fractionated Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Brain Metastases ≥20 mm as a Potential Alternative to Surgery

BACKGROUND

This study investigated the outcomes and prognostic factors of fractionated stereotactic radiosurgery (FSRS) for the treatment of brain metastases ≥20 mm, and determined whether FSRS could replace surgery-the primary treatment for large brain metastases.

METHODS

Patients with brain metastases ≥20 mm treated with FSRS were retrospectively examined. Patients who underwent FSRS postoperatively were excluded. Local failure, intracranial failure, and adverse events were evaluated.

RESULTS

Overall, 116 lesions in 105 patients were evaluated. The performance status was 0-1, 2-4, and unknown for 86, 28, and two patients, respectively. The median maximum tumor diameter was 25 mm, and the median prescribed dose was 35 Gy in 3 fractions. The median follow-up period after FSRS was 8 months. The 1-year local failure, intracranial failure, and overall survival rates were 12.5%, 56.6%, and 49.0%, respectively. A maximum dose of ≥135 Gy (biological equivalent dose [α/β = 10 Gy]) and good performance status were independent favorable prognostic factors for local control. Twenty-one (20%) patients were treated with whole-brain radiotherapy after FSRS because of multiple intracranial recurrences, while four (3.4%) patients underwent surgery because of local recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

FSRS for brain metastases ≥20 mm achieved good local control. Only 3.4% of patients required surgery after FSRS, suggesting that FSRS is a potential alternative to surgery. For FSRS, a higher maximum tumor dose was useful for local control.

Improving on whole-brain radiotherapy in patients with large brain metastases: A planning study to support the AROMA clinical trial

PURPOSE

To develop a novel dose-escalated volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) strategy for patients with single or multiple large brain metastases which can deliver a higher dose to individual lesions for better local control (LC), and to compare dosimetry between whole brain radiotherapy (WBRT), hippocampal-sparing whole brain radiotherapy (HS-WBRT) and different VMAT-based focal radiotherapy approaches.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

We identified 20 patients with one to ten brain metastases and at least one lesion larger than 15 cm³ who had received WBRT as part of routine care. For each patient, we designed and evaluated five radiotherapy treatment plans, including WBRT, HS-WBRT and three VMAT dosing models. A dose of 20 Gy in 5 fractions was prescribed to the whole brain or target volumes depending on the plan, with higher doses to smaller lesions and dose-escalated inner planning target volumes (DE-iPTV) in VMAT plans, respectively. Treatment plans were evaluated using the efficiency index, mean dose and D0.1cc to the target volumes and organs at risk.

RESULTS

Compared with WBRT, VMAT plans achieved a significantly more efficient dose distribution in brain lesions, especially with our DE-iPTV model, while minimising the dose to the normal brain and other organs at risks (OARs) (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

VMAT plans obtained higher doses to brain metastases and minimised doses to OARs. Dose-escalated VMAT for larger lesions allows higher radiotherapy doses to be delivered to larger lesions while maintaining safe doses to OARs.

Organs at risk radiation dose constraints

Dose constraints are essential for performing dosimetry, especially for intensity modulation and for radiotherapy under stereotaxic conditions. We present the update of the recommendations of the French society of oncological radiotherapy for the use of these doses in classical current practice but also for reirradiation.

Dose-Response Effect and Dose-Toxicity in Stereotactic Radiotherapy for Brain Metastases: A Review

Simple Summary

Brain metastases are one of the most frequent complications for cancer patients. Stereotactic radiosurgery is considered a cornerstone treatment for patients with limited brain metastases and the ideal dose and fractionation schedule still remain unknown. The aim of this literature review is to discuss the dose-effect relation in brain metastases treated by stereotactic radiosurgery, accounting for fractionation and technical considerations.

Abstract

For more than two decades, stereotactic radiosurgery has been considered a cornerstone treatment for patients with limited brain metastases. Historically, radiosurgery in a single fraction has been the standard of care but recent technical advances have also enabled the delivery of hypofractionated stereotactic radiotherapy for dedicated situations. Only few studies have investigated the efficacy and toxicity profile of different hypofractionated schedules but, to date, the ideal dose and fractionation schedule still remains unknown. Moreover, the linear-quadratic model is being debated regarding high dose per fraction. Recent studies shown the radiation schedule is a critical factor in the immunomodulatory responses. The aim of this literature review was to discuss the dose–effect relation in brain metastases treated by stereotactic radiosurgery accounting for fractionation and technical considerations. Efficacy and toxicity data were analyzed in the light of recent published data. Only retrospective and heterogeneous data were available. We attempted to present the relevant data with caution. A BED10 of 40 to 50 Gy seems associated with a 12-month local control rate >70%. A BED10 of 50 to 60 Gy seems to achieve a 12-month local control rate at least of 80% at 12 months. In the brain metastases radiosurgery series, for single-fraction schedule, a V12 Gy < 5 to 10 cc was associated to 7.1–22.5% radionecrosis rate. For three-fractions schedule, V18 Gy < 26–30 cc, V21 Gy < 21 cc and V23 Gy < 5–7 cc were associated with about 0–14% radionecrosis rate. For five-fractions schedule, V30 Gy < 10–30 cc, V 28.8 Gy < 3–7 cc and V25 Gy < 16 cc were associated with about 2–14% symptomatic radionecrosis rate. There are still no prospective trials comparing radiosurgery to fractionated stereotactic irradiation.

Re-irradiation of multiple brain metastases using CyberKnife stereotactic radiotherapy: Case report

INTRODUCTION

Brain metastasis (BM) is the commonest adult intracranial malignancy and many patients with brain metastases require two course radiotherapy. Re-irradiation is frequently performed in Radiotherapy (RT) departments for multiple brain metastases.

PATIENT CONCERNS

We present a case of a 55-year-old male patient suffering from brain metastases, who had previously received whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT) and first CyberKnife Stereotactic Radiotherapy (CKSRT) for metastases, presented with a recurrence of metastasis and new lesions in the brain.

DIAGNOSES

An enhanced computed tomography (CT) scan of the brain revealed abnormalities with double-dosing of intravenous contrast that identified >10 lesions scattered in the whole brain.

INTERVENTIONS

Re-irradiation was performed using CKSRT. The patient was treated with 30 Gy in 5 fractions for new lesions and 25 Gy in 5 fractions for lesion that were locally recurrent and close to brainstem lesions.

OUTCOME

The lesions were well-controlled, and the headache of the patient was significantly relieved one month after radiotherapy. The total survival time of the patients was 17 months from the beginning of the Cyberknife treatment.

CONCLUSION

The present case report demonstrates that CyberKnife therapy plays a significant role in the repeated radiotherapy for multiple metastatic brain tumors. CKSRT can be used as a salvage method in recurrent multiple brain metastases.

Five fraction stereotactic radiotherapy after brain metastasectomy: a single-institution experience and literature review

PURPOSE

The outcomes of five fraction stereotactic radiotherapy (hfSRT) following brain metastasectomy were evaluated and compared with published series.

METHODS

30 Gy in 5 fractions HfSRT prescribed to the surgical cavity was reduced to 25 Gy if the volume of 'brain-GTV' receiving 20 Gy exceeded 20 cm³. Endpoints were local recurrence, nodular leptomeningeal recurrence, new brain metastases and radionecrosis. The literature was searched for reports of clinical and dosimetric outcomes following postoperative hfSRT in 3-5 fractions.

RESULTS

39 patients with 40 surgical cavities were analyzed. Cavity local control rate at 1 year was 33/40 (82.5%). 3 local failures followed 30 Gy/5 fractions and 4 with 25 Gy/5 fractions. The incidence of leptomeningeal disease (LMD) was 7/40 (17.5%). No grade 3-4 toxicities, particularly no radionecrosis, were reported. The incidence of distant brain metastases was 15/40 (37.5%). The median overall survival was 15 months. Across 13 published series, the weighted mean local control was 83.1% (adjusted for sample size), the mean incidence of LMD was 14.9% (7-34%) and the mean rate of radionecrosis was 10.3% (0-20.6%).

CONCLUSION

Postoperative hfSRT can be delivered with 25-30 Gy in 5 fractions with efficacy in excess of 82% and no significant toxicity when the dose to 'brain-GTV' does not exceed 20 cm³.

Redistributing Central Target Dose Hot Spots for Hypofractionated Radiosurgery of Large Brain Tumors: A Proof-of-Principle Study

OBJECTIVE

The present proof-of-principle study investigated radiobiological effects of redistributing central target dose hot spots across different treatment fractions during hypofractionated stereotactic radiosurgery (HSRS) of large intracranial tumors.

METHODS

Redistribution of central target dose hot spots during HSRS was simulated, and its effects were evaluated in eight cases of brain metastases. To assess dose variations in the target across N number of treatment fractions, a generalized biologically effective dose (gBED) was formulated. The gBED enhancement ratio was defined as the ratio of gBED in the tested treatment plan (with central target dose hot spot redistributions across fractions) to gBED in the conventional treatment plan (without central target dose hot spot redistributions).

RESULTS

At a median α value of 0.3/Gy, the tested treatment plans resulted in average gBED increases of 15.6 ± 3.5% and 8.3 ± 1.8% for α/β ratios of 2 and 10 Gy, respectively. In comparison with conventional treatment plans, the differences in the Paddick conformity index and gradient index did not exceed 2%.

CONCLUSION

Redistributing central target dose hot spots across different treatment fractions during HSRS may be considered promising for enhancing gBED in the target. It may be beneficial for management of large intracranial neoplasms; thus, it warrants further clinical testing.

Radiation Necrosis from Stereotactic Radiosurgery-How Do We Mitigate?

OPINION STATEMENT

Intracranial stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) is an effective and convenient treatment for many brain conditions. Data regarding safety come mostly from retrospective single institutional studies and a small number of prospective studies. Variations in target delineation, treatment delivery, imaging follow-up protocols and dose prescription limit the interpretation of this data. There has been much clinical focus on radiation necrosis (RN) in particular, as it is being increasingly recognized on follow-up imaging. Symptomatic RN may be treated with medical therapy (such as corticosteroids and bevacizumab) with surgical resection being reserved for refractory patients. Nevertheless, RN remains a challenging condition to manage, and therefore upfront patient selection for SRS remains critical to provide complication-free control. Mitigation strategies need to be considered in situations where the baseline risk of RN is expected to be high-such as large target volume or re-irradiation. These may involve reduction in the prescribed dose or hypofractionated stereotactic radiation therapy (HSRT). Recently published guidelines and international meta-analysis report the benefit of HSRT in larger lesions, without compromising control rates. However, careful attention to planning parameters and SRS techniques still need to be adhered, even with HSRT. In cases where the risk is deemed to be high despite mitigation, a combination approach of surgery with or without post-operative radiation should be considered.

Executive summary from American Radium Society's appropriate use criteria on neurocognition after stereotactic radiosurgery for multiple brain metastases

BACKGROUND

The American Radium Society (ARS) Appropriate Use Criteria brain malignancies panel systematically reviewed (PRISMA [Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses]) published literature on neurocognitive outcomes after stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for patients with multiple brain metastases (BM) to generate consensus guidelines.

METHODS

The panel developed 4 key questions (KQs) to guide systematic review. From 11 614 original articles, 12 were selected. The panel developed model cases addressing KQs and potentially controversial scenarios not addressed in the systematic review (which might inform future ARS projects). Based upon quality of evidence, the panel confidentially voted on treatment options using a 9-point scale of appropriateness.

RESULTS

The panel agreed that SRS alone is usually appropriate for those with good performance status and 2-10 asymptomatic BM, and usually not appropriate for >20 BM. For 11-15 and 16-20 BM there was (between 2 case variants) agreement that SRS alone may be appropriate or disagreement on the appropriateness of SRS alone. There was no scenario (among 6 case variants) in which conventional whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT) was considered usually appropriate by most panelists. There were several areas of disagreement, including: hippocampal sparing WBRT for 2-4 asymptomatic BM; WBRT for resected BM amenable to SRS; fractionated versus single-fraction SRS for resected BM, larger targets, and/or brainstem metastases; optimal treatment (WBRT, hippocampal sparing WBRT, SRS alone to all or select lesions) for patients with progressive extracranial disease, poor performance status, and no systemic options.

CONCLUSIONS

For patients with 2-10 BM, SRS alone is an appropriate treatment option for well-selected patients with good performance status. Future study is needed for those scenarios in which there was disagreement among panelists.

[Repeated irradiation of brain metastases under stereotactic conditions: A review of the literature]

Stereotactic radiotherapy has become a standard in the management of patients with brain metastases; its main interest is to differ whole brain radiotherapy, provider of neurocognitive toxicity and to increase the rate of local control. The repetition of radiotherapy sessions under stereotactic conditions is not codified, neither on the number of technically and clinically possible sessions, nor on the maximum total number or volume of metastases to be treated. The purpose of this review is to analyse the data in the literature concerning repeated irradiations under stereotactic conditions. The second reirradiation in stereotactic condition shows satisfactory results in terms of overall survival, local control, and toxicity. However, we lack data for patients receiving more than two sessions of SRS as well as to define dose constraints to reirradiated healthy tissues. Prospective trials are still needed to validate the management of recurrent brain metastases after initial SRS.

Hypofractionated frameless gamma knife radiosurgery for large metastatic brain tumors

Hypofractionated stereotactic radiosurgery has become an alternative for metastatic brain tumors (METs). We aimed to analyze the efficacy and safety of frameless hypofractionated Gamma Knife radiosurgery (hfGKRS) in the management of unresected, large METs. All patients who were managed with hfGKRS for unresected, large METs (> 4 cm³) between June 2017 and June 2020 at a single center were reviewed in this retrospective study. Local control (LC), progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), and toxicities were investigated. A total of 58 patients and 76 METs with regular follow-up were analyzed. LC rate was 98.5% at six months, 96.0% at one year, and 90.6% at 2 years during a median follow-up of 12 months (range, 2-37). The log-rank test indicated no difference in the distribution of LC for any clinical or treatment variable. PFS was 86.7% at 6 months, 66.6% at 1 year, and 58.5% at 2 years. OS was 81% at 6 months, 63.6% at one year, and 50.7% at 2 years. On the log-rank test, clinical parameters such as control status of primary cancer, presence of extracranial metastases, RTOG-RPA class, GPA group, and ds-GPA group were significantly associated with PFS and OS. Patients presented with grade 1 (19.0%), grade 2 (3.5%) and grade 3 (5.2%) side effects. Radiation necrosis was not observed in any patients. Our current results suggest that frameless hfGKRS for unresected, large METs is a rational alternative in selected patients with promising results.

Intra-fractional patient setup error during fractionated intracranial stereotactic irradiation treatment of patients wearing medical masks: comparison with and without bite block during COVID-19 pandemic

The immobilization of patients with a bite block (BB) carries the risk of interpersonal infection, particularly in the context of pandemics such as COVID-19. Here, we compared the intra-fractional patient setup error (intra-SE) with and without a BB during fractionated intracranial stereotactic irradiation (STI). Fifteen patients with brain metastases were immobilized using a BB without a medical mask, while 15 patients were immobilized without using a BB and with a medical mask. The intra-SEs in six directions (anterior-posterior (AP), superior-inferior (SI), left-right (LR), pitch, roll, and yaw) were calculated by using cone-beam computed tomography images acquired before and after the treatments. We analyzed a total of 53 and 67 treatment sessions for the with- and without-BB groups, respectively. A comparable absolute mean translational and rotational intra-SE was observed (P > 0.05) in the AP (0.19 vs 0.23 mm with- and without-BB, respectively), SI (0.30 vs 0.29 mm), LR (0.20 vs 0.29 mm), pitch (0.18 vs 0.27°), roll (0.23 vs 0.23°) and yaw (0.27 vs 22°) directions. The resultant planning target volume (PTV) margin to compensate for intra-SE was <1 mm. No statistically significant correlation was observed between the intra-SE and treatment times. A PTV margin of <1 mm was achieved even when patients were immobilized without a BB during STI dose delivery.

Dosimetric predictors of symptomatic radiation necrosis after five-fraction radiosurgery for brain metastases

BACKGROUND

To identify factors predictive of developing symptomatic radiation necrosis (sRN) among patients with either intact or resected brain metastases undergoing five-fraction stereotactic radiosurgery (5fSRS).

METHODS

Multi-institutional retrospective review of 117 brain metastases from 83 patients treated with 5fSRS. The cumulative incidence of sRN and predictors of sRN were calculated using Gray's competing risks and Cox regression.

RESULTS

The median dose of 5fSRS was 30 Gy (range: 25-40), and 21 lesions (18%) had prior SRS. After a median follow-up of 10.3 months (range: 3-52), the cumulative sRN incidence was 15%, with a median time to sRN of 6.9 months (range: 1.8-31.7). sRN incidence was significantly higher among the lesions treated with prior SRS: hazard ratio (HR): 7.48 [95% confidence interval: 2.57-21.8]. Among lesions without prior SRS, higher volume of uninvolved brain receiving 25 Gy (BrainV25; HR: 1.07 [1.02-1.12]) and 30 Gy (BrainV30; HR: 1.07 [1.01-1.33]) were the most significant factors associated with sRN. Similar results were also observed among the patients with prior SRS. For lesions without prior SRS, BrainV25 > 16 cm³ (HR: 11.7 [1.47-93.3]) and BrainV30 > 10 cm³ (HR: 7.08 [1.52-33.0]) were associated with significantly higher risk of sRN. At two years, the sRN incidence was 21% if violating either dosimetric threshold and 2% if violating neither (p = .007).

CONCLUSION

BrainV25 and BrainV30 are significant dosimetric predictors of sRN of brain metastases treated with 5fSRS. In the absence of prior SRS, maintaining BrainV25Gy < 16 cm³ and BrainV30Gy < 10 cm³ may minimize sRN risk.

Brain Metastases: A Modern Multidisciplinary Approach

Brain metastases (BM) are the most common intracranial neoplasm and represent a major clinical challenge across many medical disciplines. The incidence of BM is increasing, largely due to improvements in primary disease therapeutics conferring greater systemic control, and advancements in neuroimaging techniques and availability leading to earlier diagnosis. In recent years, the landscape of BM treatment has changed significantly with the advent of personalized targeted chemotherapies and immunotherapy, the adoption of focal radiotherapy (RT) for higher intracranial disease burden, and the implementation of new surgical strategies. The increasing permutations of options available for the treatment of patients diagnosed with BM necessitate coordinated care by a multidisciplinary team. This review discusses the current treatment regimens for BM as well as examines the salient features of a modern multidisciplinary approach.

Validation of the clinical applicability of knowledge-based planning models in single-isocenter volumetric-modulated arc therapy for multiple brain metastases

PURPOSE

To validate the clinical applicability of knowledge-based (KB) planning in single-isocenter volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT) for multiple brain metastases using the k-fold cross-validation (CV) method.

METHODS

This study comprised 60 consecutive patients with multiple brain metastases treated with single-isocenter VMAT (28 Gy in five fractions). The patients were divided randomly into five groups (Groups 1-5). The data of Groups 1-4 were used as the training and validation dataset and those of Group 5 were used as the testing dataset. Four KB models were created from three of the training and validation datasets and then applied to the remaining Groups as the fourfold CV phase. As the testing phase, the final KB model was applied to Group 5 and the dose distributions were calculated with a single optimization process. The dose-volume indices (DVIs), modified Ian Paddick Conformity Index (mIPCI), modulation complexity scores for VMAT plans (MCSv), and the total number of monitor units (MUs) of the final KB plan were compared to those of the clinical plan (CL) using a paired Wilcoxon signed-rank test.

RESULTS

In the fourfold CV phase, no significant differences were observed in the DVIs among the four KB plans (KBPs). In the testing phase, the final KB plan was statistically equivalent to the CL, except for planning target volumes (PTVs) D_2% and D_50% . The differences between the CL and KBP in terms of the PTV D_99.5% , normal brain, and D_max to all organs at risk (OARs) were not significant. The KBP achieved a lower total number of MUs and higher MCSv than the CL with no significant difference.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrated that a KB model in a single-isocenter VMAT for multiple brain metastases was equivalent in dose distribution, MCSv, and total number of MUs to a CL with a single optimization.

Single- and Multifraction Stereotactic Radiosurgery Dose/Volume Tolerances of the Brain

PURPOSE

As part of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine Working Group on Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy investigating normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) after hypofractionated radiation therapy, data from published reports (PubMed indexed 1995-2018) were pooled to identify dosimetric and clinical predictors of radiation-induced brain toxicity after single-fraction stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) or fractionated stereotactic radiosurgery (fSRS).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Eligible studies provided NTCPs for the endpoints of radionecrosis, edema, or symptoms after cranial SRS/fSRS and quantitative dose-volume metrics. Studies of patients with only glioma, meningioma, vestibular schwannoma, or brainstem targets were excluded. The data summary and analyses focused on arteriovenous malformations (AVM) and brain metastases.

RESULTS

Data from 51 reports are summarized. There was wide variability in reported rates of radionecrosis. Available data for SRS/fSRS for brain metastases were more amenable to NTCP modeling than AVM data. In the setting of brain metastases, SRS/fSRS-associated radionecrosis can be difficult to differentiate from tumor progression. For single-fraction SRS to brain metastases, tissue volumes (including target volumes) receiving 12 Gy (V12) of 5 cm³, 10 cm³, or >15 cm³ were associated with risks of symptomatic radionecrosis of approximately 10%, 15%, and 20%, respectively. SRS for AVM was associated with modestly lower rates of symptomatic radionecrosis for equivalent V12. For brain metastases, brain plus target volume V20 (3-fractions) or V24 (5-fractions) <20 cm³ was associated with <10% risk of any necrosis or edema, and <4% risk of radionecrosis requiring resection.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk of radionecrosis after SRS and fSRS can be modeled as a function of dose and volume treated. The use of fSRS appears to reduce risks of radionecrosis for larger treatment volumes relative to SRS. More standardized dosimetric and toxicity reporting is needed to facilitate future pooled analyses that can refine predictive models of brain toxicity risks.

Stereotactic Radiotherapy for Brain Metastases: Imaging Tools and Dosimetric Predictive Factors for Radionecrosis

Radionecrosis (RN) is the most important side effect after stereotactic radiotherapy (SRT) for brain metastases, with a reported incidence ranging from 3% to 24%. To date, there are no unanimously accepted criteria for iconographic diagnosis of RN, as well as no definitive dose-constraints correlated with the onset of this late effect. We reviewed the current literature and gave an overview report on imaging options for the diagnosis of RN and on dosimetric parameters correlated with the onset of RN. We performed a PubMed literature search according to the preferred reporting items and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, and identified articles published within the last ten years, up to 31 December 2019. When analyzing data on diagnostic tools, perfusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) seems to be very useful allowing evaluation of the blood flow in the lesion using the relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV) and blood vessel integrity using relative peak weight (rPH). It is necessary to combine morphological with functional imaging in order to match information about lesion morphology, metabolism and blood-flow. Eventually, serial imaging follow-up is needed. Regarding dosimetric parameters, in radiosurgery (SRS) V12 < 8 cm³ and V10 < 10.5 cm³ of normal brain are the most reliable prognostic factors, whereas in hypo-fractionated stereotactic radiotherapy (HSRT) V18 and V21 are considered the main predictive independent risk factors of RN.

A multi-center analysis of single-fraction versus hypofractionated stereotactic radiosurgery for the treatment of brain metastasis

Background

Hypofractionated-SRS (HF-SRS) may allow for improved local control and a reduced risk of radiation necrosis compared to single-fraction-SRS (SF-SRS). However, data comparing these two treatment approaches are limited. The purpose of this study was to compare clinical outcomes between SF-SRS versus HF-SRS across our multi-center academic network.

Methods

Patients treated with SF-SRS or HF-SRS for brain metastasis from 2013 to 2018 across 5 radiation oncology centers were retrospectively reviewed. SF-SRS dosing was standardized, whereas HF-SRS dosing regimens were variable. The co-primary endpoints of local control and radiation necrosis were estimated using the Kaplan Meier method. Multivariate analysis using Cox proportional hazards modeling was performed to evaluate the impact of select independent variables on the outcomes of interest. Propensity score adjustments were used to reduce the effects confounding variables. To assess dose response for HF-SRS, Biologic Effective Dose (BED) assuming an α/β of 10 (BED₁₀) was used as a surrogate for total dose.

Results

One-hundred and fifty six patients with 335 brain metastasis treated with SF-SRS (n = 222 lesions) or HF-SRS (n = 113 lesions) were included. Prior whole brain radiation was given in 33% (n = 74) and 34% (n = 38) of lesions treated with SF-SRS and HF-SRS, respectively (p = 0.30). After a median follow up time of 12 months in each cohort, the adjusted 1-year rate of local control and incidence of radiation necrosis was 91% (95% CI 86–96%) and 85% (95% CI 75–95%) (p = 0.26) and 10% (95% CI 5–15%) and 7% (95% CI 0.1–14%) (p = 0.73) for SF-SRS and HF-SRS, respectively. For lesions > 2 cm, the adjusted 1 year local control was 97% (95% CI 84–100%) for SF-SRS and 64% (95% CI 43–85%) for HF-SRS (p = 0.06). On multivariate analysis, SRS fractionation was not associated with local control and only size ≤2 cm was associated with a decreased risk of developing radiation necrosis (HR 0.21; 95% CI 0.07–0.58, p < 0.01). For HF-SRS, 1 year local control was 100% for lesions treated with a BED₁₀ ≥ 50 compared to 77% (95% CI 65–88%) for lesions that received a BED₁₀ < 50 (p = 0.09).

Conclusions

In this comparison study of dose fractionation for the treatment of brain metastases, there was no difference in local control or radiation necrosis between HF-SRS and SF-SRS. For HF-SRS, a BED₁₀ ≥ 50 may improve local control.

One-Day Two-Fraction Radiosurgery for Brain Metastases Using Gamma Knife

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to evaluate the feasibility of a one-day two-fraction Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) for brain metastases.

CASES AND METHODS

Ten cases with ten brain metastases (four cases of lung adenocarcinoma, one small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC), two renal cell carcinoma, one breast cancer, one esophageal carcinoma, and one bile duct carcinoma) were treated by one-day two-fraction (with an interval of more than six hours) GKRS under rigid skull frame fixation. Of the ten brain metastases, five lesions were in the frontal lobe, one in temporal, one in occipital, and three in the cerebellar hemisphere. The mean planning target volume (PTV) of the ten brain tumors was 7.8 ml (median, 8.0; range, 3.8 - 11.8). The ten targets of the mean prescription isodose volume (PIV) of 10.1 ml (median, 10.1; range, 4.4 - 15.9) were treated with a mean margin dose of 20.4 Gy (median, 20.5; range, 16.4 - 22) in two fractions. In five cases, other small brain metastases (one to seven tumors) were also treated simultaneously in a single fraction GKRS. The indication of two-fraction radiosurgery was large lesion size in eight, retreatment in three, the proximity of the motor area in three, and pre-existing perifocal edema symptom of dysarthria in two, nausea and vomiting in one, and dementia in one.

RESULTS

Eight cases were alive at the end of the follow-up period of one to nine months (median, 6). One patient with SCLC died four and a half months after GKRS, from aggressive regrowth of the treated frontal lesion after transient marked shrinkage. Another patient died four months after GKRS due to the progression of other brain tumors treated by single fraction GKRS at the same time. In nine of 10 cases, the size of the treated tumors was controlled until the end of the follow-up period or the patient's death. In two cases, an additional GKRS was performed for newly developed brain metastases at distant locations at six months and five months after one-day two-fraction GKRS, respectively, and controlled at the end of the follow-up period.

CONCLUSIONS

A relatively high dose may be safely delivered to large lesions, to those close to the important structures, or those with perifocal edema by one-day two-fraction radiosurgery. Local control was good except for a relapsed SCLC metastasis case. Evaluation in more cases with a longer follow-up period is necessary to determine definite indications and optimal prescription doses.

[Stereotactic radiotherapy of brain metastases in complex situations]

Stereotactic radiation therapy of brain metastases is a treatment recognized as effective, well tolerated, applicable for therapeutic indications codified and validated by national and international guidelines. However, the effectiveness of this irradiation, the evolution of patient care and the technical improvements enabling its implementation make it possible to consider it in more complex situations: proximity of brain metastases to organs at risk; large, cystic, haemorrhagic or multiple brain metastases, combination with targeted therapies and immunotherapy, stereotactic radiotherapy in patients with a pacemaker. This article aims to put forward the arguments available to date in the literature and those resulting from clinical practice to provide decision support for the radiation oncologists.

11C-methionine-18F-FDG dual-PET-tracer-based target delineation of malignant glioma: evaluation of its geometrical and clinical features for planning radiation therapy

OBJECTIVE

It is important to correctly and precisely define the target volume for radiotherapy (RT) of malignant glioma. 11C-methionine (MET) positron emission tomography (PET) holds promise for detecting areas of glioma cell infiltration: the authors' previous research showed that the magnitude of disruption of MET and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) uptake correlation (decoupling score [DS]) precisely reflects glioma cell invasion. The purpose of the present study was to analyze volumetric and geometrical properties of RT target delineation based on DS and compare them with those based on MRI.

METHODS

Twenty-five patients with a diagnosis of malignant glioma were included in this study. Three target volumes were compared: 1) contrast-enhancing core lesions identified by contrast-enhanced T1-weighted images (T1Gd), 2) high-intensity lesions on T2-weighted images, and 3) lesions showing high DS (DS ≥ 3; hDS). The geometrical differences of these target volumes were assessed by calculating the probabilities of overlap and one encompassing the other. The correlation of geometrical features of RT planning and recurrence patterns was further analyzed.

RESULTS

The analysis revealed that T1Gd with a 2.0-cm margin was able to cover the entire high DS area only in 6 (24%) patients, which indicates that microscopic invasion of glioma cells often extended more than 2.0 cm beyond a Gd-enhanced core lesion. Insufficient coverage of high DS regions with RT target volumes was suggested to be a risk for out-of-field recurrence. Higher coverage of hDS by T1Gd with a 2-cm margin (i.e., higher values of "[T1Gd + 2 cm]/hDS") had a trend to positively impact overall and progression-free survival. Cox regression analysis demonstrated that low coverage of hDS by T1Gd with a 2-cm margin was predictive of disease recurrence outside the Gd-enhanced core lesion, indicative of out-of-field reoccurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study indicate that MRI is inadequate for target delineation for RT in malignant glioma treatment. Expanding the treated margins substantially beyond the MRI-based target volume may reduce the risk of undertreatment, but it may also result in unnecessary irradiation of uninvolved regions. As MET/FDG PET-DS seems to provide more accurate information for target delineation than MRI in malignant glioma treatment, this method should be further evaluated on a larger scale.

Single-fraction versus hypofractionated stereotactic radiosurgery for medium-sized brain metastases of 2.5 to 3 cm

PURPOSE

Given recently suggested utility of hypofractionated stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) in treating large brain metastases (BMs) > 3 cm, we sought to prospectively control tumor size variable to investigate the efficacy and safety of hypofractionated SRS for medium-sized BMs (2.5 to 3 cm) compared with single-fraction SRS.

METHODS

Between 2011 and 2015, a total of 100 patients with newly diagnosed BMs (n = 105) of 2.5 to 3 cm had been treated with either single-fraction (n = 67; median dose 20 Gy) or hypofractionated SRS (n = 38; median cumulative dose 35 Gy in 5 daily fractions). No patients received any prior or upfront whole brain radiotherapy. In each patient, treatment outcome was measured by local tumor control (LTC), overall and progression-free survival (OS and PFS), and the occurrence of radiation necrosis (RN).

RESULTS

With a median follow-up of 14 months, significant differences were observed between the single-fraction versus hypofractionated SRS groups in the incidence of RN (29.9% vs. 5.3%, P < 0.001) and LTC (1-year LTC rates 66.6% vs. 92.4%, P = 0.028). There were no differences in PFS (median 6 months vs. 6 months, P = 0.381) and OS (median 13 months vs. 18 months, P = 0.239). Treatment-related adverse events ( ≥ grade 2 toxicity by CTCAE ver. 4.0) occurred more frequently in single-fraction group, although the difference did not reach statistical significance (56.3% vs. 36.1%, P = 0.084).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest a better safety and efficacy profile of hypofractionated SRS for medium-sized BMs compared with single-fraction SRS. Further prospective studies are needed to confirm these results.

Updated risk models demonstrate low risk of symptomatic radionecrosis following stereotactic radiosurgery for brain metastases

Background:

Improvements in systemic therapy continue to increase survival for patients with brain metastases. Updated dosimetric models are required to optimize long-term safety of stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for this indication.

Methods:

Patients at a single institution receiving SRS from December 2011 to December 2014 were retrospectively reviewed. Patients with radiographic progression of at least one lesion, and with at least 6 months of follow-up from the start of SRS were included. Grade 3 necrosis was defined as requiring surgical intervention. This data were combined with two additional published datasets to construct logistic models describing necrosis risk as a function of dose and volume.

Results:

From our institution, 294 brain metastases across 57 patients in 139 treatment plans met inclusion criteria. Primary histologies included non-small cell lung cancer (n = 19), melanoma (n = 13), breast carcinoma (n = 9), renal cell carcinoma (n = 7), and other (n = 9). Median follow-up from SRS of first cranial metastasis was 21.7 months (range: 6.3–56.6) and median overall survival was 25.6 months (range: 6.5–56.6). There were eight cases of Grade 1–2 and two cases of Grade 3 necrosis. As a useful clinical reference point, 20 cc of total brain receiving a single-fraction equivalent dose ≥14 Gy corresponded to 12.1% risk for Grade 1–3 (P < 0.003) and 3.4% risk for Grade 3 necrosis (P < 0.001).

Conclusions:

These results compare favorably with the QUANTEC brain tolerance estimates for radiosurgery, providing optimism for lower toxicity in the modern era. Additional studies are needed to determine dose tolerance parameters across a broad spectrum of patients.

Adaptive hypofractionated gamma knife radiosurgery in the acute management of brainstem metastases

Background:

Intrinsic brainstem metastases are life-threatening neoplasms requiring rapid, effective intervention. Microsurgery is considered not feasible in most cases and systemic treatment seldom provides a successful outcome. In this context, radiation therapy remains the best option but adverse radiation effects (ARE) remain a major concern. A dose-adaptive gamma knife procedure coined as Rapid Rescue Radiosurgery (3R) offers the possibility to treat these lesions whilst reducing the risk of ARE evolvement. We report the results of 3R applied to a group of patients with brainstem metastases.

Methods:

Eight patients with nine brainstem metastases, having undergone three separate, dose-adapted gamma knife radiosurgery (GKRS) procedures over 7 days, were retrospectively analyzed in terms of tumor volume reduction, local control rates, and ARE-development under the period of treatment and at least 6 months after treatment completion.

Results:

Mean peripheral doses at GKRS 1, GKRS 2, and GKRS 3 were 7.4, 7.7, and 8.2 Gy (range 6–9 Gy) set at the 35–50% isodose lines. Mean tumor volume reduction between GKRS 1 and GKRS 3 was −15% and −56% at first follow-up. Four patients developed radiologic signs of ARE but remained clinically asymptomatic. One patient developed a local recurrence at 34 months. Mean survival from GKRS 1 was 13 months. Two patients were still alive at the time of paper submission (10 and 23 months from GKRS 1).

Conclusions:

In this study, 3R proved effective in terms of tumor volume reduction, rescue/preservation of neurological function, and limited ARE evolvement.

Single versus Multifraction Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Large Brain Metastases: An International Meta-analysis of 24 Trials

PURPOSE

Multifraction (MF) stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) purportedly reduces radionecrosis risk over single-fraction (SF) SRS in the treatment of large brain metastases. The purpose of the current work is to compare local control (LC) and radionecrosis rates of SF-SRS and MF-SRS in the definitive (SF-SRS_D and MF-SRS_D) and postoperative (SF-SRS_P and MF-SRS_P) settings.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Population, Intervention, Control, Outcomes, Study Design/Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses and Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology guidelines were used to select articles in which patients had "large" brain metastases (Group A: 4-14 cm³, or about 2-3 cm in diameter; Group B: >14 cm³, or about >3 cm in diameter); 1-year LC and/or rates of radionecrosis were reported; radiosurgery was administered definitively or postoperatively. Random effects meta-analyses using fractionation scheme and size as covariates were conducted. Meta-regression and Wald-type tests were used to determine the effect of increasing tumor size and fractionation on the summary estimate, where the null hypothesis was rejected for P < .05.

RESULTS

Twenty-four studies were included, published between 2008 and 2017, with 1887 brain metastases. LC random effects estimate at 1 year was 77.6% for Group A/SF-SRS_D and 92.9% for Group A/MF-SRS_D (P = .18). LC random effects estimate at 1 year was 77.1% for Group B/SF-SRS_D and 79.2% for Group B/MF-SRS_D (P = .76). LC random effects estimate at 1 year was 62.4% for Group B/SF-SRS_P and 85.7% for Group B/MF-SRS_P (P = .13). Radionecrosis incidence random effects estimate was 23.1% for Group A/SF-SRS_D and 7.3% for Group A/MF-SRS_D (P = .003). Radionecrosis incidence random effects estimate was 11.7% for Group B/SF-SRS_D and 6.5% for Group B/MF-SRS_D (P = .29). Radionecrosis incidence random effects estimate was 7.3% for Group B/SF-SRS_P and 7.5% for Group B/MF-SRS_P (P = .85). Metaregression assessing 1-year LC and radionecrosis as a continuous function of increasing tumor volume was not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment for large brain metastases with MF-SRS regimens may offer a relative reduction of radionecrosis while maintaining or improving relative rates of 1-year LC compared with SF-SRS. These findings are hypothesis-generating and require validation by ongoing and planned prospective clinical trials.

The concept of rapid rescue radiosurgery in the acute management of critically located brain metastases: A retrospective short-term outcome analysis

Background:

Adaptive hypofractionated gamma knife radiosurgery has been used to treat brain metastases in the eloquent regions while limiting the risk of adverse radiation effect (ARE). Ablative responses might be achieved within days to weeks with the goal to preserve the neurological function. The application of this treatment modality in selected acute/subacute settings has been termed Rapid Rescue Radiosurgery (RRR) in our department. We report the expeditious effects of RRR during treatment and 4 weeks after treatment completion.

Methods:

In all, 34 patients with 40 brain metastases, each treated over a period of 7 days in three separate gamma knife radiosurgery sessions (GKRS 1-3) between November 2013 and August 2017, were retrospectively analyzed in terms of tumor volume reduction, salvage of organs at risk (OAR), and radiation induced toxicity under the period of treatment (GKRS 1-3 = one week) and at first follow-up magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (4 weeks after GKRS 3).

Results:

Mean tumor volume at GKRS 1 was 12.8 cm3. Mean peripheral doses at GKRS 1, GKRS 2, and GKRS 3 were 7.7 Gy, 8.1 Gy, and 8.4 Gy (range: 6.0-9.5 Gy) at the 35% to 50% isodose lines. In the surviving group at first follow-up (n = 28), mean tumor volume reduction was − 10% at GKRS 3 (1 week) and − 48% four weeks after GKRS 3. There was no further clinical deterioration between GKRS 3 and first follow-up in 21 patients. Six patients died prior to first follow-up due to extracranial disease. No ARE was noticed/reported.

Conclusions:

In this study, RRR proved effective in terms of rapid tumor volume reduction, debulking, and preservation/rescue of neurological function.

Postirradiation Necrosis after Slow Microvascular Breakdown in the Adult Rat Spinal Cord is Delayed by Minocycline Treatment

To better understand the spatiotemporal course of radiation-induced central nervous system (CNS) vascular necrosis and assess the therapeutic potential of approaches for protecting against radiation-induced necrosis, adult female Sprague Dawley rats received 40 Gy surface dose centered on the T9 thoracic spinal cord segment. Locomotor function, blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) integrity and histology were evaluated throughout the study. No functional symptoms were observed for several months postirradiation. However, a sudden onset of paralysis was observed at approximately 5.5 months postirradiation. The progression rapidly led to total paralysis and death within less than 48 h of symptom onset. Open-field locomotor scores and rotarod motor coordination testing showed no evidence of neurological impairment prior to the onset of overt paralysis. Histological examination revealed minimal changes to the vasculature prior to symptom onset. However, Evans blue dye (EvB) extravasation revealed a progressive deterioration of BSCB integrity, beginning at one week postirradiation, affecting regions well outside of the irradiated area. Minocycline treatment significantly delayed the onset of paralysis. The results of this study indicate that extensive asymptomatic disruption of the blood-CNS barrier may precede onset of vascular breakdown by several months and suggests that minocycline treatment has a therapeutic effect by delaying radiation-induced necrosis after CNS irradiation.

Plan quality comparison between 4-arc and 6-arc noncoplanar volumetric modulated arc stereotactic radiotherapy for the treatment of multiple brain metastases

To compare the plans of 4-arc and 6-arc noncoplanar volumetric modulated arc stereotactic radiotherapy (VMA-SRT) for multiple brain metastases and to investigate the cutoff value for the tumor number and volume for 6-arc rather than 4-arc VMA-SRT. We identified 24 consecutive multiple-target cases (3 to 19 targets in each case) with 189 total targets. We constructed plans using both 4- and 6-arc noncoplanar VMA-SRT. The prescribed dose was 36 Gy/6 fr, and it was delivered to 95% of the planning target volume (PTV). The plans were evaluated for the dose conformity using the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group and Paddick conformity indices (RCI and PCI), fall-off (Paddick gradient index [PGI]), and the normal brain dose. The median (range) RCI, PCI, and PGI was 0.94 (0.92 to 0.99), 0.89 (0.77 to 0.94), and 3.75 (2.24 to 6.54) for the 4-arc plan and 0.94 (0.91 to 0.98), 0.89 (0.76 to 0.94), and 3.65 (2.24 to 6.5) for the 6-arc plan, respectively. The median (range) of the normal brain dose was 910.3 cGy (381.4 to 1268.9) for the 4-arc plan and 898.8 cGy (377 to 1252.9) for the 6-arc plan. The PGI of the 6-arc plan was significantly superior to that of the 4-arc plan (p = 0.0076), and the optimal cutoff values for the tumor number and volume indicative of 6-arc (and not 4-arc) VMA-SRT were cases with ≥ 5 metastases and a PTV of ≥ 12.9 mL, respectively. The PCI values, however, showed no significant difference between the 2 plans. We believe these results will help in considering the use of 6-arc VMA-SRT for multiple brain metastases.

Fractionated Radiosurgery Alone for Thirty-seven Brain Metastases: Not Everything that can be Counted Counts

There is an ongoing debate as to the maximum number of brain metastases that can safely and practically be treated with a single course of radiosurgery. Despite evidence of durable local control and favorable overall survival when treating 10 or more brain metastases with radiosurgery alone, some institutions and guidelines still limit radiosurgery to an arbitrary number of metastases.

As demonstrated by this case report, the number of lesions is not so important when the patient’s life expectancy is otherwise good and body tumors are controllable. In the current era of effective targeted therapies, multi-year survival with brain metastases is increasingly common. Treating 37 brain metastases simultaneously in a five-fraction stereotactic course is technically feasible and in this case, resulted in 100% local and distant control in the brain for 18 months ongoing without any additional brain radiation. We discuss patient selection factors when treating large numbers of brain metastases, and present a possible class solution when using five daily fractions of 6 Gray (Gy) with a single plan and isocenter.

[Imaging methods used in the differential diagnosis between brain tumour relapse and radiation necrosis after stereotactic radiosurgery of brain metastases: Literature review]

After stereotactic radiosurgery for a cerebral metastasis, one of the dreaded toxicities is radionecrosis. In the follow-up of these patients, it is impossible to distinguish radiation necrosis from tumour relapse either clinically or with MRI. In current practice, many imaging methods are designed such as special sequences of MRI (dynamic susceptibility contrast perfusion and susceptibility-weighted imaging, diffusion), proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, positron emission tomography, or more seldom 201-thallium single-photon emission computerized tomography. This article is a required literature analysis in order to establish a decision tree with the analysis of retrospective and prospective data.