Functions of the lethal leaf-spot 1 gene in wheat cell death and disease tolerance to Puccinia striiformis

QTL mapping: insights into genomic regions governing component traits of yield under combined heat and drought stress in wheat

Drought and heat frequently co-occur during crop growth leading to devastating yield loss. The knowledge of the genetic loci governing component traits of yield under combined drought and heat stress is essential for enhancing the climate resilience. The present study employed a mapping population of 180 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from a cross between GW322 and KAUZ to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) governing the component traits of yield under heat and combined stress conditions. Phenotypic evaluation was conducted across two consecutive crop seasons (2021-2022 and 2022-2023) under late sown irrigation (LSIR) and late sown restricted irrigation (LSRI) conditions at the Indian Council of Agricultural Research Institute-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (ICAR-IARI), New Delhi. Various physiological and agronomic traits of importance were measured. Genotyping was carried out with 35K SNP Axiom breeder's genotyping array. The linkage map spanned a length of 6769.45 cM, ranging from 2.28 cM/marker in 1A to 14.21 cM/marker in 5D. A total of 35 QTLs were identified across 14 chromosomes with 6B containing the highest (seven) number of QTLs. Out of 35 QTLs, 16 were major QTLs explaining the phenotypic variance greater than 10%. The study identified eight stable QTLs along with two hotspots on chromosomes 6B and 5B. Five QTLs associated with traits thousand-grain weight (TGW), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and plant height (PH) were successfully validated. Candidate genes encoding antioxidant enzymes, transcription factors, and growth-related proteins were identified in the QTL regions. In silico expression analysis highlighted higher expression of transcripts TraesCS2D02G021000.1, TraesCS2D02G031000, TraesCS6A02G247900, and TraesCS6B02G421700 under stress conditions. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the genetic architecture underlying combined heat and drought tolerance in wheat, providing valuable insights for wheat improvement strategies under changing climatic conditions.

A necessary considering factor for breeding: growth-defense tradeoff in plants

Crop diseases cause enormous yield losses and threaten global food security. Deployment of resistant cultivars can effectively control the disease and to minimize crop losses. However, high level of genetic immunity to disease was often accompanied by an undesired reduction in crop growth and yield. Recently, literatures have been rapidly emerged in understanding the mechanism of disease resistance and development genes in crop plants. To determine how and why the costs and the likely benefit of resistance genes caused in crop varieties, we re-summarized the present knowledge about the crosstalk between plant development and disease resistance caused by those genes that function as plasma membrane residents, MAPK cassette, nuclear envelope (NE) channels components and pleiotropic regulators. Considering the growth-defense tradeoffs on the basis of current advances, finally, we try to understand and suggest that a reasonable balancing strategies based on the interplay between immunity with growth should be considered to enhance immunity capacity without yield penalty in future crop breeding.

A comprehensive dynamic immune acetylproteomics profiling induced by Puccinia polysora in maize

Lysine-ε-acetylation (Kac) is a reversible post-translational modification that plays important roles during plant-pathogen interactions. Some pathogens can deliver secreted effectors encoding acetyltransferases or deacetylases into host cell to directly modify acetylation of host proteins. However, the function of these acetylated host proteins in plant-pathogen defense remains to be determined. Employing high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry, we analyzed protein abundance and lysine acetylation changes in maize infected with Puccinia polysora (P. polysora) at 0 h, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 72 h. A total of 7412 Kac sites from 4697 proteins were identified, and 1732 Kac sites from 1006 proteins were quantified. Analyzed the features of lysine acetylation, we found that Kac is ubiquitous in cellular compartments and preferentially targets lysine residues in the -F/W/Y-X-X-K (ac)-N/S/T/P/Y/G- motif of the protein, this Kac motif contained proteins enriched in basic metabolism and defense-associated pathways during fungal infection. Further analysis of acetylproteomics data indicated that maize regulates cellular processes in response to P. polysora infection by altering Kac levels of histones and non-histones. In addition, acetylation of pathogen defense-related proteins presented converse patterns in signaling transduction, defense response, cell wall fortification, ROS scavenging, redox reaction and proteostasis. Our results provide informative resources for studying protein acetylation in plant-pathogen interactions, not only greatly extending the understanding on the roles of acetylation in vivo, but also providing a comprehensive dynamic pattern of Kac modifications in the process of plant immune response.

Underlying mechanism of accelerated cell death and multiple disease resistance in a maize lethal leaf spot 1 allele

Multiple disease resistance (MDR) in maize has attracted increasing attention. However, the interplay between cell death and metabolite changes and their contributions to MDR remains elusive in maize. In this study, we identified a mutant named as lesion mimic 30 (les30) that showed 'suicidal' lesion formation in the absence of disease and had enhanced resistance to the fungal pathogen Curvularia lunata. Using map-based cloning, we identified the causal gene encoding pheophorbide a oxidase (PAO), which is known to be involved in chlorophyll degradation and MDR, and is encoded by LETHAL LEAF SPOT1 (LLS1). LLS1 was found to be induced by both biotic and abiotic stresses. Transcriptomics analysis showed that genes involved in defense responses and secondary metabolite biosynthesis were mildly activated in leaves of the les30 mutant without lesions, whilst they were strongly activated in leaves with lesions. In addition, in les30 leaves with lesions, there was overaccumulation of defense-associated phytohormones including jasmonic acid and salicylic acid, and of phytoalexins including phenylpropanoids, lignin, and flavonoids, suggesting that their biosynthesis was activated in a lesion-dependent manner. Taken together, our study implies the existence of an interactive amplification loop of interrupted chlorophyll degradation, cell death, expression of defense-related genes, and metabolite changes that results in suicidal lesion formation and MDR, and this has the potential to be exploited by genetic manipulation to improve maize disease resistance.

Commonly and Specifically Activated Defense Responses in Maize Disease Lesion Mimic Mutants Revealed by Integrated Transcriptomics and Metabolomics Analysis

Disease lesion mimic (Les/les) mutants display disease-like spontaneous lesions in the absence of pathogen infection, implying the constitutive activation of defense responses. However, the genetic and biochemical bases underlying the activated defense responses in those mutants remain largely unknown. Here, we performed integrated transcriptomics and metabolomics analysis on three typical maize Les mutants Les4, Les10, and Les17 with large, medium, and small lesion size, respectively, thereby dissecting the activated defense responses at the transcriptional and metabolomic level. A total of 1,714, 4,887, and 1,625 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in Les4, Les10, and Les17, respectively. Among them, 570, 3,299, and 447 specific differentially expressed genes (SGs) were identified, implying a specific function of each LES gene. In addition, 480 common differentially expressed genes (CGs) and 42 common differentially accumulated metabolites (CMs) were identified in all Les mutants, suggesting the robust activation of shared signaling pathways. Intriguingly, substantial analysis of the CGs indicated that genes involved in the programmed cell death, defense responses, and phenylpropanoid and terpenoid biosynthesis were most commonly activated. Genes involved in photosynthetic biosynthesis, however, were generally repressed. Consistently, the dominant CMs identified were phenylpropanoids and flavonoids. In particular, lignin, the phenylpropanoid-based polymer, was significantly increased in all three mutants. These data collectively imply that transcriptional activation of defense-related gene expression; increase of phenylpropanoid, lignin, flavonoid, and terpenoid biosynthesis; and inhibition of photosynthesis are generalnatures associated with the lesion formation and constitutively activated defense responses in those mutants. Further studies on the identified SGs and CGs will shed new light on the function of each LES gene as well as the regulatory network of defense responses in maize.

Maize metabolome and proteome responses to controlled cold stress partly mimic early-sowing effects in the field and differ from those of Arabidopsis

In Northern Europe, sowing maize one-month earlier than current agricultural practices may lead to moderate chilling damage. However, studies of the metabolic responses to low, non-freezing, temperatures remain scarce. Here, genetically-diverse maize hybrids (Zea mays, dent inbred lines crossed with a flint inbred line) were cultivated in a growth chamber at optimal temperature and then three decreasing temperatures for 2 days each, as well as in the field. Leaf metabolomic and proteomic profiles were determined. In the growth chamber, 50% of metabolites and 18% of proteins changed between 20 and 16°C. These maize responses, partly differing from those of Arabidopsis to short-term chilling, were mapped on genome-wide metabolic maps. Several metabolites and proteins showed similar variation for all temperature decreases: seven MS-based metabolite signatures and two proteins involved in photosynthesis decreased continuously. Several increasing metabolites or proteins in the growth-chamber chilling conditions showed similar trends in the early-sowing field experiment, including trans-aconitate, three hydroxycinnamate derivatives, a benzoxazinoid, a sucrose synthase, lethal leaf-spot 1 protein, an allene oxide synthase, several glutathione transferases and peroxidases. Hybrid groups based on field biomass were used to search for the metabolite or protein responses differentiating them in growth-chamber conditions, which could be of interest for breeding.

Characterization of a novel allele encoding pheophorbide a oxygenase in rice

We identified a rapid cell death 2 (rcd2) mutant from an indica cultivar Zhongjian100 mutant bank. The red-brown lesions appeared firstly on young seedling leaves, then gradually merged and the leaves completely withered at the late tillering stage. rcd2 displayed apparent cell death at/around the lesions, accumulation of superoxide anion (O₂^-) and disturbed ROS scavenging system, impaired photosynthetic capacity with significantly reduced chlorophyll content. The lesion formation was controlled by a single recessive nuclear gene and induced by natural light as well as mechanical wounding. A single base mutation (A1726T) at the 6th exon of OsMH_03G0040800 resulted in I576F substitution in the encoding protein, pheophorbide a oxygenase (PAO). Functional complementation could rescue the mutant phenotype and PAO-knockout lines exhibited the similar phenotype to rcd2. The activity of PAO decreased significantly while the content of PAO substrate, pheophorbide a, increased apparently in rcd2. The expression of chlorophyll synthesis/degradation-related genes and the contents of metabolic intermediates were largely changed. Furthermore, the level of chlorophyllide a, the product of chlorophyllase, increased significantly, indicating chlorophyllase might play a role in chlorophyll degradation in rice. Our results suggested that the I576F substitution disrupted PAO function, leading to O₂^- accumulation and chlorophyll degradation breakdown in rice.

Chloroplasts and Plant Immunity: Where Are the Fungal Effectors?

Chloroplasts play a central role in plant immunity through the synthesis of secondary metabolites and defense compounds, as well as phytohormones, such as jasmonic acid and salicylic acid. Additionally, chloroplast metabolism results in the production of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide as defense molecules. The impact of viral and bacterial infections on plastids and chloroplasts has been well documented. In particular, bacterial pathogens are known to introduce effectors specifically into chloroplasts, and many viral proteins interact with chloroplast proteins to influence viral replication and movement, and plant defense. By contrast, clear examples are just now emerging for chloroplast-targeted effectors from fungal and oomycete pathogens. In this review, we first present a brief overview of chloroplast contributions to plant defense and then discuss examples of connections between fungal interactions with plants and chloroplast function. We then briefly consider well-characterized bacterial effectors that target chloroplasts as a prelude to discussing the evidence for fungal effectors that impact chloroplast activities.

Identification and characterization of a spotted-leaf mutant spl40 with enhanced bacterial blight resistance in rice

BACKGROUND

Spotted leaf mutants show typical necrotic lesions that appear spontaneously in the absence of any pathogen attack. These mutants are often characterized to exhibit programmed cell death (PCD) and activation of plant defense responses resulting in enhanced disease resistance to multiple pathogens. Here, we reported a novel spotted-leaf mutant, spl40 that showed enhanced disease resistance response.

RESULTS

Initially lesions appeared at leaf tips during seedling stage and gradually covered the whole leaf at the tillering stage. The lesion development was light-dependent. spl40 showed obvious cell death at and around the lesion, and burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was accompanied by disturbed ROS scavenging system. Photosynthetic capacity was compromised as evidenced by significant reductions in chlorophyll content, important photosynthesis parameters and downregulated expression of photosynthesis-related genes which ultimately led to poor performance of major agronomic traits. spl40 exhibited enhanced resistance to 14 out of 16 races of bacterial blight pathogen of rice, caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, most probably though activation of SA and JA signaling pathways, owing to upregulated expression of SA and JA signaling genes, though the exact mechanism remain to be elucidated. The spotted-leaf phenotype was controlled by a novel single recessive nuclear gene. Genetic mapping combined with high throughput sequencing analysis identified Os05G0312000 as the most probable candidate gene. Sequencing of ORF revealed a single SNP change from C to T that resulted in non-synonymous change in amino acid residue from leucine to phenylalanine. Interestingly, the complementation plants did not display lesions before heading but showed lesions at the heading stage and the transgenic T₁ progenies could be classified into 3 categories based on their lesion intensity, indicating the complex genetic nature of the spl40 mutation.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained here clearly show that genes related to defense and PCD were upregulated in accordance with enhanced disease resistance and occurrence of PCD, whereas the photosynthetic capacity and overall ROS homeostasis was compromised in spl40. Our data suggest that a novel spotted-leaf mutant, spl40, would help to elucidate the mechanism behind lesion development involving programmed cell death and associated defense responses.

Identification and expression analysis of the arbuscular mycorrhiza-inducible Rieske non-heme oxygenase Ptc52 gene from tomato

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) formation enhances plant growth and fitness through improved uptake of water and mineral nutrients in exchange for carbon compounds to the AM fungus. The fungal structure for the reciprocal exchange of nutrients in the symbiosis is the arbuscule, and defence genes expressed in cells containing arbuscules could play a role in the control of hyphal spread and arbuscule formation in the root. We characterized and analyzed the Ptc52 gene from tomato (SlPtc52), a member of the gene family of non-heme oxygenases, whose function has been related to the lethal leaf spot 1 (Lls1) lesion mimic phenotype in plants which is sometimes associated with enhanced disease resistance. Sequence analysis of the SlPTC52 protein revealed conserved typical motifs from non-heme oxygenases, including a Rieske [2Fe-2S] motif, a mononuclear non-heme iron-binding motif and a C-terminal CxxC motif. The level of transcript accumulation was low in stem, flower and green fruits, and high in leaves. Although SlPtc52 expression was perceptible at low levels in roots, its expression increased concomitantly with AM fungus root colonization. Tomato non-mycorrhizal hairy roots expressing the GUS protein under the control of promoter SlPtc52 exhibited GUS activity in the endodermis, the apical meristem of the root tip and in the lateral root primordium. AM fungal colonization also resulted in intensive GUS activity that clearly corresponds to cortical cells containing arbuscules. SlPtc52 gene silencing led to a delay in root colonization and a decrease in arbuscular abundance, suggesting that SlPTC52 plays a regulatory role during AM symbiosis.

Propagation of cell death in dropdead1, a sorghum ortholog of the maize lls1 mutant

We describe dropdead1-1 (ded1), an EMS-induced recessive lesion mimic mutant of sorghum. It is characterized by the formation of spreading necrotic lesions that share many attributes with those associated with the maize lethal leaf spot1 (lls1) and Arabidopsis accelerated cell death1 (acd1) mutation. We show that as in lls1, ded1 lesions are initiated by wounding and require light for continued propagation, and that loss of chloroplast integrity is responsible for ded1 cell death. Consistent with these parallels, we demonstrate that ded1 is an ortholog of lls1 and encodes pheophorbide a oxidase (PaO) with 93% identity at the protein level. The mutant ded1 allele resulted from a stop codon-inducing single base pair change in exon 6 of the sorghum ortholog of lls1. The ded1 transcript was rapidly and transiently induced after wounding and substantially elevated in leaves containing ded1 lesions. Given that PaO is a key enzyme of the chlorophyll degradation pathway, its dysfunction would result in the accumulation of pheophorbide, a potent photosensitizer that results in the production of singlet oxygen. Consistent with this, cell death associated with ded1 lesions is most likely caused by singlet oxygen as our results exclude superoxide and H₂O₂ from this role. We explore the signal responsible for the propagation of lesions affecting both ded1 and lls1 lesions and find that both developmental age and ethylene increase the rate of lesion expansion in both mutants.

Generating Gene Silenced Mutants in Phytophthora sojae

Phytophthora species are notorious pathogens of plants and cause enormous damage to agriculture. In order to understand Phytophthora pathogenesis, gene silencing and knockout methods are important for the investigation of gene functions. Although CRISPR/Cas9-based gene knockout procedures have been developed in Phytophthora sojae and Phytophthora capsici, it may not always be the best choice especially when knockout mutation leads to lethality. Therefore, gene silencing is a very useful tool for functional analysis of target genes in Phytophthora. This chapter introduces a gene silencing protocol for the soybean pathogen P. sojae. An expression cassette is incorporated into the P. sojae genome through PEG-mediated protoplast transformation, which leads to constitutive production of antisense RNA transcripts. These transcripts are able to target mRNAs through sequence complementarity and effectively reduce the expression of the target genes.

Genome-wide identification of the SWEET gene family in wheat

The SWEET (sugars will eventually be exported transporter) family is a newly characterized group of sugar transporters. In plants, the key roles of SWEETs in phloem transport, nectar secretion, pollen nutrition, stress tolerance, and plant-pathogen interactions have been identified. SWEET family genes have been characterized in many plant species, but a comprehensive analysis of SWEET members has not yet been performed in wheat. Here, 59 wheat SWEETs (hereafter TaSWEETs) were identified through homology searches. Analyses of phylogenetic relationships, numbers of transmembrane helices (TMHs), gene structures, and motifs showed that TaSWEETs carrying 3-7 TMHs could be classified into four clades with 10 different types of motifs. Examination of the expression patterns of 18 SWEET genes revealed that a few are tissue-specific while most are ubiquitously expressed. In addition, the stem rust-mediated expression patterns of SWEET genes were monitored using a stem rust-susceptible cultivar, 'Little Club' (LC). The resulting data showed that the expression of five out of the 18 SWEETs tested was induced following inoculation. In conclusion, we provide the first comprehensive analysis of the wheat SWEET gene family. Information regarding the phylogenetic relationships, gene structures, and expression profiles of SWEET genes in different tissues and following stem rust disease inoculation will be useful in identifying the potential roles of SWEETs in specific developmental and pathogenic processes.

Physical mapping of QTL for tuber yield, starch content and starch yield in tetraploid potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) by means of genome wide genotyping by sequencing and the 8.3 K SolCAP SNP array

Background

Tuber yield and starch content of the cultivated potato are complex traits of decisive importance for breeding improved varieties. Natural variation of tuber yield and starch content depends on the environment and on multiple, mostly unknown genetic factors. Dissection and molecular identification of the genes and their natural allelic variants controlling these complex traits will lead to the development of diagnostic DNA-based markers, by which precision and efficiency of selection can be increased (precision breeding).

Results

Three case-control populations were assembled from tetraploid potato cultivars based on maximizing the differences between high and low tuber yield (TY), starch content (TSC) and starch yield (TSY, arithmetic product of TY and TSC). The case-control populations were genotyped by restriction-site associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) and the 8.3 k SolCAP SNP genotyping array. The allele frequencies of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were compared between cases and controls. RADseq identified, depending on data filtering criteria, between 6664 and 450 genes with one or more differential SNPs for one, two or all three traits. Differential SNPs in 275 genes were detected using the SolCAP array. A genome wide association study using the SolCAP array on an independent, unselected population identified SNPs associated with tuber starch content in 117 genes. Physical mapping of the genes containing differential or associated SNPs, and comparisons between the two genome wide genotyping methods and two different populations identified genome segments on all twelve potato chromosomes harboring one or more quantitative trait loci (QTL) for TY, TSC and TSY.

Conclusions

Several hundred genes control tuber yield and starch content in potato. They are unequally distributed on all potato chromosomes, forming clusters between 0.5–4 Mbp width. The largest fraction of these genes had unknown function, followed by genes with putative signalling and regulatory functions. The genetic control of tuber yield and starch content is interlinked. Most differential SNPs affecting both traits had antagonistic effects: The allele increasing TY decreased TSC and vice versa. Exceptions were 89 SNP alleles which had synergistic effects on TY, TSC and TSY. These and the corresponding genes are primary targets for developing diagnostic markers.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3979-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Overwintering of Puccinia striiformis f. tritici on Winter Wheat at Varying Altitudes in Gansu and Qinghai Provinces

Stripe rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis f. tritici, is an important wheat disease in China. P. striiformis f. sp. tritici overwintering and nonoverwintering regions based on the temperature were described elsewhere ( Shi et al. 2005 ). The temperature limit for P. striiformis f. sp. tritici overwintering is derived from field observations. However, P. striiformis f. sp. tritici has recently been observed to overwinter at sites where overwintering is predicted to be unlikely. We studied P. striiformis f. sp. tritici overwintering across several sites in regions close to or further away from the current P. striiformis f. sp. tritici "overwintering boundary" in China. Plants with P. striiformis f. sp. tritici symptoms and uredinia were tagged in late autumn and moved to the laboratory in early spring the following year for quantification of P. striiformis f. sp. tritici biomass via a quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction method and for assessment of P. striiformis f. sp. tritici symptoms and sporulation after incubation in a greenhouse. The molecular method detected P. striiformis f. sp. tritici in leaves and sheath in most samples, much greater than the observed incidence of P. striiformis f. sp. tritici symptoms and sporulation after incubation. Thus, further refinement may been necessary to calibrate this molecular method in order to avoid overestimating P. striiformis f. sp. tritici overwintering potential. Active sporulation (hence, successful overwintering) was observed for all sites except one. Increasing altitude led to decreasing incidence of visible P. striiformis f. sp. tritici symptoms and sporulation; in addition to lower temperatures in high altitudes, wind chill may also explain this negative relationship between P. striiformis f. sp. tritici overwinter potential and altitude. P. striiformis f. sp. tritici sporulation on plants subjected to different treatments (control, two oldest leaves, or all leaves removed) indicated that P. striiformis f. sp. tritici overwinters in young green leaves as latent infection established in late autumn. The present study suggests that using only temperature to predict overwintering potential of P. striiformis f. sp. tritici at a given site is insufficient for mountainous regions.

Isolation and characterisation of cDNA encoding a wheat heavy metal-associated isoprenylated protein involved in stress responses

In cells, metallochaperones are important proteins that safely transport metal ions. Heavy metal-associated isoprenylated plant proteins (HIPPs) are metallochaperones that contain a metal binding domain and a CaaX isoprenylation motif at the carboxy-terminal end. To investigate the roles of wheat heavy metal-associated isoprenylated plant protein (TaHIPP) genes in plant development and in stress responses, we isolated cDNA encoding the wheat TaHIPP1 gene, which contains a heavy metal-associated domain, nuclear localisation signals and an isoprenylation motif (CaaX motif). Quantitative real-time PCR analysis indicated that the TaHIPP1 gene was differentially expressed under biotic and abiotic stresses. Specifically, TaHIPP1 expression was up-regulated by ABA exposure or wounding. Additionally, TaHIPP1 over-expression in yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) significantly increased the cell growth rate under Cu(2+) and high salinity stresses. The nuclear localisation of the protein was confirmed with confocal laser scanning microscopy of epidermal onion cells after particle bombardment with chimeric TaHIPP1-GFP constructs. In addition, TaHIPP1 was shown to enhance the susceptibility of wheat to Pst as determined by virus-induced gene silencing. These data indicate that TaHIPP1 is an important component in defence signalling pathways and may play a crucial role in the defence response of wheat to biotic and certain abiotic stresses.

Cloning and characterization of the pepper CaPAO gene for defense responses to salt-induced leaf senescence

BACKGROUND

Pheophorbide a oxygenase (PAO) is an important enzyme in the chlorophyll catabolism pathway and is involved in leaf senescence. It opens the porphyrin macrocycle of pheophorbide a and finally forms the primary fluorescent chlorophyll catabolite. Previous studies have demonstrated the function of PAO during cell death. However, the characterizaton of PAO during leaf senescence induced by environmental factors is not well understood.

METHODS

Homology-based cloning and RACE techniques were used to obtain the full-length cDNA of the CaPAO gene. CaPAO expression was determined by quantitative real-time PCR. Function of CaPAO gene were studied using virus-induced gene silencing and transgenic techniques with tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum).

RESULTS

A novel PAO gene CaPAO was isolated from pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). The full-length CaPAO cDNA is comprised of 1838 bp, containing an open reading frame of 1614 bp, and encodes a 537 amino acid protein. This deduced protein belongs to the Rieske-type iron-sulfur superfamily, containing a conserved Rieske cluster. CaPAO expression, as determined by quantitative real-time PCR, was higher in leaves than roots, stems and flowers. It was upregulated by abscisic acid, methyl jasmonate and salicylic acid. Moreover, CaPAO was significantly induced by high salinity and osmotic stress treatments and also was regulated by Phytophthora capsici. The virus-induced gene silencing technique was used to silence the CaPAO gene in pepper plants. After 3 days of high salt treatment, the chlorophyll breakdown of CaPAO-silenced pepper plants was retarded. RD29A promoter-inducible expression vector was constructed and transferred into tobacco plant. After 7 days of salt treatment, the leaves of transgenic plants were severely turned into yellow, the lower leaves showed necrotic symptom and chlorophyll content was significantly lower than that in the control plants.

CONCLUSIONS

The expression of CaPAO gene was induced in natural senescence and various stresses. The CaPAO gene may be related to defense responses to various stresses and play an important role in salt-induced leaf senescence.

Effect of Low Temperature and Wheat Winter-Hardiness on Survival of Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici under Controlled Conditions

Wheat stripe rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), is one of the most important diseases of wheat worldwide. Understanding the survival of Pst during the overwintering period is critical for predicting Pst epidemics in the spring. Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) methods quantifying Pst DNA and RNA (cDNA) were developed and compared for the ability to quantify viable Pst in leaf tissues. Both qPCR of DNA and RNA can provide reliable measurement of viable Pst in plant tissues prior to the late sporulation stage for which qPCR of DNA gave a much higher estimate of fungal biomass than qPCR of RNA. The percentage of Pst biomass that was viable in detached and attached leaves under low temperatures decreased over time. Pst survived longer on attached leaves than on detached leaves. The survival of Pst in cultivars with strong winter-hardiness at 0°C and -5°C was greater than those with weak winter-hardiness. However, such differences in Pst survival among cultivars were negligible at -10, -15 and -20°C. Results indicated that Pst mycelia inside green leaves can also be killed by low temperatures rather than through death of green leaves under low temperatures. The relationship of Pst survival in attached leaves with temperature and winter-hardiness was well described by logistic models. Further field evaluation is necessary to assess whether inclusion of other factors such as moisture and snow cover could improve the model performance in predicting Pst overwintering potential, and hence the epidemic in spring.

Physiological and molecular changes in barley and wheat under salinity

In this study, it was aimed to compare salinity-induced changes in barley (Hordeum vulgare L. cv. Bornova-92) and bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Gerek-79). Seeds were germinated under saline conditions (0, 50, 100, 250, and 500 mM NaCl) for 2 days and recovered under non-saline conditions for 2 days. At the end of the salt treatment, germination, water content (WC), total soluble protein content, and catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6) activity were affected in both species, while superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1) activity was affected in barley. Salinity affected WC, protein content, and CAT activity in both species, while it affected germination in barley and affected fresh weight and SOD activity in wheat after recovery. Physiological responses of both species were correlated. Expression of α-tubulin, Atls1, and Lls1 genes was down-regulated in barley after 250 mM NaCl treatment. HVA1 gene was highly (more than 50-fold) stimulated by salinity in barley. However, α-tubulin and Atls1 genes were down-regulated, and Lls1 gene was up-regulated in wheat after recovery from 250-mM NaCl treatment. Increase in HVA1 expression was not significant in wheat. The expression profiles of barley and wheat under salinity are different, and barley tended to regulate gene expression faster than wheat.

Wheat TaNPSN SNARE homologues are involved in vesicle-mediated resistance to stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici)

Subcellular localisation of SNAREs (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) and their ability to form SNARE complexes are critical for determining the specificity of vesicle fusion. NPSN11, a Novel Plant SNARE (NPSN) gene, has been reported to be involved in the delivery of cell wall precursors to the newly formed cell plate during cytokinesis. However, functions of NPSN genes in plant-pathogen interactions are largely unknown. In this study, we cloned and characterized three NPSN genes (TaNPSN11, TaNPSN12, and TaNPSN13) and three plant defence-related SNARE homologues (TaSYP132, TaSNAP34, and TaMEMB12). TaSYP132 showed a highly specific interaction with TaNPSN11 in both yeast two-hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays. We hypothesize that this interaction may indicate a partnership in vesicle trafficking. Expressions of the three TaNPSNs and TaSYP132 were differentially induced in wheat leaves when challenged by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst). In virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) assays, resistance of wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivar Xingzi9104 to the Pst avirulent race CYR23 was reduced by knocking down TaNPSN11, TaNPSN13 and TaSYP132, but not TaNPSN12, implying diversified functions of these wheat SNARE homologues in prevention of Pst infection and hyphal elongation. Immuno-localization results showed that TaNPSN11 or its structural homologues were mainly distributed in vesicle structures near cell membrane toward Pst hypha. Taken together, our data suggests a role of TaNPSN11 in vesicle-mediated resistance to stripe rust.