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Luo J, Craver A, Bahl K, Stepniak L, Moore K, King J, Zhang Y, Aschebrook-Kilfoy B. Etiology of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: A review from epidemiologic studies. JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL CANCER CENTER 2022; 2:226-234. [PMID: 39036553 PMCID: PMC11256700 DOI: 10.1016/j.jncc.2022.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) contributes to significant cancer burden and mortality globally. In recent years, much insight into the causes of NHL has been gained by evaluating global differences through international collaboration and data pooling. NHL comprises different subtypes that are known to behave differently, exhibit different prognoses, and start in distinct cell types (B-cell, T-cell, and NK-cell, predominantly), and there is increasing evidence that NHL subtypes have different etiologies. Classification of NHL can be complex, with varying subtype frequencies, and is a consideration when evaluating geographic differences. Because of this, international pooling of well-executed epidemiologic studies has conferred power to evaluate NHL by subtype and confidence with minimal misclassification. Given the decreasing burden in some regions while cases rise in Asia, and especially China, this report focuses on a review of the established etiology of NHL from the epidemiologic literature in recent decades, highlighting work from China. Topics covered include demographic patterns and genetic determinants including family history of NHL, as well as infection and immunosuppression, lifestyle, environment, and certain occupational exposures contributing to increased disease risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajun Luo
- Institute for Population and Precision Health, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
| | - Andrew Craver
- Institute for Population and Precision Health, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
| | - Kendall Bahl
- Institute for Population and Precision Health, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
| | - Liz Stepniak
- Institute for Population and Precision Health, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
| | - Kayla Moore
- Institute for Population and Precision Health, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
| | - Jaime King
- Institute for Population and Precision Health, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
| | - Yawei Zhang
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Briseis Aschebrook-Kilfoy
- Institute for Population and Precision Health, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, United States of America
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Zhou S, Li R, Zhang Z, Gu M, Zhu H, Fang J, Ji Z, Xu X, Tang L. Analysis of mutagenic components of oxidative hair dyes with the Ames test. Hum Exp Toxicol 2021; 40:1921-1937. [PMID: 33942666 DOI: 10.1177/09603271211013433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative hair dyes consist of two components (I and II) that are mixed before use. Aromatic amines in component I and their reaction with hydrogen peroxide after mixing them with component II have been of primary concern. In addition, two in vitro genotoxicity assays are still required for the approval of the final products of oxidative hair dyes in China, and the substance in the oxidative hair dye that causes the high rate of positive results in genotoxicity tests, especially the Ames test, has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we analyzed the formulation of 55 different oxidative hair dyes from 7 color series and performed Ames tests in the strain TA98 with the S9 mix (oxidative hair dyes No. 1-30) and in strain TA97a without the S9 mix (oxidative hair dyes No. 31-55). We found that toluene-2,5-diamine sulfate (2,5-diaminotoluene sulfate, DATS) in component I may be the cause of mutagenicity in TA98, and hydrogen peroxide in component II may be the cause of mutagenicity in TA97a, and their positive concentrations were consistent with those that we calculated from Ames tests. The results suggest that the positive results for the oxidative hair dye in the Ames test were inevitable because of the existence of DATS in component I and of hydrogen peroxide in component II. Therefore, we should carry out safety assessments on each raw material and carry out risk assessments on the final products of oxidative hair dyes instead of genotoxicity tests in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Zhou
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, Shanghai, China.,NMPA Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Shanghai, China
| | - Rui Li
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, Shanghai, China.,NMPA Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhichao Zhang
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, Shanghai, China.,NMPA Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Shanghai, China
| | - Minyang Gu
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, Shanghai, China.,NMPA Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongyan Zhu
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, Shanghai, China.,NMPA Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Fang
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, Shanghai, China.,NMPA Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhiwen Ji
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, Shanghai, China.,NMPA Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaodong Xu
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, Shanghai, China.,NMPA Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Shanghai, China
| | - Liming Tang
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Department, Shanghai Institute for Food and Drug Control, Shanghai, China.,NMPA Key Laboratory for Monitoring and Evaluation of Cosmetics, Shanghai, China
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Xu S, Wang H, Liu Y, Zhang C, Xu Y, Tian F, Mei L. Hair chemicals may increase breast cancer risk: A meta-analysis of 210319 subjects from 14 studies. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0243792. [PMID: 33539348 PMCID: PMC7861401 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The association between personal hair dye use and breast cancer risk is currently debated. The aim of this work is to investigate the association between the use of hair care products and breast cancer risk in women. METHODS Based on the PRISMA-IPD statement, the PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, OVID and Scopus databases were used to identify eligible studies published from inception to 22 April 2020. A pooled odds ratio (OR) with a 95% confidential interval (CI) was calculated to assess this correlation via fixed- or random-effect Mantel-Haenszel models using a heterogeneity Chi2 test with a significance level of p<0.1. All statistical tests were performed using StataSE software (version 12.0). RESULTS The analyzed data comprised 14 eligible studies with 210319 unique subjects. The pooled results suggested that there was a significant association between the use of hair dyes and breast cancer occurrence (pooled OR = 1.07; 95% CI, 1.01-1.13). Regarding the individual analysis regarding the different types of hair chemicals, permanent hair dye users (pooled OR = 1.08; 95% CI, 1.03-1.14) and rinse users (pooled OR = 1.17; 95% CI, 1.02-1.35) were both found to have a significantly elevated breast cancer risk compared to natural hair subjects, whereas there was an insignificant relationship between the use of semipermanent hair dyes (pooled OR = 1.09; 95% CI, 0.92-1.28) and straighteners (pooled OR = 1.04; 95% CI, 0.96-1.14) and breast cancer risk. No impact on the overall correlation between hair dyes and breast cancer risk due to race (White vs non-White) (pooled OR = 1.05; 95% CI, 0.86-1.29), timing of use (<10 years vs ≥10 years) (pooled OR = 0.96; 95% CI, 0.85-1.08) or dye color (Darker than natural hair vs Lighter than natural hair) (pooled OR = 0.91; 95% CI, 0.62-1.32) was found. CONCLUSIONS Chemicals in hair dyes may play a role in breast carcinogenesis and increase breast cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaohua Xu
- Department of Oncology, The Second Ward, The PLA Navy Anqing Hospital, Anqing, Anhui Province, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Oncology, The Second Ward, The PLA Navy Anqing Hospital, Anqing, Anhui Province, China
| | - Yeguo Liu
- Department of Oncology, The Second Ward, The PLA Navy Anqing Hospital, Anqing, Anhui Province, China
| | - Chengfeng Zhang
- Department of Oncology, The Second Ward, The PLA Navy Anqing Hospital, Anqing, Anhui Province, China
| | - Yang Xu
- Department of Oncology, The Second Ward, The PLA Navy Anqing Hospital, Anqing, Anhui Province, China
| | - Feng Tian
- Department of Oncology, The Second Ward, The PLA Navy Anqing Hospital, Anqing, Anhui Province, China
| | - Lin Mei
- Department of Oncology, The Second Ward, The PLA Navy Anqing Hospital, Anqing, Anhui Province, China
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Habib S, Ali A. Increasing Use of Hair Dye and Associated Genotoxicity Needs to be Probed. Indian J Clin Biochem 2020; 35:133-134. [PMID: 32226244 DOI: 10.1007/s12291-020-00871-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Safia Habib
- Department of Biochemistry, J. N. Medical College, AMU, Aligarh, 202002 India
| | - Asif Ali
- Department of Biochemistry, J. N. Medical College, AMU, Aligarh, 202002 India
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Erikel E, Yuzbasioglu D, Unal F. In vitro genotoxic and antigenotoxic effects of cynarin. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 237:171-181. [PMID: 30890359 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Cynarin is an artichoke phytochemical that possesses a variety of pharmacological features including free-radical scavenging and antioxidant activity. The origin of artichoke species appears to be Mediterranean region. Two of these species, globe artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus L.) and cardoon (Cynara cardunculus var. altilis DC), are widely cultivated and consumed. This vegetable, as the basis of the mediterranean diet, has been used as herbal medicine for its therapeutic effects since ancient times. Therefore, this study was performed to determine genotoxic and antigenotoxic effects of cynarin against MMC (mitomycin C) and H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide) induced genomic instability using chromosome aberrations (CAs), sister chromatid exchanges (SCEs), micronucleus (MN), and comet assays in human lymphocytes. MATERIALS AND METHODS Lymphocytes obtained from two healthy volunteers (1 male and 1 female) were exposed to different concentrations of cynarin (12-194 μM) alone and the combination of cynarin and MMC (0.60 μM) or cynarin and H2O2 (100 μM, only for comet assay). RESULTS Cynarin alone did not induce significant genotoxic effect in the CA, SCE (except 194 μM), MN, and comet assays. The combination of some concentrations of cynarin and MMC decreased the frequency of CAs, SCEs and MN induced by MMC. Furthermore, the combination of cynarin and H2O2 reduced all comet parameters at all the concentrations compared to H2O2 alone. While the highest concentrations of cynarin significantly decreased mitotic index (MI), the combination of cynarin and MMC increased the reduction of MI induced by MMC alone. CONCLUSION All the results obtained in this study demonstrated that cynarin exhibited antigenotoxic effects rather than genotoxic effects. It is believed that cynarin can act as a potential chemo-preventive against genotoxic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esra Erikel
- Genetic Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Science Faculty, Gazi University, 06500, Teknikokullar, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Deniz Yuzbasioglu
- Genetic Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Science Faculty, Gazi University, 06500, Teknikokullar, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Fatma Unal
- Genetic Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Science Faculty, Gazi University, 06500, Teknikokullar, Ankara, Turkey.
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Liu B, Jin SF, Li HC, Sun XY, Yan SQ, Deng SJ, Zhao P. The Bio-Safety Concerns of Three Domestic Temporary Hair Dye Molecules: Fuchsin Basic, Victoria Blue B and Basic Red 2. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24091744. [PMID: 31060332 PMCID: PMC6539679 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24091744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2019] [Revised: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hair-coloring products include permanent, semi-permanent and temporary dyes that vary by chemical formulation and are distinguished mainly by how long they last. Domestic temporary hair dyes, such as fuchsin basic, basic red 2 and Victoria blue B, are especially popular because of their cheapness and facile applications. Despite numerous studies on the relationship between permanent hair dyes and disease, there are few studies addressing whether these domestic temporary hair dyes are associated with an increased cancer risk. Herein, to ascertain the bio-safety of these temporary hair dyes, we comparatively studied their percutaneous absorption, hemolytic effect and cytotoxic effects in this paper. Furthermore, to better understand the risk of these dyes after penetrating the skin, experimental and theoretical studies were carried out examining the interactions between the dyes and serum albumins as well as calf thymus (CT)-DNA. The results showed that these domestic temporary hair dyes are cytotoxic with regard to human red blood cells and NIH/3T3 cell lines, due to intense interactions with bovine serum albumin (BSA)/DNA. We conclude that the temporary hair dyes may have risk to human health, and those who use them should be aware of their potential toxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Liu
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Construction and Application of New Drug Screening Model Systems, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
- Key Laboratory of New Drug Discovery and Evaluation of Ordinary Universities of Guangdong Province, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Shu-Fang Jin
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, No. 280, Waihuandong Road, Education Mega Centre, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Hua-Chao Li
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Construction and Application of New Drug Screening Model Systems, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
- Key Laboratory of New Drug Discovery and Evaluation of Ordinary Universities of Guangdong Province, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Xiang-Yu Sun
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, No. 280, Waihuandong Road, Education Mega Centre, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Si-Qi Yan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, No. 280, Waihuandong Road, Education Mega Centre, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Shu-Jun Deng
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, No. 280, Waihuandong Road, Education Mega Centre, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Ping Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, No. 280, Waihuandong Road, Education Mega Centre, Guangzhou 510006, China.
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da Silva J. DNA damage induced by occupational and environmental exposure to miscellaneous chemicals. MUTATION RESEARCH-REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2016; 770:170-182. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Guo H, Bassig BA, Lan Q, Zhu Y, Zhang Y, Holford TR, Leaderer B, Boyle P, Qin Q, Zhu C, Li N, Rothman N, Zheng T. Polymorphisms in DNA repair genes, hair dye use, and the risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer Causes Control 2014; 25:1261-70. [PMID: 25178586 DOI: 10.1007/s10552-014-0423-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Genetic polymorphisms in DNA repair genes and hair dye use may both have a role in the development of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). We aimed to examine the interaction between variants in DNA repair genes and hair dye use with risk of NHL in a population-based case-control study of Connecticut women. METHODS We examined 24 single nucleotide polymorphisms in 16 DNA repair genes among 518 NHL cases and 597 controls and evaluated the associations between hair dye use and risk of overall NHL and common NHL subtypes, stratified by genotype, using unconditional logistic regression. RESULTS Women who used hair dye before 1980 had a significantly increased risk of NHL, particularly for the follicular lymphoma (FL) subtype, but not for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. The following genotypes in combination with hair dye use before 1980 were associated with FL risk: BRCA2 rs144848 AC+CC [odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval (CI)) 3.28(1.27-8.50)], WRN rs1346044 TT [OR(95% CI) 2.70(1.30-5.65)], XRCC3 rs861539 CT+TT [OR(95% CI) 2.76(1.32-5.77)], XRCC4 rs1805377 GG [OR(95% CI) 2.07(1.10-3.90)] and rs1056503 TT [OR(95% CI) 2.17(1.16-4.07)], ERCC1 rs3212961 CC [OR(95% CI) 1.93(1.00-3.72)], RAD23B rs1805329 CC [OR(95% CI) 2.28(1.12-4.64)], and MGMT rs12917 CC, rs2308321 AA, and rs2308327 AA genotypes [OR(95% CI) 1.96(1.06-3.63), 2.02(1.09-3.75), and 2.23(1.16-4.29), respectively]. In addition, a significant interaction with risk of overall NHL was observed between WRN rs1346044 and hair dye use before 1980 (p(interaction) = 0.032). CONCLUSIONS Our results indicated that genetic variation in DNA repair genes modifies susceptibility to NHL in relation to hair dye use, particularly for the FL subtype and in women who began using hair dye before 1980. Further studies are needed to confirm these observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Guo
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
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Toyoizumi T, Watanabe M, Sui H, Nakagawa Y, Ohta R, Yamakage K. Evaluation of effect during cell isolation process in alkaline comet assay using epidermal skin cells. J Toxicol Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.2131/jts.37.1267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mika Watanabe
- Hatano Research Institute, Food and Drug Safety Center (FDSC)
| | - Hajime Sui
- Hatano Research Institute, Food and Drug Safety Center (FDSC)
| | - Yuzuki Nakagawa
- Hatano Research Institute, Food and Drug Safety Center (FDSC)
| | - Ryo Ohta
- Hatano Research Institute, Food and Drug Safety Center (FDSC)
| | - Kohji Yamakage
- Hatano Research Institute, Food and Drug Safety Center (FDSC)
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Langevin SM, Houseman EA, Christensen BC, Wiencke JK, Nelson HH, Karagas MR, Marsit CJ, Kelsey KT. The influence of aging, environmental exposures and local sequence features on the variation of DNA methylation in blood. Epigenetics 2011; 6:908-19. [PMID: 21617368 DOI: 10.4161/epi.6.7.16431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to properly comprehend the epigenetic dysregulation that occurs during the course of disease, there is a need to characterize the epigenetic variability in healthy individuals that arises in response to aging and exposures, and to understand such variation within the biological context of the DNA sequence. We analyzed the methylation of 26,486 autosomal CpG loci in blood from 205 healthy subjects, using three complementary approaches to assess the association between methylation, age or exposures, and local sequence features, such as CpG island status, repeat sequences, location within a polycomb target gene or proximity to a transcription factor binding site. We clustered CpGs (1) using unsupervised recursively partitioned mixture modeling (RPMM) and (2) bioinformatically-informed methods, and (3) also employed a marginal model-based (non-clustering) approach. We observed associations between age and methylation and hair dye use and methylation, where the direction and magnitude was contingent on the local sequence features of the CpGs. Our results demonstrate that CpGs are differentially methylated dependent upon the genomic features of the sequence in which they are embedded, and that CpG methylation is associated with age and hair dye use in a CpG context-dependent manner in healthy individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Langevin
- Department of Community Health, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
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Safety assessment of personal care products/cosmetics and their ingredients. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2009; 243:239-59. [PMID: 20005888 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2009.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2009] [Revised: 11/27/2009] [Accepted: 12/02/2009] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
We attempt to review the safety assessment of personal care products (PCP) and ingredients that are representative and pose complex safety issues. PCP are generally applied to human skin and mainly produce local exposure, although skin penetration or use in the oral cavity, on the face, lips, eyes and mucosa may also produce human systemic exposure. In the EU, US and Japan, the safety of PCP is regulated under cosmetic and/or drug regulations. Oxidative hair dyes contain arylamines, the most chemically reactive ingredients of PCP. Although arylamines have an allergic potential, taking into account the high number of consumers exposed, the incidence and prevalence of hair dye allergy appears to be low and stable. A recent (2001) epidemiology study suggested an association of oxidative hair dye use and increased bladder cancer risk in consumers, although this was not confirmed by subsequent or previous epidemiologic investigations. The results of genetic toxicity, carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity studies suggest that modern hair dyes and their ingredients pose no genotoxic, carcinogenic or reproductive risk. Recent reports suggest that arylamines contained in oxidative hair dyes are N-acetylated in human or mammalian skin resulting in systemic exposure to traces of detoxified, i.e. non-genotoxic, metabolites, whereas human hepatocytes were unable to transform hair dye arylamines to potentially carcinogenic metabolites. An expert panel of the International Agency on Research of Cancer (IARC) concluded that there is no evidence for a causal association of hair dye exposure with an elevated cancer risk in consumers. Ultraviolet filters have important benefits by protecting the consumer against adverse effects of UV radiation; these substances undergo a stringent safety evaluation under current international regulations prior to their marketing. Concerns were also raised about the safety of solid nanoparticles in PCP, mainly TiO(2) and ZnO in sunscreens. However, current evidence suggests that these particles are non-toxic, do not penetrate into or through normal or compromised human skin and, therefore, pose no risk to human health. The increasing use of natural plant ingredients in personal care products raised new safety issues that require novel approaches to their safety evaluation similar to those of plant-derived food ingredients. For example, the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) is a promising tool to assess the safety of substances present at trace levels as well as minor ingredients of plant-derived substances. The potential human systemic exposure to PCP ingredients is increasingly estimated on the basis of in vitro skin penetration data. However, new evidence suggests that the in vitro test may overestimate human systemic exposure to PCP ingredients due to the absence of metabolism in cadaver skin or misclassification of skin residues that, in vivo, remain in the stratum corneum or hair follicle openings, i.e. outside the living skin. Overall, today's safety assessment of PCP and their ingredients is not only based on science, but also on their respective regulatory status as well as other issues, such as the ethics of animal testing. Nevertheless, the record shows that today's PCP are safe and offer multiple benefits to quality of life and health of the consumer. In the interest of all stakeholders, consumers, regulatory bodies and producers, there is an urgent need for an international harmonization on the status and safety requirements of these products and their ingredients.
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