Liver specific transcription factors of the HNF3-, C/EBP- and LFB1-families interact with the A-activator binding site

A critical role for C/EBPbeta binding to the AABS promoter response element in the human iNOS gene

The human iNOS (hiNOS) gene is expressed in a tissue-specific manner, but the molecular basis for this regulation has not been elucidated. Here, we show that liver cell-specific hiNOS gene activation involves protein-DNA binding to an A-activator binding site (AABS) located at -192 nucleotides in the hiNOS promoter region. Mutation of this site in the -7.2 kb hiNOS promoter construct inhibited basal hiNOS promoter activity in primary rat hepatocytes (77%), and two human liver cell lines, AKN-1 (63%) and HepG2 (60%), but had no significant effect on basal hiNOS activity in three non-hepatic human cell types. Interestingly, mutation of AABS significantly abrogated cytokine-induced promoter activity in all cell types. C/EBPbeta transcription factor bound to AABS by gel shift assay. Overexpression of C/EBPbeta active form (LAP) increased hiNOS basal promoter activity approximately sixfold in liver cells, but had minimal effect in non-hepatic cells. In contrast, overexpression of the transcriptional inhibitor (LIP) strongly suppressed both basal and cytokine-inducible promoter activity. These data show that the cis-acting AABS DNA element mediates liver-specific basal hiNOS promoter activity through binding of the trans-acting C/EBPbeta factor. Further, C/EBPbeta binding to AABS functions as a "switchpoint" that is necessary for cytokine-inducible hiNOS gene expression in all cell types examined.

Cloning and initial characterization of the human DPYD gene promoter

Dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) is the rate-limiting enzyme in the degradation of pyrimidine bases and pyrimidine-based antimetabolites. Reduced DPD activity is associated with toxicity to 5-fluorouracil (5FU) therapy in cancer patients and with neurological abnormalities in paediatric patients. Although variant DPYD alleles have been identified in DPD-deficient patients, they do not adequately explain polymorphic DPD activity or associated clinical phenotypes in vivo. DPD may be transcriptionally regulated as mRNA levels correlate with activity and are differentially regulated in human tissues. A 1.85 kb 5' flanking region of the human DPYD gene was cloned and has transcriptional activity in cultured cells. Analysis of this 5' flanking region in rhesus and cynomolgus monkeys demonstrated conservation (>96%) between humans and primates. Putative binding sites for ubiquitous and cell-specific factors were identified. A polymorphism that disrupts a putative gamma-interferon response element was identified in a cancer patient with reduced DPD activity and severe 5FU toxicity. Further insight into regulation of DPD expression may identify new avenues for the treatment of clinical problems associated with DPD deficiency.

Regulation of the vitellogenin gene B1 promoter after transfer into hepatocytes in primary cultures

The estrogen-dependent and tissue-specific regulation of the Xenopus laevis vitellogenin gene B1 promoter has been studied by lipid-mediated DNA transfer into Xenopus hepatocytes in primary culture. Hepatocytes achieve an efficient hormonal control of this promoter through a functional interaction between the estrogen responsive elements and a promoter proximal region upstream of the TATA box, which is characterized by a high density of binding sites for the transcription factors CTF/NF-1, C/EBP and HNF3. DNA accessibility to restriction enzymes within the chromosomal copy of the vitellogenin gene B1 promoter shows that the estrogen responsive unit and the promoter proximal region are sensitive to digestion in uninduced and estrogen-induced hepatocytes but not in erythrocyte nuclei. Together, these findings support the notion that chromatin configuration as well as the interplay of promoter elements mediate proper hormone-dependent and tissue-specific expression of the B1 vitellogenin gene.

Five years on the wings of fork head

Since its discovery five years ago the conserved family of fork head/HNF-3-related transcription factors has gained increasing importance for the analysis of gene regulatory mechanisms during embryonic development and in differentiated cells. Different members of this family, which is defined by a conserved 110 amino acid residues encompassing DNA binding domain of winged helix structure, serve as regulatory keys in embryogenesis, in tumorigenesis or in the maintenance of differentiated cell states. The purpose of this review is to summarize the accumulating amount of data on structure, expression and function of fork head/HNF-3-related transcription factors.

Hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 determines the amplitude of the glucocorticoid response of the rat tyrosine aminotransferase gene

Hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 (HNF3) recognizes two apparently distinct classes of sequence. However, a detailed mutational analysis of a representative binding site of each class reveals that these sequences display common features. We propose a unified consensus sequence for HNF3-binding sites. The basis of the sequence specificity of the interaction of HNF3 with DNA is analyzed in light of the recently determined structure of an HNF3-DNA complex (Clark et al., Nature 364, 412-420, 1993). Particularly, our study reveals that the DNA site used for this structural analysis is too short to account for all HNF3-DNA interactions. The better knowledge of the sequence determinant recognized by HNF3 has allowed us to analyze its function in the glucocorticoid response of the rat tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) gene. This response is mediated through a complex array of neighboring and overlapping transcription factor binding sites. Selective inactivation of the HNF3-binding sites in this glucocorticoid response unit (GRU) allows us to demonstrate unambiguously that they play a major role in the amplitude of the glucocorticoid response. Furthermore, HNF3 beta overexpression results in a stimulation of the glucocorticoid response that is dependent on the integrity of its binding sites. We also show that the relative level of HNF3 determines the extent of the contribution of one of the glucocorticoid receptor binding sites. Our results indicate that HNF3 accounts for most of the liver-specific activity of this GRU.

Estrogen-inducible derivatives of hepatocyte nuclear factor-4, hepatocyte nuclear factor-3 and liver factor B1 are differently affected by pure and partial antiestrogens

The tissue-specific transcription factors of the hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 (HNF4), hepatocyte nuclear factor-3 (HNF3), and liver factor B1 (LFB1) families are thought to play a role in the development of internal organs and in the tissue-specific expression of many distinct genes. We have now constructed derivatives of these proteins by introducing the hormone-binding domain of the estrogen receptor and show that in transient transfections these chimeric proteins act as estrogen-inducible transcription factors with the DNA sequence specificity of the original factors. These chimeric transcription factors are differently affected by the partial estrogen antagonist 4-hydroxytamoxifen and the pure antiestrogen N-n-butyl-11-(3,17-dihydroxy-estra-1,3,5(10)-trien- 7 alpha-yl)N-methyl-undecamide (ICI 164384); 4-hydroxytamoxifen activates, at least partially, all the chimeric factors and the estrogen receptor, while ICI 164384 surprisingly activates the transcription factors derived from HNF3 and LFB1 and inhibits only the estrogen receptor and the HNF4 derivative. Together with the DNA-sequence-binding specificity, the different response to estrogen and anti-estrogens makes our estrogen receptor fusion proteins useful tools for the investigation of the roles of HNF4, HNF3 and LFB1 in gene expression, differentiation and developmental processes.

The lung-specific surfactant protein B gene promoter is a target for thyroid transcription factor 1 and hepatocyte nuclear factor 3, indicating common factors for organ-specific gene expression along the foregut axis

We used the lung epithelial cell-specific surfactant protein B (SPB) gene promoter as a model with which to investigate mechanisms involved in transcriptional control of lung-specific genes. In a previous study, we showed that the SPB promoter specifically activated expression of a linked reporter gene in the continuous H441 lung cell line and that H441 nuclear proteins specifically protected a region of this promoter from bp -111 to -73. In this study, we further show that this region is a complex binding site for thyroid transcription factor 1 (TTF-1) and hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 (HNF-3). Whereas TTF-1 bound two highly degenerate and closely spaced sites, HNF-3 proteins bound a TGT3 motif (TGTTTGT) that is also found in several liver-specific gene regulatory regions, where it appears to be a weak affinity site for HNF-3. Point mutations of these binding sites eliminated factor binding and resulted in significant decreases in transfected SPB promoter activity. In addition, we developed a cotransfection assay and showed that a family of lung-specific gene promoters that included the SPB, SPC, SPA, and Clara cell secretory protein (CCSP) gene promoters were specifically activated by cotransfected TTF-1. We conclude that TTF-1 and HNF-3 are major activators of lung-specific genes and propose that these factors are involved in a general mechanism of lung-specific gene transcription. Importantly, these data also show that common factors are involved in organ-specific gene expression along the mammalian foregut axis.

The lung-specific surfactant protein B gene promoter is a target for thyroid transcription factor 1 and hepatocyte nuclear factor 3, indicating common factors for organ-specific gene expression along the foregut axis

We used the lung epithelial cell-specific surfactant protein B (SPB) gene promoter as a model with which to investigate mechanisms involved in transcriptional control of lung-specific genes. In a previous study, we showed that the SPB promoter specifically activated expression of a linked reporter gene in the continuous H441 lung cell line and that H441 nuclear proteins specifically protected a region of this promoter from bp -111 to -73. In this study, we further show that this region is a complex binding site for thyroid transcription factor 1 (TTF-1) and hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 (HNF-3). Whereas TTF-1 bound two highly degenerate and closely spaced sites, HNF-3 proteins bound a TGT3 motif (TGTTTGT) that is also found in several liver-specific gene regulatory regions, where it appears to be a weak affinity site for HNF-3. Point mutations of these binding sites eliminated factor binding and resulted in significant decreases in transfected SPB promoter activity. In addition, we developed a cotransfection assay and showed that a family of lung-specific gene promoters that included the SPB, SPC, SPA, and Clara cell secretory protein (CCSP) gene promoters were specifically activated by cotransfected TTF-1. We conclude that TTF-1 and HNF-3 are major activators of lung-specific genes and propose that these factors are involved in a general mechanism of lung-specific gene transcription. Importantly, these data also show that common factors are involved in organ-specific gene expression along the mammalian foregut axis.

Modulation of liver-specific transcription by interactions between hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 and nuclear factor 1 binding DNA in close apposition

The liver-specific enhancer of the serum albumin gene contains an essential segment, designated eH, which binds the hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 alpha (HNF3 alpha) and ubiquitous nuclear factor 1/CCAAT transcription factor (NF1/CTF) proteins in tight apposition. We previously showed that activation of transcription by the eH site was correlated with an increase in intracellular HNF3 alpha levels during the in vitro differentiation of the hepatic cell line H2.35. We now show that transfection of an HNF3 alpha cDNA expression vector into dedifferentiated H2.35 cells is sufficient to induce transcription from the eH site. Mutational analysis of the enhancer demonstrates that NF1/CTF cooperates with HNF3 alpha to induce enhancer activity. However, when the eH site is removed from the context of the enhancer, NF1/CTF can inhibit transcriptional activation by HNF3 alpha. We conclude that the ternary complex of HNF3 alpha, NF1/CTF, and the eH site forms a novel, composite regulatory element that is sensitive to the local DNA sequence environment and suggest that the transcriptional stimulatory activity of NF1/CTF depends on its higher-order interactions with other proteins during hepatocyte differentiation.

Modulation of liver-specific transcription by interactions between hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 and nuclear factor 1 binding DNA in close apposition

The liver-specific enhancer of the serum albumin gene contains an essential segment, designated eH, which binds the hepatocyte nuclear factor 3 alpha (HNF3 alpha) and ubiquitous nuclear factor 1/CCAAT transcription factor (NF1/CTF) proteins in tight apposition. We previously showed that activation of transcription by the eH site was correlated with an increase in intracellular HNF3 alpha levels during the in vitro differentiation of the hepatic cell line H2.35. We now show that transfection of an HNF3 alpha cDNA expression vector into dedifferentiated H2.35 cells is sufficient to induce transcription from the eH site. Mutational analysis of the enhancer demonstrates that NF1/CTF cooperates with HNF3 alpha to induce enhancer activity. However, when the eH site is removed from the context of the enhancer, NF1/CTF can inhibit transcriptional activation by HNF3 alpha. We conclude that the ternary complex of HNF3 alpha, NF1/CTF, and the eH site forms a novel, composite regulatory element that is sensitive to the local DNA sequence environment and suggest that the transcriptional stimulatory activity of NF1/CTF depends on its higher-order interactions with other proteins during hepatocyte differentiation.

Regulation of the HNF-1 homeodomain proteins by DCoH

The pattern of expression of homeodomain proteins often exceeds their apparent domain of activity. Tissue-specific proteins that modulate the in vivo activity of homeodomain proteins have been proposed to account for this functional restriction. The first identified example of such an accessory protein is DCoH, which confers transcriptional activity to the hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 and provides a model of how other accessory factors might modulate the function of homeodomain proteins.