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Signaling Pathways Regulating Human Cervical Ripening in Preterm and Term Delivery. Cells 2022; 11:cells11223690. [PMID: 36429118 PMCID: PMC9688647 DOI: 10.3390/cells11223690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
At the end of gestation, the cervical tissue changes profoundly. As a result of these changes, the uterine cervix becomes soft and vulnerable to dilation. The process occurring in the cervical tissue can be described as cervical ripening. The ripening is a process derivative of enzymatic breakdown and inflammatory response. Therefore, it is apparent that cervical remodeling is a derivative of the reactions mediated by multiple factors such as hormones, prostaglandins, nitric oxide, and inflammatory cytokines. However, despite the research carried out over the years, the cellular pathways responsible for regulating this process are still poorly understood. A comprehensive understanding of the entire process of cervical ripening seems crucial in the context of labor induction. Greater knowledge could provide us with the means to help women who suffer from dysfunctional labor. The overall objective of this review is to present the current understanding of cervical ripening in terms of molecular regulation and cell signaling.
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Ivell R, Alhujaili W, Kohsaka T, Anand-Ivell R. Physiology and evolution of the INSL3/RXFP2 hormone/receptor system in higher vertebrates. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2020; 299:113583. [PMID: 32800774 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2020.113583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Although the insulin-like peptide hormone INSL3 and its cognate receptor RXFP2 (relaxin-family peptide receptor 2) have existed throughout chordate evolution, their physiological diversification appears to be linked closely with mammalian emergence and radiation. In contrast, they have been lost in birds and reptiles. Both hormone and receptor are expressed from autosomal genes which have maintained their synteny across vertebrate evolution. Whereas the INSL3 gene comprises only two exons closely linked to the JAK3 gene, RXFP2 is normally encoded by 18 exons. Both genes, however, are subject to alternative splicing to yield a variety of possibly inactive or antagonistic molecules. In mammals, the INSL3-RXFP2 dyad has maintained a probably primitive association with gametogenesis, seen also in fish, whereby INSL3 promotes the survival, growth and differentiation of male germ cells in the testis and follicle development in the ovary. In addition, however, the INSL3/RXFP2 system has adopted a typical 'neohormone' profile, essential for the promotion of internal fertilisation and viviparity; fetal INSL3 is essential for the first phase of testicular descent into a scrotum, and also appears to be associated with male phenotype, in particular horn and skeletal growth. Circulating INSL3 is produced exclusively by the mature testicular Leydig cells in male mammals and acts as a potent biomarker for testis development during fetal and pubertal development as well as in ageing. As such it can be used also to monitor seasonally breeding animals as well as to investigate environmental or lifestyle conditions affecting development. Nevertheless, most information about INSL3 and RXFP2 comes from a very limited selection of species; it will be especially useful to gain further information from a more diverse range of animals, especially those whose evolution has led them to express unusual reproductive phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Ivell
- School of Bioscience, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, LE2 5RD, UK; School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, LE2 5RD, UK.
| | - Waleed Alhujaili
- School of Bioscience, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, LE2 5RD, UK
| | - Tetsuya Kohsaka
- Dept. of Applied Life Science, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, Japan
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Shokri S, Tavalaee M, Ebrahimi SM, Ziaeipour S, Nasr-Esfahani MH, Nejatbakhsh R. Expression of RXFP2 receptor on human spermatozoa and the anti-apoptotic and antioxidant effects of insulin-like factor 3. Andrologia 2020; 52:e13715. [PMID: 32557760 DOI: 10.1111/and.13715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Insulin-like factor 3 (INSL3) has an important role in the human reproductive system; however, its detailed function is still mysterious. We aimed to investigate the possibility of expression of RXFP2 receptor on human spermatozoa and to determine the anti-apoptotic and antioxidant mechanism derived the binding of INSL3 and RXFP2. In this experimental study, the expression/location of the RXFP2 receptor was determined on the spermatozoa of fertile and infertile men. Twenty samples from 20 fertile men were collected and divided into 6 parts (control group, and five groups treated with INSL3 10, 100, 250, 500, 1,000 ng/ml). DNA damage, active caspase, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and sperm parameters were evaluated by TUNEL, flow cytometry, optical microscope and computer-assisted sperm analysis. The expression of RXFP2 was confirmed by Western blot. Immunocytochemistry illustrated that this receptor is expressed in the posterior half of the spermatozoa's head. The INSL3 at concentrations of 500 and 1,000 ng/ml reduced the active caspase and mitochondrial ROS, and also reduced DNA fragmentation at 1,000 ng/ml. Besides, INSL3 500 and 1,000 ng/ml significantly increased the sperm motility. This study confirmed the presence of RXFP2 receptor in fertile and infertile men's spermatozoa, indicating the highly dose-dependent efficacy of the INSL3, which may have promising impacts on the in-vitro fertilisation outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Shokri
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Marziyeh Tavalaee
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyyed Meisam Ebrahimi
- Department of Medical Surgical Nursing, Abhar School of Nursing, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Sanaz Ziaeipour
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hossein Nasr-Esfahani
- Department of Reproductive Biotechnology, Reproductive Biomedicine Research Center, Royan Institute for Biotechnology, ACECR, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Reza Nejatbakhsh
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
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Valkovic AL, Bathgate RA, Samuel CS, Kocan M. Understanding relaxin signalling at the cellular level. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 487:24-33. [PMID: 30592984 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2018.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The peptide hormone relaxin mediates many biological actions including anti-fibrotic, vasodilatory, angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and organ protective effects across a range of tissues. At the cellular level, relaxin binds to the G protein-coupled receptor relaxin family peptide receptor 1 (RXFP1) to activate a variety of downstream signal transduction pathways. This signalling cascade is complex and also varies in diverse cellular backgrounds. Moreover, RXFP1 signalling shows crosstalk with other receptors to mediate some of its physiological functions. This review summarises known signalling pathways induced by acute versus chronic treatment with relaxin across a range of cell types, it describes RXFP1 crosstalk with other receptors, signalling pathways activated by other ligands targeting RXFP1, and it also outlines physiological relevance of RXFP1 signalling outputs. Comprehensive understanding of the mechanism of relaxin actions in fibrosis, vasodilation, as well as organ protection, will further support relaxin's clinical potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam L Valkovic
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Ross Ad Bathgate
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia.
| | - Chrishan S Samuel
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Martina Kocan
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia.
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Ivell R, Anand-Ivell R. Insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) is a major regulator of female reproductive physiology. Hum Reprod Update 2018; 24:639-651. [DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmy029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Ivell
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
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Dai Y, Ivell R, Liu X, Janowski D, Anand-Ivell R. Relaxin-Family Peptide Receptors 1 and 2 Are Fully Functional in the Bovine. Front Physiol 2017. [PMID: 28634453 PMCID: PMC5459885 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In most mammals the peptide hormone relaxin is a key physiological component regulating early pregnancy and birth. However, synteny analysis shows that the gene encoding ovarian relaxin-2 is deleted in cows and sheep. While, these ruminants appear to exhibit a relaxin-like physiology, as in other mammals, until now a molecular understanding of this has been lacking. Cloning and expression analysis of the cognate bovine receptor for relaxin, RXFP1, as well as of the structurally related receptor, RXFP2, in female tissues, shows that these are expressed in a similar way to other mammals. RXFP1 transcripts are found in ovarian theca cells, endometrium, and myometrium, whereas RXFP2 transcripts are expressed in ovarian theca cells, oocytes, as well as in myometrium. Transfection of receptor-expressing gene constructs into HEK293 cells indicates that bovine RXFP1 has a greater EC50 at 10–50 nM for porcine or human relaxin, compared to human RXFP1. For bovine RXFP2, in contrast, the EC50 is <1 nM for its cognate ligand, bovine INSL3, but also 10–30 nM for porcine or human relaxin. Functional analysis shows that bovine myometrial cells are able to respond to exogenous relaxin and INSL3 with a significant increase in cAMP. Although expressing mRNA for both RXFP1 and RXFP2, bovine follicular theca cells only respond to INSL3 with a dose-dependent increase in cAMP. Altogether the results suggest that the cow is able to compensate for the missing hormone, and moreover imply that relaxin analogs could offer an important therapeutic option in treating female ruminant infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanzhenzi Dai
- School of Biosciences, University of NottinghamNottingham, United Kingdom.,Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal BiologyDummerstorf, Germany
| | - Richard Ivell
- School of Biosciences, University of NottinghamNottingham, United Kingdom.,Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal BiologyDummerstorf, Germany.,School of Biological Sciences, University of AdelaideAdelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Xuan Liu
- Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal BiologyDummerstorf, Germany
| | - Dana Janowski
- Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal BiologyDummerstorf, Germany
| | - Ravinder Anand-Ivell
- School of Biosciences, University of NottinghamNottingham, United Kingdom.,Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal BiologyDummerstorf, Germany
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Marshall SA, Senadheera SN, Parry LJ, Girling JE. The Role of Relaxin in Normal and Abnormal Uterine Function During the Menstrual Cycle and Early Pregnancy. Reprod Sci 2016; 24:342-354. [DOI: 10.1177/1933719116657189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A. Marshall
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Laura J. Parry
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jane E. Girling
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Gynaecology Research Centre, The University of Melbourne and Royal Women’s Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Halls ML, Bathgate RAD, Sutton SW, Dschietzig TB, Summers RJ. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. XCV. Recent advances in the understanding of the pharmacology and biological roles of relaxin family peptide receptors 1-4, the receptors for relaxin family peptides. Pharmacol Rev 2015; 67:389-440. [PMID: 25761609 DOI: 10.1124/pr.114.009472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Relaxin, insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3), relaxin-3, and INSL5 are the cognate ligands for the relaxin family peptide (RXFP) receptors 1-4, respectively. RXFP1 activates pleiotropic signaling pathways including the signalosome protein complex that facilitates high-sensitivity signaling; coupling to Gα(s), Gα(i), and Gα(o) proteins; interaction with glucocorticoid receptors; and the formation of hetero-oligomers with distinctive pharmacological properties. In addition to relaxin-related ligands, RXFP1 is activated by Clq-tumor necrosis factor-related protein 8 and by small-molecular-weight agonists, such as ML290 [2-isopropoxy-N-(2-(3-(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)phenylcarbamoyl)phenyl)benzamide], that act allosterically. RXFP2 activates only the Gα(s)- and Gα(o)-coupled pathways. Relaxin-3 is primarily a neuropeptide, and its cognate receptor RXFP3 is a target for the treatment of depression, anxiety, and autism. A variety of peptide agonists, antagonists, biased agonists, and an allosteric modulator target RXFP3. Both RXFP3 and the related RXFP4 couple to Gα(i)/Gα(o) proteins. INSL5 has the properties of an incretin; it is secreted from the gut and is orexigenic. The expression of RXFP4 in gut, adipose tissue, and β-islets together with compromised glucose tolerance in INSL5 or RXFP4 knockout mice suggests a metabolic role. This review focuses on the many advances in our understanding of RXFP receptors in the last 5 years, their signal transduction mechanisms, the development of novel compounds that target RXFP1-4, the challenges facing the field, and current prospects for new therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L Halls
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
| | - Ross A D Bathgate
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
| | - Steve W Sutton
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
| | - Thomas B Dschietzig
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
| | - Roger J Summers
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
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Johansen ML, Anand-Ivell R, Mouritsen A, Hagen CP, Mieritz MG, Søeborg T, Johannsen TH, Main KM, Andersson AM, Ivell R, Juul A. Serum levels of insulin-like factor 3, anti-Müllerian hormone, inhibin B, and testosterone during pubertal transition in healthy boys: a longitudinal pilot study. Reproduction 2014; 147:529-35. [DOI: 10.1530/rep-13-0435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Insulin-like factor 3 (INSL3) is a promising marker of Leydig cell function with potentially high clinical relevance. Limited data of INSL3 levels in relation to other reproductive hormones in healthy pubertal boys exist. In this study, we aimed to evaluate longitudinal serum changes in INSL3 compared with LH, FSH, testosterone, inhibin B, and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) during puberty in healthy boys. Ten boys were included from the longitudinal part of the COPENHAGEN Puberty Study. Pubertal evaluation, including testicular volume, was performed and blood samples were drawn every 6 months for 5 years. Serum concentrations of testosterone were determined by a newly developed LC–MS/MS method, and serum concentrations of INSL3, AMH, inhibin B, FSH, and LH respectively were determined by validated immunoassays. The results showed that serum INSL3 levels increased progressively with increasing age, pubertal onset, and testicular volume. In six of the ten boys, LH increased before the first observed increase in INSL3. In the remaining four boys, the increase in LH and INSL3 was observed at the same examination. The increases in serum concentrations of LH, testosterone, and INSL3 were not parallel or in ordered succession and varied interindividually. We demonstrated that INSL3 concentrations were tightly associated with pubertal onset and increasing testicular volume. However, the pubertal increases in LH, INSL3, and testosterone concentrations were not entirely parallel, suggesting that INSL3 and testosterone may be regulated differently. Thus, we speculate that INSL3 provides additional information on Leydig cell differentiation and function during puberty compared with traditional markers of testicular function.
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Anand-Ivell R, Ivell R. Regulation of the reproductive cycle and early pregnancy by relaxin family peptides. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014; 382:472-479. [PMID: 23994019 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2013.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 08/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The relaxin family of peptide hormones are structurally closely related to one another sharing a heterodimeric A-B structure, like that of insulin. They may also be active as unprocessed B-C-A pro-forms. Relaxin has been shown to pay a key role within the ovary, being involved in follicle growth, and ovulation. Relaxin is produced in large amounts also by the corpus luteum where it acts as an endocrine hormone positively affecting implantation, placentation and vascularization during the all-important first trimester phase of pregnancy establishment. Relaxin exerts its functions via the receptor RXFP1. Insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) in contrast acts through the related receptor RXFP2, and plays an essential role in the production of androgens within growing antral follicles. INSL3 is also produced in large amounts by the male fetus shortly after sex determination, where it controls the first transabdominal phase of testicular descent. However, this fetal INSL3 is also able to influence placental and maternal physiology, indicating associations with later preeclampsia and/or fetal growth restriction. Other members of this relaxin-like family of peptides, such as INSL4, INSL5 and INSL6 are less well studied, though all suggest modulatory roles in ovarian and/or placental function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Richard Ivell
- Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, 18196 Dummerstorf, Germany.
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Xue K, Kim JY, Liu JY, Tsang BK. Insulin-like 3-induced rat preantral follicular growth is mediated by growth differentiation factor 9. Endocrinology 2014; 155:156-67. [PMID: 24169563 DOI: 10.1210/en.2013-1491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The communication of somatic cells and oocytes by intrafollicular paracrine factors is essential for follicular growth in the ovary. Insulin-like 3 (INSL3) is a theca cell-secreted paracrine factor. Androgens and growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF9), an oocyte-derived growth factor, are essential for follicular development. Using a rat preantral follicle culture model, we examined in the present study the influence of INSL3 on preantral follicular growth and the molecular mechanisms involved. We have observed that the receptor for INSL3, relaxin/insulin-like family peptide receptor 2 (RXFP2), was exclusively expressed in oocytes. Recombinant INSL3 stimulated Gdf9 expression, preantral follicular growth, and testosterone synthesis in vitro. Inhibition of the cAMP/protein kinase A signaling pathway (with cAMP antagonist, 8-bromoadenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphorothioate, Rp-isomer) attenuated INSL3-induced Gdf9 expression and preantral follicular growth. Moreover, knocking down Gdf9 expression (with small interfering RNA) or inhibiting GDF9 signaling (with SB431542, an activin receptor-like kinase receptor 5 inhibitor, or specific inhibitor of mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3) or androgen action (with flutamide, an androgen receptor antagonist) suppressed INSL3-induced preantral follicular growth. In addition, LH and DHT regulated the expression of Insl3 mRNA in preantral follicles. These observations suggest that INSL3 is a key theca cell-derived growth factor for preantral follicle and that its action is mediated by GDF9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Xue
- State Key Laboratory in Reproductive Medicine (K.X., J.L.), Centre for Clinical Reproductive Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China; Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Cellular and Molecular Medicine (K.X., J.Y.K., B.K.T.) and Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences (B.K.T.), University of Ottawa, and Chronic Disease Program (K.X., J.Y.K., B.K.T.), Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; and World Class University Biomodulation Major (J.Y.K., B.K.T.), Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Republic of Korea
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Binder C, Chuang E, Habla C, Bleckmann A, Schulz M, Bathgate R, Einspanier A. Relaxins enhance growth of spontaneous murine breast cancers as well as metastatic colonization of the brain. Clin Exp Metastasis 2013; 31:57-65. [PMID: 23963762 PMCID: PMC3892110 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-013-9609-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2013] [Accepted: 08/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Relaxins are known for their tissue remodeling capacity which is also a hallmark of cancer progression. However, their role in the latter context is still unclear, particularly in breast cancer. In a mouse model with spontaneously arising breast cancer due to erbB2-overexpression we show that exposure to porcine relaxin results in significantly enhanced tumour growth as compared to control animals. This is accompanied by increased serum concentrations of progesterone and estradiol as well as elevated expression of the respective receptors and the relaxin receptor RXFP1 in the tumour tissue. It is also associated with enhanced infiltration by tumour-associated macrophages which are known to promote tumour progression. Additionally, we show in an ex vivo model of metastatic brain colonization that porcine relaxin as well as human brain-specific relaxin-3 promotes invasion into the brain tissue and enhance interaction of breast cancer cells with the resident brain macrophages, the microglia. Relaxin signaling is mediated via RXFP1, since R 3/I5, a specific agonist of the relaxin-3 receptor RXFP3 in the brain, does not significantly enhance invasion. Taken together, these findings strongly support a role of relaxins in the progression of breast cancer where they foster primary tumour growth as well as metastatic colonization by direct and indirect means.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Binder
- Department of Haematology/Oncology, Georg-August-University, Robert-Koch-str. 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Eugenia Chuang
- Department of Haematology/Oncology, Georg-August-University, Robert-Koch-str. 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christina Habla
- Institute of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Annalen Bleckmann
- Department of Haematology/Oncology, Georg-August-University, Robert-Koch-str. 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
- Deparment of Medical Statistics, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Matthias Schulz
- Department of Haematology/Oncology, Georg-August-University, Robert-Koch-str. 40, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ross Bathgate
- Florey Neuroscience Institutes and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC Australia
| | - Almuth Einspanier
- Institute of Veterinary Physiological Chemistry, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 1, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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Anand-Ivell R, Dai Y, Ivell R. Neohormones as biomarkers of reproductive health. Fertil Steril 2013; 99:1153-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2012.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2012] [Revised: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Bathgate RAD, Halls ML, van der Westhuizen ET, Callander GE, Kocan M, Summers RJ. Relaxin family peptides and their receptors. Physiol Rev 2013; 93:405-80. [PMID: 23303914 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00001.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
There are seven relaxin family peptides that are all structurally related to insulin. Relaxin has many roles in female and male reproduction, as a neuropeptide in the central nervous system, as a vasodilator and cardiac stimulant in the cardiovascular system, and as an antifibrotic agent. Insulin-like peptide-3 (INSL3) has clearly defined specialist roles in male and female reproduction, relaxin-3 is primarily a neuropeptide involved in stress and metabolic control, and INSL5 is widely distributed particularly in the gastrointestinal tract. Although they are structurally related to insulin, the relaxin family peptides produce their physiological effects by activating a group of four G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), relaxin family peptide receptors 1-4 (RXFP1-4). Relaxin and INSL3 are the cognate ligands for RXFP1 and RXFP2, respectively, that are leucine-rich repeat containing GPCRs. RXFP1 activates a wide spectrum of signaling pathways to generate second messengers that include cAMP and nitric oxide, whereas RXFP2 activates a subset of these pathways. Relaxin-3 and INSL5 are the cognate ligands for RXFP3 and RXFP4 that are closely related to small peptide receptors that when activated inhibit cAMP production and activate MAP kinases. Although there are still many unanswered questions regarding the mode of action of relaxin family peptides, it is clear that they have important physiological roles that could be exploited for therapeutic benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A D Bathgate
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
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Halls ML. Constitutive formation of an RXFP1-signalosome: a novel paradigm in GPCR function and regulation. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 165:1644-1658. [PMID: 21557732 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01470.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The classical second messenger cAMP is important in diverse physiological processes, where its spatial and temporal compartmentalization allows precise control over multiple cellular events. Within this context, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) govern specialized pools of cAMP, which are functionally specific for the unique cellular effects attributed to a particular system. The relaxin receptor, RXFP1, is a GPCR that exerts pleiotropic physiological effects including a potent anti-fibrotic response, increased cancer metastases, and has efficacy as a vasodilator in heart failure. On a cellular level, relaxin stimulation of RXFP1 results in the activation of multiple G-protein pathways affecting cAMP accumulation. Specificity and diversity in the cAMP signal generated by RXFP1 is controlled by differential G-protein coupling dependent upon the background of cellular expression, and cAMP compartmentalization. Further complexity in cAMP signalling results from the constitutive assembly of an RXFP1-signalosome, which specifically responds to low concentrations of relaxin, and activates a distinct cAMP pathway. The RXFP1-signalosome is a higher-order protein complex that facilitates receptor sensitivity to attomolar concentration of peptide, exhibits constitutive activity and dual coupling to G-proteins and β-arrestins and reveals a concentration-biased agonism mediated by relaxin. The specific and directed formation of GPCR-centered signalosomes allows an even greater spatial and temporal control of cAMP, thus rationalizing the considerable physiological scope of this ubiquitous second messenger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L Halls
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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Recombinant H2 relaxin inhibits apoptosis and induces cell proliferation in cultured leiomyoma cells without affecting those in cultured normal myometrial cells. Fertil Steril 2012; 97:734-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2011] [Revised: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Carvalho LN, Cristovam PC, Passos CS, Boim MA. Mesangial Cells Cultured from Pregnant Rats Display Reduced Reactivity to Angiotensin II: the Role of Relaxin, Nitric Oxide and AT2 Receptor. Cell Physiol Biochem 2012. [DOI: 10.1159/000343333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) is the subject of a fast expanding literature reflecting increasing clinical application, particularly as a diagnostic parameter. This review summarizes the recent INSL3 literature published within the last 12-18 months. RECENT FINDINGS Significant inroads have been made to understand how INSL3 is working in testicular descent. It also has other functions in the adult, for example in bone metabolism, extending its role as a largely gender-specific hormone. Advances in molecular pharmacology have increased our understanding of INSL3 interaction with its specific receptor, RXFP2, and delivered new high-affinity antagonists. INSL3 is increasingly being used to assess Leydig cell functional capacity within the testis, independently of factors affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, being a robust parameter by comparison with testosterone. Particularly in the aging male, metabolic syndrome, and the effects of adiposity on testis function, INSL3 is a valuable adjunct to the standard clinical repertoire. SUMMARY The Leydig cell hormone INSL3 is responsible for the first phase of testicular descent during pregnancy and may have multiple roles as a gender-specific circulating hormone in the adult reflecting Leydig cell functional capacity. In women, INSL3 is a paracrine factor within the ovary and probably placenta, in which it may have a fetal gender-specific role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Ivell
- School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Australia.
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Anand-Ivell R, Hiendleder S, Viñoles C, Martin GB, Fitzsimmons C, Eurich A, Hafen B, Ivell R. INSL3 in the ruminant: a powerful indicator of gender- and genetic-specific feto-maternal dialogue. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19821. [PMID: 21603619 PMCID: PMC3095623 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2010] [Accepted: 04/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The hormone Insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) is a major secretory product of the Leydig cells from both fetal and adult testes. Consequently, it is a major gender-specific circulating hormone in the male fetus, where it is responsible for the first phase of testicular descent, and in the adult male. In most female mammals, circulating levels are very low, corresponding to only a small production of INSL3 by the mature ovaries. Female ruminants are exceptional in exhibiting high INSL3 gene expression by the thecal cells of antral follicles and by the corpora lutea. We have developed a specific and sensitive immunoassay to measure ruminant INSL3 and show that, corresponding to the high ovarian gene expression, non-pregnant adult female sheep and cows have up to four times the levels observed in other female mammals. Significantly, this level declines during mid-pregnancy in cows carrying a female fetus, in which INSL3 is undetectable. However, in cows carrying a male fetus, circulating maternal INSL3 becomes elevated further, presumably due to the transplacental transfer of fetal INSL3 into the maternal circulation. Within male fetal blood, INSL3 is high in mid-pregnancy (day 153) corresponding to the first transabdominal phase of testicular descent, and shows a marked dependence on paternal genetics, with pure bred or hybrid male fetuses of Bos taurus (Angus) paternal genome having 30% higher INSL3 levels than those of Bos indicus (Brahman) paternity. Thus INSL3 provides the first example of a gender-specific fetal hormone with the potential to influence both placental and maternal physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravinder Anand-Ivell
- Sansom Institute, and School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Stefan Hiendleder
- Robinson Institute and School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Carolina Viñoles
- School of Animal Biology M092, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Graeme B. Martin
- School of Animal Biology M092, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Carolyn Fitzsimmons
- Robinson Institute and School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Andrea Eurich
- Robinson Institute and School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Bettina Hafen
- Robinson Institute and School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Richard Ivell
- Robinson Institute and School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Vodstrcil LA, Shynlova O, Verlander JW, Wlodek ME, Parry LJ. Decreased Expression of the Rat Myometrial Relaxin Receptor (RXFP1) in Late Pregnancy Is Partially Mediated by the Presence of the Conceptus1. Biol Reprod 2010; 83:818-24. [DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.110.083931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
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Ivell R, Kotula-Balak M, Glynn D, Heng K, Anand-Ivell R. Relaxin family peptides in the male reproductive system--a critical appraisal. Mol Hum Reprod 2010; 17:71-84. [DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gaq086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
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Kong RCK, Shilling PJ, Lobb DK, Gooley PR, Bathgate RAD. Membrane receptors: structure and function of the relaxin family peptide receptors. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2010; 320:1-15. [PMID: 20138959 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2010.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2009] [Revised: 12/14/2009] [Accepted: 02/02/2010] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The receptors for members of the relaxin peptide family have only recently been discovered and are G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Relaxin and insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) interact with the leucine-rich-repeat-containing GPCRs (LGRs) LGR7 and LGR8, respectively. These receptors show closest similarity to the glycoprotein hormone receptors and contain large ectodomains with 10 leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) but are unique members of the LGR family (class C) as they have an LDL class A (LDLa) module at their N-terminus. In contrast, relaxin-3 and INSL5 interact with another class of type I GPCRs which lack a large ectodomain, the peptide receptors GPCR135 and GPCR142, respectively. These receptors are now classified as relaxin family peptide (RXFP) receptors, RXFP1 (LGR7), RXFP2 (LGR8), RXFP3 (GPCR135) and RXFP4 (GPCR142). This review outlines the identification of the peptides and receptors, their expression profiles and physiological roles and the functional interactions of the peptides with their unique receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy C K Kong
- Florey Neuroscience Institutes, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
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Anand-Ivell R, Heng K, Hafen B, Setchell B, Ivell R. Dynamics of INSL3 Peptide Expression in the Rodent Testis1. Biol Reprod 2009; 81:480-7. [DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.109.077552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
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Ivell R, Anand-Ivell R. Biology of insulin-like factor 3 in human reproduction. Hum Reprod Update 2009; 15:463-76. [DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmp011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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