An auxin controls bacterial antibiotics production

Auxin-mediated regulation of susceptibility to toxic metabolites, c-di-GMP levels, and phage infection in the rhizobacterium Serratia plymuthica

The communication between plants and their microbiota is highly dynamic and involves a complex network of signal molecules. Among them, the auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is a critical phytohormone that not only regulates plant growth and development, but is emerging as an important inter- and intra-kingdom signal that modulates many bacterial processes that are important during interaction with their plant hosts. However, the corresponding signaling cascades remain largely unknown. Here, we advance our understanding of the largely unknown mechanisms by which IAA carries out its regulatory functions in plant-associated bacteria. We showed that IAA caused important changes in the global transcriptome of the rhizobacterium Serratia plymuthica and multidisciplinary approaches revealed that IAA sensing interferes with the signaling mediated by other pivotal plant-derived signals such as amino acids and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid. Exposure to IAA caused large alterations in the transcript levels of genes involved in amino acid metabolism, resulting in significant metabolic alterations. IAA treatment also increased resistance to toxic aromatic compounds through the induction of the AaeXAB pump, which also confers resistance to IAA. Furthermore, IAA promoted motility and severely inhibited biofilm formation; phenotypes that were associated with decreased c-di-GMP levels and capsule production. IAA increased capsule gene expression and enhanced bacterial sensitivity to a capsule-dependent phage. Additionally, IAA induced the expression of several genes involved in antibiotic resistance and led to changes in the susceptibility and responses to antibiotics with different mechanisms of action. Collectively, our study illustrates the complexity of IAA-mediated signaling in plant-associated bacteria.

IMPORTANCE

Signal sensing plays an important role in bacterial adaptation to ecological niches and hosts. This communication appears to be particularly important in plant-associated bacteria since they possess a large number of signal transduction systems that respond to a wide diversity of chemical, physical, and biological stimuli. IAA is emerging as a key inter- and intra-kingdom signal molecule that regulates a variety of bacterial processes. However, despite the extensive knowledge of the IAA-mediated regulatory mechanisms in plants, IAA signaling in bacteria remains largely unknown. Here, we provide insight into the diversity of mechanisms by which IAA regulates primary and secondary metabolism, biofilm formation, motility, antibiotic susceptibility, and phage sensitivity in a biocontrol rhizobacterium. This work has important implications for our understanding of bacterial ecology in plant environments and for the biotechnological and clinical applications of IAA, as well as related molecules.

Fine-tuning gene expression of regulator AdmX for improved biosynthesis of andrimid in Erwinia persicina BST187

Andrimid is a potent antibiotic that inhibits acetyl-CoA carboxylase. However, its low biological yield and complex chemical synthesis have hindered its large-scale application. In this study, we found that the LysR-type transcriptional activator AdmX controls andrimid yield by adjusting its expression level in the andrimid-producing bacterium Erwinia persicina strain BST187. Our results showed that gradually increasing of admX transcriptional levels significantly improved andrimid yield, while the yield declined when admX was overexpressed excessively. To further estimate the effect of AdmX on andrimid promotion, we fitted and developed a model which was y = -0.5576x2 + 61.945x + 800.63 (R2 = 0.9591), where x represents the admX transcriptional level and y represents andrimid yield. Andrimid yield of admX overexpression strain BST187ΔadmX/pET28a-Pgap-1::admX was greatly improved by 260%, which was reported for the first time that andrimid yield could be promoted by genetic engineering. Thus, this study provides important insights that the biosynthesis of andrimid would be improved by bioengineering and sheds lights on the potential application of andrimid in both biomedicine and bioagricultural manipulation with its large-scale production in the future. KEY POINTS: • Andrimid production can be greatly promoted by genetic engineering on non-model chassis. • The relationship between AdmX abundance and andrimid yield in Erwinia persicina strain BST187 might be parabolic. • Erwinia persicina BST187 combined with chassis modification enable the promising applications in andrimid industrialization.

Improved production of andrimid in Erwinia persicina BST187 strain by fermentation optimization

BACKGROUND

Andrimid is reported to be a novel kind of polyketide-nonribosomal peptide hybrid product (PK-NRPs) that inhibits fatty acid biosynthesis in bacteria. Considering its great potential in biomedicine and biofarming, intensive studies have been conducted to increase the production of andrimid to overcome the excessive costs of chemosynthesis. In screening for species with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, we detected andrimid in the fermentation products of Erwinia persicina BST187. To increase andrimid production, the BST187 fermentation medium formulation and fermentation conditions were optimized by using systematic design of experiments (One-Factor-At-A-Time, Plackett-Burman design, Response Surface Methodology).

RESULTS

The results indicate that the actual andrimid production reached 140.3 ± 1.28 mg/L under the optimized conditions (trisodium citrate dihydrate-30 g/L, beef extract-17.1 g/L, MgCl2·6H2O-100 mM, inoculation amount-1%, initial pH-7.0, fermentation time-36 h, temperature-19.7℃), which is 20-fold greater than the initial condition without optimization (7.00 ± 0.40 mg/L), consistent with the improved antibacterial effect of the fermentation supernatant.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides valuable information for improving andrimid production via optimization of the fermentation process, which will be of great value in the future industrialization of andrimid production.

Emergence of an Auxin Sensing Domain in Plant-Associated Bacteria

Bacteria have evolved a sophisticated array of signal transduction systems that allow them to adapt their physiology and metabolism to changing environmental conditions. Typically, these systems recognize signals through dedicated ligand binding domains (LBDs) to ultimately trigger a diversity of physiological responses. Nonetheless, an increasing number of reports reveal that signal transduction receptors also bind antagonists to inhibit responses mediated by agonists. The mechanisms by which antagonists block the downstream signaling cascade remain largely unknown. To advance our knowledge in this field, we used the LysR-type transcriptional regulator AdmX as a model. AdmX activates the expression of an antibiotic biosynthetic cluster in the rhizobacterium Serratia plymuthica. AdmX specifically recognizes the auxin phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and its biosynthetic intermediate indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPA) as signals. However, only IAA, but not IPA, was shown to regulate antibiotic production in S. plymuthica. Here, we report the high-resolution structures of the LBD of AdmX in complex with IAA and IPA. We found that IAA and IPA compete for binding to AdmX. Although IAA and IPA binding does not alter the oligomeric state of AdmX, IPA binding causes a higher degree of compactness in the protein structure. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed significant differences in the binding modes of IAA and IPA by AdmX, and the inspection of the three-dimensional structures evidenced differential agonist- and antagonist-mediated structural changes. Key residues for auxin binding were identified and an auxin recognition motif defined. Phylogenetic clustering supports the recent evolutionary emergence of this motif specifically in plant-associated enterobacteria. IMPORTANCE Although antagonists were found to bind different bacterial signal transduction receptors, we are still at the early stages of understanding the molecular details by which these molecules exert their inhibitory effects. Here, we provide insight into the structural changes resulting from the binding of an agonist and an antagonist to a sensor protein. Our data indicate that agonist and antagonist recognition is characterized by small conformational differences in the LBDs that can be efficiently transmitted to the output domain to modulate the final response. LBDs are subject to strong selective pressures and are rapidly evolving domains. An increasing number of reports support the idea that environmental factors drive the evolution of sensor domains. Given the recent evolutionary history of AdmX homologs, as well as their narrow phyletic distribution within plant-associated bacteria, our results are in accordance with a plant-mediated evolutionary process that resulted in the emergence of receptor proteins that specifically sense auxin phytohormones.

Solanimycin: Biosynthesis and Distribution of a New Antifungal Antibiotic Regulated by Two Quorum-Sensing Systems

The increasing emergence of drug-resistant fungal infections has necessitated a search for new compounds capable of combating fungal pathogens of plants, animals, and humans. Microorganisms represent the main source of antibiotics with applicability in agriculture and in the clinic, but many aspects of their metabolic potential remain to be explored. This report describes the discovery and characterization of a new antifungal compound, solanimycin, produced by a hybrid polyketide/nonribosomal peptide (PKS/NRPS) system in Dickeya solani, the enterobacterial pathogen of potato. Solanimycin was active against a broad range of plant-pathogenic fungi of global economic concern and the human pathogen Candida albicans. The genomic cluster responsible for solanimycin production was defined and analyzed to identify the corresponding biosynthetic proteins, which include four multimodular PKS/NRPS proteins and several tailoring enzymes. Antifungal production in D. solani was enhanced in response to experimental conditions found in infected potato tubers and high-density fungal cultures. Solanimycin biosynthesis was cell density dependent in D. solani and was controlled by both the ExpIR acyl-homoserine lactone and Vfm quorum-sensing systems of the bacterial phytopathogen. The expression of the solanimycin cluster was also regulated at the post-transcriptional level, with the regulator RsmA playing a major role. The solanimycin biosynthetic cluster was conserved across phylogenetically distant bacterial genera, and multiple pieces of evidence support that the corresponding gene clusters were acquired by horizontal gene transfer. Given its potent broad-range antifungal properties, this study suggests that solanimycin and related molecules may have potential utility for agricultural and clinical exploitation. IMPORTANCE Fungal infections represent a major clinical, agricultural, and food security threat worldwide, which is accentuated due to the difficult treatment of these infections. Microorganisms represent a prolific source of antibiotics, and current data support that this enormous biosynthetic potential has been scarcely explored. To improve the performance in the discovery of novel antimicrobials, there is a need to diversify the isolation niches for new antibiotic-producing microorganisms as well as to scrutinize novel phylogenetic positions. With the identification of the antifungal antibiotic solanimycin in a broad diversity of phytopathogenic Dickeya spp., we provide further support for the potential of plant-associated bacteria for the biosynthesis of novel antimicrobials. The complex regulatory networks involved in solanimycin production reflect the high metabolic cost of bacterial secondary metabolism. This metabolic regulatory control makes many antibiotics cryptic under standard laboratory conditions, and mimicking environmental conditions, as shown here, is a strategy to activate cryptic antibiotic clusters.

The pH Robustness of Bacterial Sensing

Bacteria have evolved many different signal transduction systems to sense and respond to changing environmental conditions. Signal integration is mainly achieved by signal recognition at extracytosolic ligand-binding domains (LBDs) of receptors. Hundreds of different LBDs have been reported, and our understanding of their sensing properties is growing. Receptors must function over a range of environmental pH values, but there is little information available on the robustness of sensing as a function of pH. Here, we have used isothermal titration calorimetry to determine the pH dependence of ligand recognition by nine LBDs that cover all major LBD superfamilies, of periplasmic solute-binding proteins, and cytosolic LBDs. We show that periplasmic LBDs recognize ligands over a very broad pH range, frequently stretching over eight pH units. This wide pH range contrasts with a much narrower pH response range of the cytosolic LBDs analyzed. Many LBDs must be dimeric to bind ligands, and analytical ultracentrifugation studies showed that the LBD of the Tar chemoreceptor forms dimers over the entire pH range tested. The pH dependences of Pseudomonas aeruginosa motility and chemotaxis were bell-shaped and centered at pH 7.0. Evidence for pH robustness of signaling in vivo was obtained by Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) measurements of the chemotaxis pathway responses in Escherichia coli. Bacteria have evolved several strategies to cope with extreme pH, such as periplasmic chaperones for protein refolding. The intrinsic pH resistance of periplasmic LBDs appears to be another strategy that permits bacteria to survive under adverse conditions.

Plant-microbe interactions in the rhizosphere via a circular metabolic economy

Chemical exchange often serves as the first step in plant-microbe interactions and exchanges of various signals, nutrients, and metabolites continue throughout the interaction. Here, we highlight the role of metabolite exchanges and metabolic crosstalk in the microbiome-root-shoot-environment nexus. Roots secret a diverse set of metabolites; this assortment of root exudates, including secondary metabolites such as benzoxazinoids, coumarins, flavonoids, indolic compounds, and terpenes, shapes the rhizosphere microbiome. In turn, the rhizosphere microbiome affects plant growth and defense. These inter-kingdom chemical interactions are based on a metabolic circular economy, a seemingly wasteless system in which rhizosphere members exchange (i.e. consume, reuse, and redesign) metabolites. This review also describes the recently discovered phenomenon "Systemically Induced Root Exudation of Metabolites" in which the rhizosphere microbiome governs plant metabolism by inducing systemic responses that shift the metabolic profiles of root exudates. Metabolic exchange in the rhizosphere is based on chemical gradients that form specific microhabitats for microbial colonization and we describe recently developed high-resolution methods to study chemical interactions in the rhizosphere. Finally, we propose an action plan to advance the metabolic circular economy in the rhizosphere for sustainable solutions to the cumulative degradation of soil health in agricultural lands.

Auxin Plays Multiple Roles during Plant-Pathogen Interactions

The plant hormone auxin governs many aspects of normal plant growth and development. Auxin also plays an important role in plant-microbe interactions, including interactions between plant hosts and pathogenic microorganisms that cause disease. It is now well established that indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), the most well-studied form of auxin, promotes disease in many plant-pathogen interactions. Recent studies have shown that IAA can act both as a plant hormone that modulates host signaling and physiology to increase host susceptibility and as a microbial signal that directly impacts the pathogen to promote virulence, but large gaps in our understanding remain. In this article, we review recent studies on the roles that auxin plays during plant-pathogen interactions and discuss the virulence mechanisms that many plant pathogens have evolved to manipulate host auxin signaling and promote pathogenesis.

Histamine: A Bacterial Signal Molecule

Bacteria have evolved sophisticated signaling mechanisms to coordinate interactions with organisms of other domains, such as plants, animals and human hosts. Several important signal molecules have been identified that are synthesized by members of different domains and that play important roles in inter-domain communication. In this article, we review recent data supporting that histamine is a signal molecule that may play an important role in inter-domain and inter-species communication. Histamine is a key signal molecule in humans, with multiple functions, such as being a neurotransmitter or modulator of immune responses. More recent studies have shown that bacteria have evolved different mechanisms to sense histamine or histamine metabolites. Histamine sensing in the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa was found to trigger chemoattraction to histamine and to regulate the expression of many virulence-related genes. Further studies have shown that many bacteria are able to synthesize and secrete histamine. The release of histamine by bacteria in the human gut was found to modulate the host immune responses and, at higher doses, to result in host pathologies. The elucidation of the role of histamine as an inter-domain signaling molecule is an emerging field of research and future investigation is required to assess its potential general nature.

Mining for novel antibiotics in the age of antimicrobial resistance

The misuse of antimicrobials is causing an alarming increase in the appearance of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms. In this context, the identification of novel antibiotics against new targets and with low rates of resistance development is a major global challenge. In this article, we highlight a number of recent articles that exploit a variety of in vitro, in vivo and in silico state-of-the-art approaches to identify and develop new antimicrobials. Rapid progress in this research field will be crucial to combating a global health problem, antimicrobial resistance, that is expected to be the leading cause of death by 2050.

Indole-3-acetic acid biosynthesis and its regulation in plant-associated bacteria

Numerous studies have reported the stimulation of plant growth following inoculation with an IAA-producing PGPB. However, the specific mode of IAA production by the PGPB is rarely elucidated. In part, this is due to the overwhelming complexity of IAA biosynthesis and regulation. The promiscuity of the enzymes implicated in IAA biosynthesis adds another element of complexity when attempting to decipher their role in IAA biosynthesis. To date, the majority of research on IAA biosynthesis describes three separate pathways classified in terms of their intermediates-indole acetonitrile (IAN), indole acetamide (IAM), and indole pyruvic acid (IPA). Each of these pathways is mediated by a set of enzymes, many of which are traditionally assumed to exist for that specific catalytic role. This lends the possibility of missing other, novel, enzymes that may also incidentally serve that function. Some of these pathways are constitutively expressed, while others are inducible. Some enzymes involved in IAA biosynthesis are known to be regulated by IAA or by IAA precursors, as well as by a multitude of environmental cues. This review aims to provide an update to our current understanding of the biosynthesis and regulation of IAA in bacteria. KEY POINTS: • IAA produced by PGPB improves bacterial stress tolerance and promotes plant growth. • Bacterial IAA biosynthesis is convoluted; multiple interdependent pathways. • Biosynthesis of IAA is regulated by IAA, IAA-precursors, and environmental factors.

Streptomyces Endophytes Promote Host Health and Enhance Growth across Plant Species

We must reduce reliance on agrochemicals, and there is increasing interest in using bacterial strains to promote plant growth and protect against disease. Our study follows up reports that Arabidopsis thaliana specifically recruits Streptomyces bacteria to its roots. We test the hypotheses that they offer benefits to their A. thaliana hosts and that strains isolated from these plants might be used as probiotics. We isolated Streptomyces strains from A. thaliana roots and genome sequenced five phylogenetically distinct strains. Genome mining and bioassays indicated that all five have plant growth-promoting properties, including production of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), siderophores, and aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase. Three strains significantly increased A. thaliana growth in vitro and in combination in soil. Another produces potent filipin-like antifungals and protected germinating wheat seeds against the fungal pathogen Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici (wheat take-all fungus). We conclude that introducing Streptomyces strains into the root microbiome provides significant benefits to plants.

Streptomyces bacteria are ubiquitous in soils and are well known for producing secondary metabolites, including antimicrobials. Increasingly, they are being isolated from plant roots, and several studies have shown they are specifically recruited to the rhizosphere and the endosphere of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Here, we test the hypothesis that Streptomyces bacteria have a beneficial effect on A. thaliana growth and could potentially be used as plant probiotics. To do this, we selectively isolated streptomycetes from surface-washed A. thaliana roots and generated high-quality genome sequences for five strains, which we named L2, M2, M3, N1, and N2. Reinfection of A. thaliana plants with L2, M2, and M3 significantly increased plant biomass individually and in combination, whereas N1 and N2 had a negative effect on plant growth, likely due to their production of polyene natural products which can bind to phytosterols and reduce plant growth. N2 exhibits broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and makes filipin-like polyenes, including 14-hydroxyisochainin which inhibits the take-all fungus, Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici. N2 antifungal activity as a whole was upregulated ∼2-fold in response to indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), suggesting a possible role during competition in the rhizosphere. Furthermore, coating wheat seeds with N2 spores protected wheat seedlings against take-all disease. We conclude that at least some soil-dwelling streptomycetes confer growth-promoting benefits on A. thaliana, while others might be exploited to protect crops against disease.

IMPORTANCE We must reduce reliance on agrochemicals, and there is increasing interest in using bacterial strains to promote plant growth and protect against disease. Our study follows up reports that Arabidopsis thaliana specifically recruits Streptomyces bacteria to its roots. We test the hypotheses that they offer benefits to their A. thaliana hosts and that strains isolated from these plants might be used as probiotics. We isolated Streptomyces strains from A. thaliana roots and genome sequenced five phylogenetically distinct strains. Genome mining and bioassays indicated that all five have plant growth-promoting properties, including production of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), siderophores, and aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase. Three strains significantly increased A. thaliana growth in vitro and in combination in soil. Another produces potent filipin-like antifungals and protected germinating wheat seeds against the fungal pathogen Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici (wheat take-all fungus). We conclude that introducing Streptomyces strains into the root microbiome provides significant benefits to plants.

Auxin: Hormonal Signal Required for Seed Development and Dormancy

The production of viable seeds is a key event in the life cycle of higher plants. Historically, abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellin (GAs) were considered the main hormones that regulate seed formation. However, auxin has recently emerged as an essential player that modulates, in conjunction with ABA, different cellular processes involved in seed development as well as the induction, regulation and maintenance of primary dormancy (PD). This review examines and discusses the key role of auxin as a signaling molecule that coordinates seed life. The cellular machinery involved in the synthesis and transport of auxin, as well as their cellular and tissue compartmentalization, is crucial for the development of the endosperm and seed-coat. Thus, auxin is an essential compound involved in integuments development, and its transport from endosperm is regulated by AGAMOUS-LIKE62 (AGL62) whose transcript is specifically expressed in the endosperm. In addition, recent biochemical and genetic evidence supports the involvement of auxins in PD. In this process, the participation of the transcriptional regulator ABA INSENSITIVE3 (ABI3) is critical, revealing a cross-talk between auxin and ABA signaling. Future experimental aimed at advancing knowledge of the role of auxins in seed development and PD are also discussed.

Advances in microbial culturing conditions to activate silent biosynthetic gene clusters for novel metabolite production

Natural products (NPs) produced by bacteria and fungi are often used as therapeutic agents due to their complex structures and wide range of bioactivities. Enzymes that build NPs are encoded by co-localized biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs), and genome sequencing has recently revealed that many BGCs are “silent” under standard laboratory conditions. There are numerous methods used to activate “silent” BGCs that rely either upon altering culture conditions or genetic modification. In this review, we discuss several recent microbial cultivation methods that have been used to expand the scope of NPs accessible in the laboratory. These approaches are divided into three categories: addition of a physical scaffold, addition of small molecule elicitors, and co-cultivation with another microbe.

Biocontrol of Cereal Crop Diseases Using Streptomycetes

A growing world population and an increasing demand for greater food production requires that crop losses caused by pests and diseases are dramatically reduced. Concurrently, sustainability targets mean that alternatives to chemical pesticides are becoming increasingly desirable. Bacteria in the plant root microbiome can protect their plant host against pests and pathogenic infection. In particular, Streptomyces species are well-known to produce a range of secondary metabolites that can inhibit the growth of phytopathogens. Streptomyces are abundant in soils and are also enriched in the root microbiomes of many different plant species, including those grown as economically and nutritionally valuable cereal crops. In this review we discuss the potential of Streptomyces to protect against some of the most damaging cereal crop diseases, particularly those caused by fungal pathogens. We also explore factors that may improve the efficacy of these strains as biocontrol agents in situ, as well as the possibility of exploiting plant mechanisms, such as root exudation, that enable the recruitment of microbial species from the soil to the root microbiome. We argue that a greater understanding of these mechanisms may enable the development of protective plant root microbiomes with a greater abundance of beneficial bacteria, such as Streptomyces species.

Functional Annotation of Bacterial Signal Transduction Systems: Progress and Challenges

Bacteria possess a large number of signal transduction systems that sense and respond to different environmental cues. Most frequently these are transcriptional regulators, two-component systems and chemosensory pathways. A major bottleneck in the field of signal transduction is the lack of information on signal molecules that modulate the activity of the large majority of these systems. We review here the progress made in the functional annotation of sensor proteins using high-throughput ligand screening approaches of purified sensor proteins or individual ligand binding domains. In these assays, the alteration in protein thermal stability following ligand binding is monitored using Differential Scanning Fluorimetry. We illustrate on several examples how the identification of the sensor protein ligand has facilitated the elucidation of the molecular mechanism of the regulatory process. We will also discuss the use of virtual ligand screening approaches to identify sensor protein ligands. Both approaches have been successfully applied to functionally annotate a significant number of bacterial sensor proteins but can also be used to study proteins from other kingdoms. The major challenge consists in the study of sensor proteins that do not recognize signal molecules directly, but that are activated by signal molecule-loaded binding proteins.

Nanoparticle microarray for high-throughput microbiome metabolomics using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry

A high-throughput matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI)-MS-based metabolomics platform was developed using a pre-fabricated microarray of nanoparticles and organic matrices. Selected organic matrices, inorganic nanoparticle (NP) suspensions, and sputter coated metal NPs, as well as various additives, were tested for metabolomics analysis of the turkey gut microbiome. Four NPs and one organic matrix were selected as the optimal matrix set: α-cyano-4-hydroycinnamic acid, Fe₃O₄ and Au NPs in positive ion mode with 10 mM sodium acetate, and Cu and Ag NPs in negative ion mode with no additive. Using this set of five matrices, over two thousand unique metabolite features were reproducibly detected across intestinal samples from turkeys fed a diet amended with therapeutic or sub-therapeutic antibiotics (200 g/ton or 50 g/ton bacitracin methylene disalicylate (BMD), respectively), or non-amended feed. Among the thousands of unique features, 56 of them were chemically identified using MALDI-MS/MS, with the help of in-parallel liquid chromatography (LC)-MS/MS analysis. Lastly, as a proof of concept application, this protocol was applied to 52 turkey cecal samples at three different time points from the antibiotic feed trial. Statistical analysis indicated variations in the metabolome of turkeys with different ages or treatments. Graphical abstract ᅟ.