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Guo Y, Zhou Q, Wei M, Fan J, Huang H. Association of TNFRSF19 with a TNF family-based prognostic model and subtypes in gliomas using machine learning. Heliyon 2024; 10:e28445. [PMID: 38560169 PMCID: PMC10979244 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose TNF family members (TFMs) play a crucial role in different types of cancers, with TNF Receptor Superfamily Member 19 (TNFRSF19) standing out as a particularly important member in this category. Further research is necessary to investigate the potential impact of TFMs on prognosis prediction and to elucidate the function and potential therapeutic targets linked to TNFRSF19 expression in gliomas. Methods Three databases provided the data on gene expression and clinical information. Fourteen prognostic members were found through univariate Cox analysis and subsequently utilized to construct TFMs-based model in LASSO and multivariate Cox analyses. TFMs-based subtypes based on the expression profile were identified using an unsupervised clustering method. Machine learning algorithm identified key genes linked to prognostic model and subtype. A sequence of immune infiltrations was evaluated using the ssGSEA and ESTIMATE algorithms. Immunohistochemistry was used to examine the patterns of expression and the clinical significance of TNFRSF19. Results Our development of a prognostic model and subtypes based on the TNF family was successful, resulting in accurate predictions of prognosis. The findings indicate that TNFRSF19 exhibited strong performance. Upregulation of TNFRSF19 was correlated with malignant phenotypes and poor prognosis, which was confirmed through immunohistochemistry. TNFRSF19 played a role in reshaping the immunosuppressive microenvironment in gliomas, and multiple drug-targeted TNFRSF19 molecules were identified. Conclusions The TMF-based prognostic model and subtype can facilitate treatment decisions for glioma. TNFRSF19 is an outstanding representative of a predictor of prognosis and immunotherapy effect in gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youwei Guo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Quanwei Zhou
- The National Key Clinical Specialty, The Engineering Technology Research Center of Education Ministry of China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory on Brain Function Repair and Regeneration, Department of Neurosurgery, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, China
| | - Min Wei
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
| | - Jianfeng Fan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - He Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan Province, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
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2
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Wan PKT, Fernandes RA, Seymour LW. Oncolytic viruses and antibodies: are they more successful when delivered separately or when engineered as a single agent? J Immunother Cancer 2023; 11:e006518. [PMID: 37541690 PMCID: PMC10407364 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2022-006518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) provide the promise of tumor-selective cytotoxicity coupled with amplification of the therapeutic agent (the virus) in situ within the tumor improving its therapeutic index. Despite this promise, however, single agent-treatments have not been as successful as combination therapies, particularly combining with checkpoint inhibitor antibodies. The antibodies may be delivered by two approaches, either encoded within the OV genome to restrict antibody production to sites of active virus infection or alternatively given alongside OVs as separate treatments. Both approaches have shown promising therapeutic outcomes, and this leads to an interesting question of whether one approach is potentially better than the other. In this review, we provide a brief summary of the combination OV-antibody therapies that target tumor cells, tumor microenvironment and immune cells to help define key parameters influencing which approach is superior, thereby improving insight into the rational design of OV treatment strategies.
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Recent Developments in Glioblastoma Therapy: Oncolytic Viruses and Emerging Future Strategies. Viruses 2023; 15:v15020547. [PMID: 36851761 PMCID: PMC9958853 DOI: 10.3390/v15020547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma is the most aggressive form of malignant brain tumor. Standard treatment protocols and traditional immunotherapy are poorly effective as they do not significantly increase the long-term survival of glioblastoma patients. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) may be an effective alternative approach. Combining OVs with some modern treatment options may also provide significant benefits for glioblastoma patients. Here we review virotherapy for glioblastomas and describe several OVs and their combination with other therapies. The personalized use of OVs and their combination with other treatment options would become a significant area of research aiming to develop the most effective treatment regimens for glioblastomas.
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Omole RK, Oluwatola O, Akere MT, Eniafe J, Agboluaje EO, Daramola OB, Ayantunji YJ, Omotade TI, Torimiro N, Ayilara MS, Adeyemi OI, Salinsile OS. Comprehensive assessment on the applications of oncolytic viruses for cancer immunotherapy. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1082797. [PMID: 36569326 PMCID: PMC9772532 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1082797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The worldwide burden of cancers is increasing at a very high rate, including the aggressive and resistant forms of cancers. Certain levels of breakthrough have been achieved with the conventional treatment methods being used to treat different forms of cancers, but with some limitations. These limitations include hazardous side effects, destruction of non-tumor healthy cells that are rapidly dividing and developing, tumor resistance to anti-cancer drugs, damage to tissues and organs, and so on. However, oncolytic viruses have emerged as a worthwhile immunotherapeutic option for the treatment of different types of cancers. In this treatment approach, oncolytic viruses are being modeled to target cancer cells with optimum cytotoxicity and spare normal cells with optimal safety, without the oncolytic viruses themselves being killed by the host immune defense system. Oncolytic viral infection of the cancer cells are also being genetically manipulated (either by removal or addition of certain genes into the oncolytic virus genome) to make the tumor more visible and available for attack by the host immune cells. Hence, different variants of these viruses are being developed to optimize their antitumor effects. In this review, we examined how grave the burden of cancer is on a global level, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, major conventional therapeutic approaches to the treatment of cancer and their individual drawbacks. We discussed the mechanisms of action employed by these oncolytic viruses and different viruses that have found their relevance in the fight against various forms of cancers. Some pre-clinical and clinical trials that involve oncolytic viruses in cancer management were reported. This review also examined the toxicity and safety concerns surrounding the adoption of oncolytic viro-immunotherapy for the treatment of cancers and the likely future directions for researchers and general audience who wants updated information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Kolade Omole
- Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria,Microbiology Unit, Department of Applied Sciences, Osun State College of Technology, Esa-Oke, Nigeria,*Correspondence: Richard Kolade Omole,
| | - Oluwaseyi Oluwatola
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States,Department of Immunology, Moffit Cancer Center, Tampa, FL, United States
| | - Millicent Tambari Akere
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States
| | - Joseph Eniafe
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, LA, United States
| | | | | | - Yemisi Juliet Ayantunji
- Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria,Advanced Space Technology Applications Laboratory, Cooperative Information Network, National Space Research and Development Agency, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
| | | | - Nkem Torimiro
- Department of Microbiology, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
| | - Modupe Stella Ayilara
- Food Security and Safety Focus Area, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa
| | - Oluwole Isaac Adeyemi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
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Optimal timing of PD-1 blockade in combination with oncolytic virus therapy. Semin Cancer Biol 2022; 86:971-980. [PMID: 34033895 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Anti-PD-1 and oncolytic viruses (OVs) have non-overlapping anti-tumor mechanisms, since each agent works at different steps of the cancer-immunity cycle. Evidence suggests that OVs improve therapeutic responses to anti-PD-1 therapy by reversing immunosuppressive factors, increasing the number and diversity of infiltrating lymphocytes, and promoting PD-L1 expression in both injected and non-injected tumors. Many studies in preclinical models suggest that the timing of anti-PD-1 administration influences the therapeutic success of the combination therapy (anti-PD-1 + OV). Therefore, determining the appropriate sequencing of agents is of critical importance to designing a rationale OV-based combinational clinical trial. Currently, the combination of anti-PD-1 and OVs are being delivered using various schedules, and we have classified the timing of administration of anti-PD-1 and OVs into five categories: (i) anti-PD-1 lead-in → OV; (ii) concurrent administration; (iii) OV lead-in → anti-PD-1; (iv) concurrent therapy lead-in → anti-PD-1; and (v) OV lead-in → concurrent therapy. Based on the reported preclinical and clinical literature, the most promising treatment strategy to date is hypothesized to be OV lead-in → concurrent therapy. In the OV lead-in → concurrent therapy approach, initial OV treatment results in T cell priming and infiltration into tumors and an immunologically hot tumor microenvironment (TME), which can be counterbalanced by engagement of PD-L1 to PD-1 receptor on immune cells, leading to T cell exhaustion. Therefore, after initial OV therapy, concurrent use of both OV and anti-PD-1 is critical through which OV maintains T cell priming and an immunologically hot TME, whereas PD-1 blockade helps to overcome PD-L1/PD-1-mediated T cell exhaustion. It is important to note that the hypothetical conclusion drawn in this review is based on thorough literature review on current understanding of OV + anti-PD-1 combination therapies and rhythm of treatment-induced cancer-immunity cycle. A variety of confounding factors such as tumor types, OV types, presence or absence of cytokine transgenes carried by an OV, timing of treatment initiation, varying dosages and treatment frequencies/duration of OV and anti-PD-1, etc. may affect the validity of our conclusion that will need to be further examined by future research (such as side-by-side comparative studies using all five treatment schedules in a given tumor model).
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Qi Z, Long X, Liu J, Cheng P. Glioblastoma microenvironment and its reprogramming by oncolytic virotherapy. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:819363. [PMID: 36159398 PMCID: PMC9507431 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.819363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM), a highly aggressive form of brain tumor, responds poorly to current conventional therapies, including surgery, radiation therapy, and systemic chemotherapy. The reason is that the delicate location of the primary tumor and the existence of the blood-brain barrier limit the effectiveness of traditional local and systemic therapies. The immunosuppressive status and multiple carcinogenic pathways in the complex GBM microenvironment also pose challenges for immunotherapy and single-targeted therapy. With an improving understanding of the GBM microenvironment, it has become possible to consider the immunosuppressive and highly angiogenic GBM microenvironment as an excellent opportunity to improve the existing therapeutic efficacy. Oncolytic virus therapy can exert antitumor effects on various components of the GBM microenvironment. In this review, we have focused on the current status of oncolytic virus therapy for GBM and the related literature on antitumor mechanisms. Moreover, the limitations of oncolytic virus therapy as a monotherapy and future directions that may enhance the field have also been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongbing Qi
- Department of State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiangyu Long
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Department of Oncology, West China Guang’an Hospital, Sichuan University, Guangan, China
| | - Jiyan Liu
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Ping Cheng Jiyan Liu
| | - Ping Cheng
- Department of State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center/Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Ping Cheng Jiyan Liu
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Zhou Q, Wei M, Shen W, Huang S, Fan J, Huang H. SYK Is Associated With Malignant Phenotype and Immune Checkpoints in Diffuse Glioma. Front Genet 2022; 13:899883. [PMID: 35910221 PMCID: PMC9334658 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.899883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Diffuse glioma, the most common intracranial malignant tumor, is characterized by immunosuppression. The prognostic significance and potential therapeutic value of SYK remain obscure. Here, we explored the performance of SYK in predicting patient outcomes and as a therapeutic target.Methods: The mRNA expression and clinical data for pancancer and normal tissues and more than 2,000 glioma samples were collected from public databases. The expression level of SYK was evaluated by qPCR and IHC. The prognostic value of SYK was assessed using the Kaplan–Meier curves and univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses. A sequence of immune and stromal infiltration analyses was calculated based on the ESTIMATE algorithm, ssGSEA algorithm, TIMER, and single-cell analysis. The SYK-related subtypes were identified via a Consensus Cluster Plus analysis.Results: SYK was significantly differentially expressed in multiple tumors and normal tissues. Importantly, high-expression SYK was enriched in malignant phenotypes of diffuse gliomas, which was further validated by qPCR and IHC. Survival analysis uncovered that SYK was an independently unfavorable prognostic marker in diffuse glioma. Functional enrichment analysis and immune and stromal infiltration analyses showed that SYK was involved in shaping the immunosuppressive microenvironment of diffuse glioma. Additionally, SYK expression was closely associated with some immune checkpoint molecules and M2 macrophage infiltration, which was validated by IHC and single-cell analysis. Diffuse glioma with Sub1 exhibited a worse prognosis, immunosuppressive microenvironment, and higher expression of immune checkpoint genes.Conclusion: SYK is involved in shaping the immunosuppressive microenvironment and served as a promising prognosis biomarker and immunotherapeutic target for diffuse glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quanwei Zhou
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Min Wei
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wenyue Shen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Sheng Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jianfeng Fan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - He Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
- *Correspondence: He Huang,
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Naimi A, Mohammed RN, Raji A, Chupradit S, Yumashev AV, Suksatan W, Shalaby MN, Thangavelu L, Kamrava S, Shomali N, Sohrabi AD, Adili A, Noroozi-Aghideh A, Razeghian E. Tumor immunotherapies by immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs); the pros and cons. Cell Commun Signal 2022; 20:44. [PMID: 35392976 PMCID: PMC8991803 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-022-00854-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The main breakthrough in tumor immunotherapy was the discovery of immune checkpoint (IC) proteins, which act as a potent suppressor of the immune system by a myriad of mechanisms. After that, scientists focused on the immune checkpoint molecules mainly. Thereby, much effort was spent to progress novel strategies for suppressing these inhibitory axes, resulting in the evolution of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Then, ICIs have become a promising approach and shaped a paradigm shift in tumor immunotherapies. CTLA-4 plays an influential role in attenuation of the induction of naïve and memory T cells by engagement with its responding ligands like B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86). Besides, PD-1 is predominantly implicated in adjusting T cell function in peripheral tissues through its interaction with programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) and PD-L2. Given their suppressive effects on anti-tumor immunity, it has firmly been documented that ICIs based therapies can be practical and rational therapeutic approaches to treat cancer patients. Nonetheless, tumor inherent or acquired resistance to ICI and some treatment-related toxicities restrict their application in the clinic. The current review will deliver a comprehensive overview of the ICI application to treat human tumors alone or in combination with other modalities to support more desired outcomes and lower toxicities in cancer patients. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adel Naimi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Rebar N. Mohammed
- Medical Laboratory Analysis Department, Cihan University Sulaimaniya, Sulaymaniyah, 46001 Kurdistan Region Iraq
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sulaimani, Suleimanyah, Iraq
| | - Ahmed Raji
- College of Medicine, University of Babylon, Department of Pathology, Babylon, Iraq
| | - Supat Chupradit
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Associated Medical Sciences, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
| | | | - Wanich Suksatan
- Faculty of Nursing, HRH Princess Chulabhorn College of Medical Science, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, Bangkok, 10210 Thailand
| | - Mohammed Nader Shalaby
- Associate Professor of Biological Sciences and Sports Health Department, Faculty of Physical Education, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Lakshmi Thangavelu
- Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Dental College, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Science, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
| | - Siavash Kamrava
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Navid Shomali
- Immunology Research Center (IRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Armin D. Sohrabi
- Immunology Research Center (IRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ali Adili
- Department of Oncology, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ali Noroozi-Aghideh
- Department of Hematology, Faculty of Paramedicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ehsan Razeghian
- Human Genetics Division, Medical Biotechnology Department, National Institute of Genetics Engineering and Biotechnology (NIGEB), Tehran, Iran
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Multifunctional Nanopolymers for Blood-Brain Barrier Delivery and Inhibition of Glioblastoma Growth through EGFR/EGFRvIII, c-Myc, and PD-1. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11112892. [PMID: 34835657 PMCID: PMC8621221 DOI: 10.3390/nano11112892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prevalent primary brain cancer in the pediatric and adult population. It is known as an untreatable tumor in urgent need of new therapeutic approaches. The objective of this work was to develop multifunctional nanomedicines to treat GBM in clinical practice using combination therapy for several targets. We developed multifunctional nanopolymers (MNPs) based on a naturally derived biopolymer, poly(β-L-malic) acid, which are suitable for central nervous system (CNS) treatment. These MNPs contain several anticancer functional moieties with the capacity of crossing the blood–brain barrier (BBB), targeting GBM cells and suppressing two important molecular markers, tyrosine kinase transmembrane receptors EGFR/EGFRvIII and c-Myc nuclear transcription factor. The reproducible syntheses of MNPs where monoclonal antibodies are replaced with AP-2 peptide for effective BBB delivery were presented. The active anticancer inhibitors of mRNA/protein syntheses were Morpholino antisense oligonucleotides (AONs). Two ways of covalent AON-polymer attachments with and without disulfide bonds were explored. These MNPs bearing AONs to EGFR/EGFRvIII and c-Myc, as well as in a combination with the polymer-attached checkpoint inhibitor anti-PD-1 antibody, orchestrated a multi-pronged attack on intracranial mouse GBM to successfully block tumor growth and significantly increase survival of brain tumor-bearing animals.
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Stevanovic M, Kovacevic-Grujicic N, Mojsin M, Milivojevic M, Drakulic D. SOX transcription factors and glioma stem cells: Choosing between stemness and differentiation. World J Stem Cells 2021; 13:1417-1445. [PMID: 34786152 PMCID: PMC8567447 DOI: 10.4252/wjsc.v13.i10.1417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common, most aggressive and deadliest brain tumor. Recently, remarkable progress has been made towards understanding the cellular and molecular biology of gliomas. GBM tumor initiation, progression and relapse as well as resistance to treatments are associated with glioma stem cells (GSCs). GSCs exhibit a high proliferation rate and self-renewal capacity and the ability to differentiate into diverse cell types, generating a range of distinct cell types within the tumor, leading to cellular heterogeneity. GBM tumors may contain different subsets of GSCs, and some of them may adopt a quiescent state that protects them against chemotherapy and radiotherapy. GSCs enriched in recurrent gliomas acquire more aggressive and therapy-resistant properties, making them more malignant, able to rapidly spread. The impact of SOX transcription factors (TFs) on brain tumors has been extensively studied in the last decade. Almost all SOX genes are expressed in GBM, and their expression levels are associated with patient prognosis and survival. Numerous SOX TFs are involved in the maintenance of the stemness of GSCs or play a role in the initiation of GSC differentiation. The fine-tuning of SOX gene expression levels controls the balance between cell stemness and differentiation. Therefore, innovative therapies targeting SOX TFs are emerging as promising tools for combatting GBM. Combatting GBM has been a demanding and challenging goal for decades. The current therapeutic strategies have not yet provided a cure for GBM and have only resulted in a slight improvement in patient survival. Novel approaches will require the fine adjustment of multimodal therapeutic strategies that simultaneously target numerous hallmarks of cancer cells to win the battle against GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Stevanovic
- Laboratory for Human Molecular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade 11042, Serbia
- Chair Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade 11158, Serbia
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade 11000, Serbia.
| | - Natasa Kovacevic-Grujicic
- Laboratory for Human Molecular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade 11042, Serbia
| | - Marija Mojsin
- Laboratory for Human Molecular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade 11042, Serbia
| | - Milena Milivojevic
- Laboratory for Human Molecular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade 11042, Serbia
| | - Danijela Drakulic
- Laboratory for Human Molecular Genetics, Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade 11042, Serbia
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Zeng J, Li X, Sander M, Zhang H, Yan G, Lin Y. Oncolytic Viro-Immunotherapy: An Emerging Option in the Treatment of Gliomas. Front Immunol 2021; 12:721830. [PMID: 34675919 PMCID: PMC8524046 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.721830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The prognosis of malignant gliomas remains poor, with median survival fewer than 20 months and a 5-year survival rate merely 5%. Their primary location in the central nervous system (CNS) and its immunosuppressive environment with little T cell infiltration has rendered cancer therapies mostly ineffective, and breakthrough therapies such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have shown limited benefit. However, tumor immunotherapy is developing rapidly and can help overcome these obstacles. But for now, malignant gliomas remain fatal with short survival and limited therapeutic options. Oncolytic virotherapy (OVT) is a unique antitumor immunotherapy wherein viruses selectively or preferentially kill tumor cells, replicate and spread through tumors while inducing antitumor immune responses. OVTs can also recondition the tumor microenvironment and improve the efficacy of other immunotherapies by escalating the infiltration of immune cells into tumors. Some OVTs can penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and possess tropism for the CNS, enabling intravenous delivery. Despite the therapeutic potential displayed by oncolytic viruses (OVs), optimizing OVT has proved challenging in clinical development, and marketing approvals for OVTs have been rare. In June 2021 however, as a genetically engineered OV based on herpes simplex virus-1 (G47Δ), teserpaturev got conditional and time-limited approval for the treatment of malignant gliomas in Japan. In this review, we summarize the current state of OVT, the synergistic effect of OVT in combination with other immunotherapies as well as the hurdles to successful clinical use. We also provide some suggestions to overcome the challenges in treating of gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Zeng
- Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiangxue Li
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Max Sander
- Department of International Cooperation, Guangzhou Virotech Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Guangzhou, China
| | - Haipeng Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guangmei Yan
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuan Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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Hu HJ, Liang X, Li HL, Wang HY, Gu JF, Sun LY, Xiao J, Hu JQ, Ni AM, Liu XY. Optimization of the Administration Strategy for the Armed Oncolytic Adenovirus ZD55-IL-24 in Both Immunocompromised and Immunocompetent Mouse Models. Hum Gene Ther 2021; 32:1481-1494. [PMID: 34155929 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2021.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
ZD55-IL-24 is an armed oncolytic adenovirus similar but superior to ONYX-015. Virotherapeutic strategies using ZD55-IL-24 have been demonstrated to be effective against several cancer types. However, it is unclear whether the traditional administration strategy is able to exert the maximal antitumor efficacy of ZD55-IL-24. In this study, we sought to optimize the administration strategy of ZD55-IL-24 in both A375-bearing immunocompromised mouse model and B16-bearing immunocompetent mouse model. Although the underlying antitumor mechanisms are quite different, the obtained results are similar in these two mouse tumor models. We find that the antitumor efficacy of ZD55-IL-24 increases as injection times increase in both of these two models. However, no obvious increase of efficacy is observed as the dose of each injection increases. Our further investigation reveals that the administration strategy of sustained ZD55-IL-24 therapy can achieve a better therapeutic effect than the traditional administration strategy of short-term ZD55-IL-24 therapy. Furthermore, there is no need to inject every day; every 2 or 3 days of injection achieves an equivalent therapeutic efficacy. Finally, we find that the sustained rather than the traditional short-term ZD55-IL-24 therapy can synergize with anti-PD-1 therapy to reject tumors in B16-bearing immunocompetent mouse model. These findings suggest that the past administration strategy of ZD55-IL-24 is in fact suboptimal and the antitumor efficacy can be further enhanced through administration strategy optimization. This study might shed some light on the development of clinically applicable administration regimens for ZD55-IL-24 therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Jun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiu Liang
- School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China; and
| | - Hai-Lang Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiamen Medical College, Xiamen, China
| | - Huai-Yuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jin-Fa Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Lan-Ying Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jin-Qing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Ai-Min Ni
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin-Yuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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13
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Chokshi CR, Brakel BA, Tatari N, Savage N, Salim SK, Venugopal C, Singh SK. Advances in Immunotherapy for Adult Glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13143400. [PMID: 34298615 PMCID: PMC8305609 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13143400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Therapy failure and disease recurrence are hallmarks of glioblastoma (GBM), the most common and lethal tumor in adults that originates in the brain. Despite aggressive standards of care, tumor recurrence is inevitable with no standardized second-line therapy. Recent clinical studies evaluating therapies that augment the anti-tumor immune response (i.e., immunotherapies) have yielded promising results in subsets of GBM patients. Here, we summarize clinical studies in the past decade that evaluate vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibitors and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells for treatment of GBM. Although immunotherapies have yet to return widespread efficacy for the majority of GBM patients, critical insights from completed and ongoing clinical trials are informing development of the next generation of therapies, with the goal to alleviate disease burden and extend patient survival. Abstract Despite aggressive multimodal therapy, glioblastoma (GBM) remains the most common malignant primary brain tumor in adults. With the advent of therapies that revitalize the anti-tumor immune response, several immunotherapeutic modalities have been developed for treatment of GBM. In this review, we summarize recent clinical and preclinical efforts to evaluate vaccination strategies, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. Although these modalities have shown long-term tumor regression in subsets of treated patients, the underlying biology that may predict efficacy and inform therapy development is being actively investigated. Common to all therapeutic modalities are fundamental mechanisms of therapy evasion by tumor cells, including immense intratumoral heterogeneity, suppression of the tumor immune microenvironment and low mutational burden. These insights have led efforts to design rational combinatorial therapies that can reignite the anti-tumor immune response, effectively and specifically target tumor cells and reliably decrease tumor burden for GBM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chirayu R. Chokshi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada; (C.R.C.); (B.A.B.); (N.T.); (N.S.); (S.K.S.)
| | - Benjamin A. Brakel
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada; (C.R.C.); (B.A.B.); (N.T.); (N.S.); (S.K.S.)
| | - Nazanin Tatari
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada; (C.R.C.); (B.A.B.); (N.T.); (N.S.); (S.K.S.)
| | - Neil Savage
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada; (C.R.C.); (B.A.B.); (N.T.); (N.S.); (S.K.S.)
| | - Sabra K. Salim
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada; (C.R.C.); (B.A.B.); (N.T.); (N.S.); (S.K.S.)
| | - Chitra Venugopal
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada;
| | - Sheila K. Singh
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada; (C.R.C.); (B.A.B.); (N.T.); (N.S.); (S.K.S.)
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada;
- Correspondence:
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14
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De Waele J, Verhezen T, van der Heijden S, Berneman ZN, Peeters M, Lardon F, Wouters A, Smits ELJM. A systematic review on poly(I:C) and poly-ICLC in glioblastoma: adjuvants coordinating the unlocking of immunotherapy. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2021; 40:213. [PMID: 34172082 PMCID: PMC8229304 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-021-02017-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy is currently under intensive investigation as a potential breakthrough treatment option for glioblastoma. Given the anatomical and immunological complexities surrounding glioblastoma, lymphocytes that infiltrate the brain to develop durable immunity with memory will be key. Polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid, or poly(I:C), and its derivative poly-ICLC could serve as a priming or boosting therapy to unleash lymphocytes and other factors in the (immuno)therapeutic armory against glioblastoma. Here, we present a systematic review on the effects and efficacy of poly(I:C)/poly-ICLC for glioblastoma treatment, ranging from preclinical work on cellular and murine glioblastoma models to reported and ongoing clinical studies. MEDLINE was searched until 15 May 2021 to identify preclinical (glioblastoma cells, murine models) and clinical studies that investigated poly(I:C) or poly-ICLC in glioblastoma. A systematic review approach was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. ClinicalTrials.gov was queried for ongoing clinical studies. Direct pro-tumorigenic effects of poly(I:C) on glioblastoma cells have not been described. On the contrary, poly(I:C) changes the immunological profile of glioblastoma cells and can also kill them directly. In murine glioblastoma models, poly(I:C) has shown therapeutic relevance as an adjuvant therapy to several treatment modalities, including vaccination and immune checkpoint blockade. Clinically, mostly as an adjuvant to dendritic cell or peptide vaccines, poly-ICLC has been demonstrated to be safe and capable of eliciting immunological activity to boost therapeutic responses. Poly-ICLC could be a valuable tool to enhance immunotherapeutic approaches for glioblastoma. We conclude by proposing several promising combination strategies that might advance glioblastoma immunotherapy and discuss key pre-clinical aspects to improve clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorrit De Waele
- Center for Oncological Research (CORE), Integrated Personalized & Precision Oncology Network (IPPON), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Tias Verhezen
- Center for Oncological Research (CORE), Integrated Personalized & Precision Oncology Network (IPPON), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Sanne van der Heijden
- Center for Oncological Research (CORE), Integrated Personalized & Precision Oncology Network (IPPON), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Zwi N Berneman
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Hematology, Antwerp University Hospital, Wilrijkstraat 10, B-2650, Edegem, Belgium.,Center for Cell Therapy and Regenerative Medicine, Antwerp University Hospital, Wilrijkstraat 10, B-2650, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Marc Peeters
- Center for Oncological Research (CORE), Integrated Personalized & Precision Oncology Network (IPPON), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium.,Multidisciplinary Oncological Center Antwerp, Antwerp University Hospital, Wilrijkstraat 10, B-2650, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Filip Lardon
- Center for Oncological Research (CORE), Integrated Personalized & Precision Oncology Network (IPPON), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - An Wouters
- Center for Oncological Research (CORE), Integrated Personalized & Precision Oncology Network (IPPON), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Evelien L J M Smits
- Center for Oncological Research (CORE), Integrated Personalized & Precision Oncology Network (IPPON), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium.,Center for Cell Therapy and Regenerative Medicine, Antwerp University Hospital, Wilrijkstraat 10, B-2650, Edegem, Belgium
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15
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de Groot J, Penas-Prado M, Alfaro-Munoz K, Hunter K, Pei BL, O'Brien B, Weathers SP, Loghin M, Kamiya Matsouka C, Yung WKA, Mandel J, Wu J, Yuan Y, Zhou S, Fuller GN, Huse J, Rao G, Weinberg JS, Prabhu SS, McCutcheon IE, Lang FF, Ferguson SD, Sawaya R, Colen R, Yadav SS, Blando J, Vence L, Allison J, Sharma P, Heimberger AB. Window-of-opportunity clinical trial of pembrolizumab in patients with recurrent glioblastoma reveals predominance of immune-suppressive macrophages. Neuro Oncol 2021; 22:539-549. [PMID: 31755915 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/noz185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We sought to ascertain the immune effector function of pembrolizumab within the glioblastoma (GBM) microenvironment during the therapeutic window. METHODS In an open-label, single-center, single-arm phase II "window-of-opportunity" trial in 15 patients with recurrent (operable) GBM receiving up to 2 pembrolizumab doses before surgery and every 3 weeks afterward until disease progression or unacceptable toxicities occurred, immune responses were evaluated within the tumor. RESULTS No treatment-related deaths occurred. Overall median follow-up time was 50 months. Of 14 patients monitored, 10 had progressive disease, 3 had a partial response, and 1 had stable disease. Median progression-free survival (PFS) was 4.5 months (95% CI: 2.27, 6.83), and the 6-month PFS rate was 40%. Median overall survival (OS) was 20 months, with an estimated 1-year OS rate of 63%. GBM patients' recurrent tumors contained few T cells that demonstrated a paucity of immune activation markers, but the tumor microenvironment was markedly enriched for CD68+ macrophages. CONCLUSIONS Immune analyses indicated that pembrolizumab anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) monotherapy alone can't induce effector immunologic response in most GBM patients, probably owing to a scarcity of T cells within the tumor microenvironment and a CD68+ macrophage preponderance.
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Affiliation(s)
- John de Groot
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Marta Penas-Prado
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Kristin Alfaro-Munoz
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Kathy Hunter
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Be Lian Pei
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Barbara O'Brien
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Shiao-Pei Weathers
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Monica Loghin
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Carlos Kamiya Matsouka
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - W K Alfred Yung
- Departments of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Jacob Mandel
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Jimin Wu
- Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Ying Yuan
- Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Shouhao Zhou
- Biostatistics, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Gregory N Fuller
- Neuropathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Jason Huse
- Neuropathology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Ganesh Rao
- Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Jeffrey S Weinberg
- Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Sujit S Prabhu
- Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Ian E McCutcheon
- Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Frederick F Lang
- Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Sherise D Ferguson
- Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Raymond Sawaya
- Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Rivka Colen
- Cancer Systems Imaging, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Shalini S Yadav
- Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Jorge Blando
- Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Luis Vence
- Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - James Allison
- Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Padmanee Sharma
- Immunology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
| | - Amy B Heimberger
- Neurosurgery, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
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16
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Hu HJ, Liang X, Li HL, Wang HY, Gu JF, Sun LY, Xiao J, Hu JQ, Ni AM, Liu XY. Enhanced anti-melanoma efficacy through a combination of the armed oncolytic adenovirus ZD55-IL-24 and immune checkpoint blockade in B16-bearing immunocompetent mouse model. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2021; 70:3541-3555. [PMID: 33903973 PMCID: PMC8571158 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-021-02946-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Although the recent treatment in melanoma through the use of anti-PD-1 immunotherapy is successful, the efficacy of this approach remains to be improved. Here, we explore the feasibility of combination strategy with the armed oncolytic adenovirus ZD55-IL-24 and PD-1 blockade. We find that combination therapy with localized ZD55-IL-24 and systemic PD-1 blockade leads to synergistic inhibition of both local and distant established tumors in B16-bearing immunocompetent mouse model. Our further mechanism investigation reveals that synergistic therapeutic effect is associated with marked promotion of tumor immune infiltration and recognition in both local and distant tumors as well as spleens. PD-1 blockade has no obvious effect on promotion of tumor immune infiltration and recognition. Localized therapy with ZD55-IL-24, however, can help PD-1 blockade to overcome the limitation of relatively low tumor immune infiltration and recognition. This study provides a rationale for investigation of such combination therapy in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Jun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Xiu Liang
- School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Hai-Lang Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiamen Medical College, Xiamen, 361023, China
| | - Huai-Yuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jin-Fa Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Lan-Ying Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Jing Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jin-Qing Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Ai-Min Ni
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China.
| | - Xin-Yuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China.
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17
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Jin K, Mao C, Chen L, Wang L, Liu Y, Yuan J. Adenosinergic Pathway: A Hope in the Immunotherapy of Glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:E229. [PMID: 33435205 PMCID: PMC7826839 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13020229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain tumors comprise different types of malignancies, most of which are originated from glial cells. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive type of brain tumor with a poor response to conventional therapies and dismal survival rates (15 months) despite multimodal therapies. The development of immunotherapeutic strategies seems to be necessary to enhance the overall survival of GBM patients. So far, the immunotherapies applied in GBM had promising results in the primary phases of clinical trials but failed to continue their beneficial effects in later phases. GBM-microenvironment (GME) is a heterogenic and rigorously immunosuppressive milieu wrapping by an impenetrable blood-brain barrier. Hence, in-depth knowledge about the dominant immunosuppressive mechanisms in the GME could foster GBM immunotherapy. Recently, the adenosinergic pathway (AP) is found to be a major player in the suppression of antitumor immune responses in the GME. Tumor cells evolve to metabolize pro-inflammatory ATP to anti-inflammatory adenosine. Adenosine can suppress immune responses through the signaling of adenosine receptors on immune cells. The preclinical results targeting AP in GBM showed promising results in reinvigorating antitumor responses, overriding chemoresistance, and increasing survival. We reviewed the current GBM immunotherapies and elaborated on the role of AP in the immunopathogenesis, treatment, and even prognosis of GBM. We suggest that future clinical studies should consider this pathway in their combination therapies along with other immunotherapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ketao Jin
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 365, Renmin Eastern Road, Jinhua 321000, Zhejiang, China; (C.M.); (L.C.); (Y.L.)
| | - Chunsen Mao
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 365, Renmin Eastern Road, Jinhua 321000, Zhejiang, China; (C.M.); (L.C.); (Y.L.)
| | - Lin Chen
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 365, Renmin Eastern Road, Jinhua 321000, Zhejiang, China; (C.M.); (L.C.); (Y.L.)
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Jinhua 321000, Zhejiang, China;
| | - Lude Wang
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Jinhua 321000, Zhejiang, China;
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 365, Renmin Eastern Road, Jinhua 321000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yuyao Liu
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 365, Renmin Eastern Road, Jinhua 321000, Zhejiang, China; (C.M.); (L.C.); (Y.L.)
| | - Jianlie Yuan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Jinhua Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 365, Renmin Eastern Road, Jinhua 321000, Zhejiang, China
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18
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Immunologic aspects of viral therapy for glioblastoma and implications for interactions with immunotherapies. J Neurooncol 2021; 152:1-13. [PMID: 33389564 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-020-03684-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The treatment for glioblastoma (GBM) has remained unchanged for the past decade, with only minimal improvements in patient survival. As a result, novel treatments are needed to combat this devastating disease. Immunotherapies are treatments that stimulate the immune system to attack tumor cells and can be either local or systemically delivered. Viral treatments can lead to direct tumor cell death through their natural lifecycle or through the delivery of a suicide gene, with the potential to generate an anti-tumor immune response, making them interesting candidates for combinatorial treatment with immunotherapy. METHODS We review the current literature surrounding the interactions between oncolytic viruses and the immune system as well as the use of oncolytic viruses combined with immunotherapies for the treatment of GBM. RESULTS Viral therapies have exhibited preclinical efficacy as single-agents and are being investigated in that manner in clinical trials. Oncolytic viruses have significant interactions with the immune system, although this can also vary depending on the strain of virus. Combinatorial treatments using both oncolytic viruses and immunotherapies have demonstrated promising preclinical findings. CONCLUSIONS Studies combining viral and immunotherapeutic treatment modalities have provided exciting results thus far and hold great promise for patients with GBM. Additional studies assessing the clinical efficacy of these treatments as well as improved preclinical modeling systems, safety mechanisms, and the balance between treatment efficacy and immune-mediated viral clearance should be considered.
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19
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Wouters R, Bevers S, Riva M, De Smet F, Coosemans A. Immunocompetent Mouse Models in the Search for Effective Immunotherapy in Glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 13:E19. [PMID: 33374542 PMCID: PMC7793150 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive intrinsic brain tumor in adults. Despite maximal therapy consisting of surgery and radio/chemotherapy, GBM remains largely incurable with a median survival of less than 15 months. GBM has a strong immunosuppressive nature with a multitude of tumor and microenvironment (TME) derived factors that prohibit an effective immune response. To date, all clinical trials failed to provide lasting clinical efficacy, despite the relatively high success rates of preclinical studies to show effectivity of immunotherapy. Various factors may explain this discrepancy, including the inability of a single mouse model to fully recapitulate the complexity and heterogeneity of GBM. It is therefore critical to understand the features and limitations of each model, which should probably be combined to grab the full spectrum of the disease. In this review, we summarize the available knowledge concerning immune composition, stem cell characteristics and response to standard-of-care and immunotherapeutics for the most commonly available immunocompetent mouse models of GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxanne Wouters
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (R.W.); (S.B.); (M.R.)
- Oncoinvent, A.S., 0484 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sien Bevers
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (R.W.); (S.B.); (M.R.)
- The Laboratory for Precision Cancer Medicine, Translational Cell and Tissue Research Unit, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Matteo Riva
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (R.W.); (S.B.); (M.R.)
- Department of Neurosurgery, Mont-Godinne Hospital, UCL Namur, 5530 Yvoir, Belgium
| | - Frederik De Smet
- The Laboratory for Precision Cancer Medicine, Translational Cell and Tissue Research Unit, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - An Coosemans
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; (R.W.); (S.B.); (M.R.)
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20
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Kim SI, Park AK, Chaurasiya S, Kang S, Lu J, Yang A, Sivanandam V, Zhang Z, Woo Y, Priceman SJ, Fong Y, Warner SG. Recombinant Orthopoxvirus Primes Colon Cancer for Checkpoint Inhibitor and Cross-Primes T Cells for Antitumor and Antiviral Immunity. Mol Cancer Ther 2020; 20:173-182. [PMID: 33262221 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-20-0405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Although it is known that oncolytic viruses can inflame and recruit immune cells to otherwise immunosuppressed tumor microenvironments, the influence of the antiviral immune response on antitumor immunity is less clear across viral platforms and tumor types. CF33 is a recombinant orthopoxvirus backbone effective against colon cancer. We tested derivatives of CF33 with and without immune-checkpoint inhibition (anti-PD-L1) in mouse models of colon cancer. Results showed that the efficacy of CF33 backbone with J2R deletion (single-deleted) against colon cancer is not altered by additional deletion of F14.5L in vitro or in vivo CF33 infection upregulated PD-L1 expression on tumor cells and led to an increased influx of lymphocytes and macrophages in tumors. Also, the levels of active CD8+ (IFNγ+) T cells in the virus-treated tumors were higher than those in control-treated tumors. Furthermore, a combination of CF33 derivatives with anti-PD-L1 resulted in durable tumor regression and long-term survival, resistant to tumor rechallenge. Analysis of immune cells from the treated mice showed that tumor-specific T cell activation occurred more robustly in tumors treated with the virus and that T cells were more strongly activated against the virus than against tumor, in an MHC-I-dependent manner. Our findings warrant further studies on the role of cross-priming of T cells against viral and tumor antigens, in the overall success of viroimmunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-In Kim
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Anthony K Park
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Shyambabu Chaurasiya
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Seonah Kang
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Jianming Lu
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Annie Yang
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Venkatesh Sivanandam
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Zhifang Zhang
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Yanghee Woo
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Saul J Priceman
- Department of Hematology and Hematopoietic Cell Transplantation, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Yuman Fong
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California.,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
| | - Susanne G Warner
- Department of Immuno-Oncology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California. .,Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, California
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21
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Oncolytic Viruses as a Platform for the Treatment of Malignant Brain Tumors. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21207449. [PMID: 33050329 PMCID: PMC7589928 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant brain tumors remain incurable diseases. Although much effort has been devoted to improving patient outcome, multiple factors such as the high tumor heterogeneity, the strong tumor-induced immunosuppressive microenvironment, and the low mutational burden make the treatment of these tumors especially challenging. Thus, novel therapeutic strategies are urgent. Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are biotherapeutics that have been selected or engineered to infect and selectively kill cancer cells. Increasingly, preclinical and clinical studies demonstrate the ability of OVs to recruit T cells and induce durable immune responses against both virus and tumor, transforming a “cold” tumor microenvironment into a “hot” environment. Besides promising clinical results as a monotherapy, OVs can be powerfully combined with other cancer therapies, helping to overcome critical barriers through the creation of synergistic effects in the fight against brain cancer. Although many questions remain to be answered to fully exploit the therapeutic potential of OVs, oncolytic virotherapy will clearly be part of future treatments for patients with malignant brain tumors.
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22
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Santry LA, van Vloten JP, Knapp JP, Matuszewska K, McAusland TM, Minott JA, Mould RC, Stegelmeier AA, Major PP, Wootton SK, Petrik JJ, Bridle BW. Tumour vasculature: Friend or foe of oncolytic viruses? Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2020; 56:69-82. [PMID: 32893095 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2020.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In the past two decades there have been substantial advances in understanding the anti-cancer mechanisms of oncolytic viruses (OVs). OVs can mediate their effects directly, by preferentially infecting and killing tumour cells. Additionally, OVs can indirectly generate anti-tumour immune responses. These differing mechanisms have led to a paradoxical divergence in strategies employed to further increase the potency of oncolytic virotherapies. On one hand, the tumour neovasculature is seen as a vital lifeline to the survival of the tumour, leading some to use OVs to target the tumour vasculature in hopes to starve cancers. Therapeutics causing vascular collapse can potentiate tumour hypoxia, nutrient restriction and pro-inflammatory cytokine release, which has shown promise in oncological studies. On the other hand, the same vasculature plays an important role for the dissemination of OVs, trafficking of effector cells and other therapeutics, which has prompted researchers to find ways of normalizing the vasculature to enhance infiltration of leukocytes and delivery of therapeutic agents. This article describes the recent developments of therapies aimed to shut down versus normalize tumour vasculature in order to inform researchers striving to optimize OV-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Santry
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Jacob P van Vloten
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Jason P Knapp
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Kathy Matuszewska
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Thomas M McAusland
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Jessica A Minott
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Robert C Mould
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Ashley A Stegelmeier
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Pierre P Major
- Juravinski Cancer Centre, 699 Concession Street, Hamilton, ON L8V 5C2, Canada.
| | - Sarah K Wootton
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - James J Petrik
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Byram W Bridle
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada.
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23
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Chiu M, Armstrong EJL, Jennings V, Foo S, Crespo-Rodriguez E, Bozhanova G, Patin EC, McLaughlin M, Mansfield D, Baker G, Grove L, Pedersen M, Kyula J, Roulstone V, Wilkins A, McDonald F, Harrington K, Melcher A. Combination therapy with oncolytic viruses and immune checkpoint inhibitors. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2020; 20:635-652. [PMID: 32067509 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2020.1729351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have dramatically improved the outcome for cancer patients across multiple tumor types. However the response rates to ICI monotherapy remain relatively low, in part due to some tumors cultivating an inherently 'cold' immune microenvironment. Oncolytic viruses (OV) have the capability to promote a 'hotter' immune microenvironment which can improve the efficacy of ICI.Areas covered: In this article we conducted a literature search through Pubmed/Medline to identify relevant articles in both the pre-clinical and clinical settings for combining OVs with ICIs and discuss the impact of this approach on treatment as well as changes within the tumor microenvironment. We also explore the future directions of this novel combination strategy.Expert opinion: The imminent results of the Phase 3 study combining pembrolizumab with or without T-Vec injection are eagerly awaited. OV/ICI combinations remain one of the most promising avenues to explore in the success of cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Chiu
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
- The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Edward John Lloyd Armstrong
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
- The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Vicki Jennings
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Shane Foo
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Eva Crespo-Rodriguez
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Galabina Bozhanova
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | | | - Martin McLaughlin
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - David Mansfield
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Gabriella Baker
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Lorna Grove
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Malin Pedersen
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Joan Kyula
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Victoria Roulstone
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Anna Wilkins
- Tumour Cell Biology Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | | | - Kevin Harrington
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
- The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Alan Melcher
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
- The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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24
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Medikonda R, Dunn G, Rahman M, Fecci P, Lim M. A review of glioblastoma immunotherapy. J Neurooncol 2020; 151:41-53. [PMID: 32253714 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-020-03448-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Glioblastoma is a very aggressive cancer with dismal prognosis despite standard of care including surgical resection, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. There is interest in applying immunotherapy to glioblastoma as this modality has demonstrated remarkable improvements in the management of several solid tumors including melanoma, renal cell carcinoma, and non-small cell lung cancer. This review aims to provide an overview of the current state of glioblastoma immunotherapy. METHODS Literature search was performed on PubMed between 1961 and 2020. RESULTS Initial clinical trials of checkpoint inhibitors and vaccine therapy for glioblastoma have largely been disappointing for both primary and recurrent glioblastoma. This failure has been attributed to glioblastoma's highly immunosuppressive environment and multiple mechanisms of therapy resistance including high tumor heterogeneity, low mutational burden, systemic immunosuppression, and local immune dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS Current clinical trials are exploring combination therapy and novel treatment strategies beyond immune checkpoint therapies and vaccine therapy such as CAR T cells. There is also an effort to establish synergy between immunotherapy and current standard of care. Furthermore, recent advances in personalized neoantigen vaccines suggest a shift towards personalized, patient-specific GBM treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Medikonda
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Phipps 123, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Gavin Dunn
- Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Maryam Rahman
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Peter Fecci
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University Hospital, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Michael Lim
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Phipps 123, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA.
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25
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Abstract
New immuno-oncology therapies are improving cancer treatments beyond the former standard of care, as evidenced by the recent and continuing clinical approvals for immunotherapies in a broad range of indications. However, a majority of patients (particularly those with immunologically cold tumors) still do not benefit, highlighting the need for rational combination approaches. Oncolytic viruses (OV) both directly kill tumor cells and inflame the tumor microenvironment. While OV spread can be limited by the generation of antiviral immune responses, the initial local tumor cell killing can reverse the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, resulting in more effective release of tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), cross-presentation, and antitumoral effector T cell recruitment. Moreover, many OVs can be engineered to express immunomodulatory genes. Rational combination approaches to cancer immunotherapy include the use of OVs in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) or adoptive T cell therapy (ACT) to promote sustained antitumoral immune responses. OV combinations have additive or synergistic efficacy in preclinical tumor models with ICIs or ACT. Several preclinical studies have confirmed systemic reactivation and proliferation of adoptively transferred antitumoral T cells in conjunction with oncolytic OVs (expressing cytokines or TAAs) resulting from the specific tumor cell killing and immunostimulation of the tumor microenvironment which leads to increased tumor trafficking, activity, and survival. Recent clinical trials combining OVs with ICIs have shown additive effects in melanoma. Additional clinical data in an expanded range of patient indications are eagerly awaited. The relative timings of OV and ICI combination remains under-studied and is an area for continued exploration. Studies systematically exploring the effects of systemic ICIs prior to, concomitantly with, or following OV therapy will aid in the future design of clinical trials to enhance efficacy and increase patient response rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke Russell
- Vyriad Inc., 3605 US Highway 52 N, Building 110, Rochester, MN, 55901, USA
| | - Kah Whye Peng
- Vyriad Inc., 3605 US Highway 52 N, Building 110, Rochester, MN, 55901, USA.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Stephen J Russell
- Vyriad Inc., 3605 US Highway 52 N, Building 110, Rochester, MN, 55901, USA.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Rosa Maria Diaz
- Vyriad Inc., 3605 US Highway 52 N, Building 110, Rochester, MN, 55901, USA.
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26
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Shao G, Zhou C, Ma K, Zhao W, Feng G, Xiong Q, Yang L, Yang Z. Dendritic cells transduced with glioma-expressed antigen 2 recombinant adenovirus induces specific cytotoxic lymphocyte response and anti-tumor effect in mice. JOURNAL OF INFLAMMATION-LONDON 2020; 17:3. [PMID: 32021567 PMCID: PMC6995099 DOI: 10.1186/s12950-020-0239-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Glioma is an aggressive common cancer with high mortality worldwide. Up to date, the effective medical therapeutical strategy is limited. Numerous previous studies have indicated that glioma-expressed antigen 2 (GLEA2) might be an attractive prognostic glioma biomarker. Methods In this experiment, dendritic cells (DCs) transduced with GLEA2 recombinant adenovirus were utilized to generate cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTLs) in vitro. Additionally, trimera mice were immunized with the transduced DCs to generate CTLs in vivo. Results The data demonstrated that GLEA2 transduced DCs could effectively generate specific CTL response against glioma without lysing autologous lymphocytes. Moreover, GLEA2 transduced DCs significantly attenuated the tumor growth and prolonged the life span of tumor bearing mice. Conclusions These findings suggested that DCs transduced with GLEA2 recombinant adenovirus could generate effective CTL mediated anti-tumor response, and might represent insight in glioma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaohai Shao
- 1Department of orthopedics, Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 402160 China
| | - Changlong Zhou
- 2Department of Neurology, Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 402160 China
| | - Kunlong Ma
- 1Department of orthopedics, Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 402160 China
| | - Wang Zhao
- 2Department of Neurology, Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 402160 China
| | - Guibo Feng
- 2Department of Neurology, Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 402160 China
| | - Qijiang Xiong
- 2Department of Neurology, Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 402160 China
| | - Ling Yang
- 2Department of Neurology, Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 402160 China
| | - Zhao Yang
- 2Department of Neurology, Yongchuan Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 402160 China
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27
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Belcaid Z, Berrevoets C, Choi J, van Beelen E, Stavrakaki E, Pierson T, Kloezeman J, Routkevitch D, van der Kaaij M, van der Ploeg A, Mathios D, Sleijfer S, Dirven C, Lim M, Debets R, Lamfers MLM. Low-dose oncolytic adenovirus therapy overcomes tumor-induced immune suppression and sensitizes intracranial gliomas to anti-PD-1 therapy. Neurooncol Adv 2020; 2:vdaa011. [PMID: 32642679 PMCID: PMC7212906 DOI: 10.1093/noajnl/vdaa011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The tumor-selective human adenovirus Delta24-RGD is currently under investigation in phase II clinical trials for patients with recurrent glioblastoma (GBM). To improve treatments for patients with GBM, we explored the potential of combining Delta24-RGD with antibodies targeting immune checkpoints. Methods C57BL/6 mice were intracranially injected with GL261 cells and treated with a low dose of Delta24-RGD virus. The expression dynamics of 10 co-signaling molecules known to affect immune activity was assessed in tumor-infiltrating immune cells by flow cytometry after viral injection. The antitumor activity was measured by tumor cell killing and IFNγ production in co-cultures. Efficacy of the combination viro-immunotherapy was tested in vitro and in the GL261 and CT2A orthotopic mouse GBM models. Patient-derived GBM cell cultures were treated with Delta24-RGD to assess changes in PD-L1 expression induced by virus infection. Results Delta24-RGD therapy increased intratumoral CD8+ T cells expressing Inducible T-cell co-stimulator (ICOS) and PD-1. Functionality assays confirmed a significant positive correlation between tumor cell lysis and IFNγ production in ex vivo cultures (Spearman r = 0.9524; P < .01). Co-cultures significantly increased IFNγ production upon treatment with PD-1 blocking antibodies. In vivo, combination therapy with low-dose Delta24-RGD and anti-PD-1 antibodies significantly improved outcome compared to single-agent therapy in both syngeneic mouse glioma models and increased PD-1+ tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells. Delta24-RGD infection induced tumor-specific changes in PD-L1 expression in primary GBM cell cultures. Conclusions This study demonstrates the potential of using low-dose Delta24-RGD therapy to sensitize glioma for combination with anti-PD-1 antibody therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zineb Belcaid
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Cor Berrevoets
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John Choi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Edward van Beelen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Eftychia Stavrakaki
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tessa Pierson
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jenneke Kloezeman
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Denis Routkevitch
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Mariëlle van der Kaaij
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Alicia van der Ploeg
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dimitrios Mathios
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Stefan Sleijfer
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Clemens Dirven
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michael Lim
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Reno Debets
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology, Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martine L M Lamfers
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brain Tumor Center, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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28
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Pol JG, Bridle BW, Lichty BD. Detection of Tumor Antigen-Specific T-Cell Responses After Oncolytic Vaccination. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2058:191-211. [PMID: 31486039 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9794-7_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic vaccines, which consist of recombinant oncolytic viruses (OV) encoding tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), have demonstrated potent antitumor efficacy in preclinical models and are currently evaluated in phase I/II clinical trials. On one hand, oncolysis of OV-infected malignant entities reinstates cancer immunosurveillance. On the other hand, overexpression of TAAs in infected cells further stimulates the adaptive arm of antitumor immunity. Particularly, the presence of tumor-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes within the tumor microenvironment, as well as in the periphery, has demonstrated prognostic value for cancer treatments. These effector CD8+ T cells can be detected through their production of the prototypical Tc1 cytokine: IFN-γ. The quantitative and qualitative assessment of this immune cell subset remains critical in the development process of efficient cancer vaccines, including oncolytic vaccines. The present chapter will describe a single-cell immunological assay, namely the intracellular cytokine staining (ICS), that allows the enumeration of IFN-γ-producing TAA-specific CD8+ T cells in various tissues (tumor, blood, lymphoid organs) following oncolytic vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan G Pol
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France. .,INSERM, U1138, Paris, France. .,Equipe 11 Labellisée par la Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France. .,Université de Paris, Paris, France. .,Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.
| | - Byram W Bridle
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Brian D Lichty
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster Immunology Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada. .,Turnstone Biologics, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
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29
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Ylösmäki E, Cerullo V. Design and application of oncolytic viruses for cancer immunotherapy. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2019; 65:25-36. [PMID: 31874424 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2019.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The approval of the first oncolytic virus (OV) for the treatment of metastatic melanoma and the recent discovery that the use of oncolytic viruses may enhance cancer immunotherapies targeted against various immune checkpoint proteins have attracted great interest in the field of cancer virotherapy. OVs are designed to target and kill cancer cells leaving normal cell unharmed. OV infection and concomitant cancer cell killing stimulate anti-tumour immunity and modulates tumour microenvironment towards less immunosuppressive phenotype. The intrinsic capacity of OVs to turn immunologically cold tumours into immunologically hot tumours, and to increase immune cell and cytokine infiltration, can be further enhanced by arming OVs with transgenes that increase their immunostimulatory activities and direct immune responses specifically towards cancer cells. These OVs, specifically engineered to be used as cancer immunotherapeutics, can be synergized with other immune modulators or cytotoxic agents to achieve the most potent immunotherapy for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erkko Ylösmäki
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Vincenzo Cerullo
- Laboratory of Immunovirotherapy, Drug Research Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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30
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Deng T, Gong YZ, Wang XK, Liao XW, Huang KT, Zhu GZ, Chen HN, Guo FZ, Mo LG, Li LQ. Use of Genome-Scale Integrated Analysis to Identify Key Genes and Potential Molecular Mechanisms in Recurrence of Lower-Grade Brain Glioma. Med Sci Monit 2019; 25:3716-3727. [PMID: 31104065 PMCID: PMC6537664 DOI: 10.12659/msm.913602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of this study was to identify gene signals for lower-grade glioma (LGG) and to assess their potential as recurrence biomarkers. Material/Methods An LGG-related mRNA sequencing dataset was downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) Informix. Multiple bioinformatics analysis methods were used to identify key genes and potential molecular mechanisms in recurrence of LGG. Results A total of 326 differentially-expressed genes (DEGs), were identified from 511 primary LGG tumor and 18 recurrent samples. Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed that the DEGs were implicated in cell differentiation, neuron differentiation, negative regulation of neuron differentiation, and cell proliferation in the forebrain. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database suggests that DEGs are associated with proteoglycans in cancer, the Wnt signaling pathway, ECM-receptor interaction, the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, transcriptional deregulation in cancer, and the Hippo signaling pathway. The hub DEGs in the protein–protein interaction network are apolipoprotein A2 (APOA2), collagen type III alpha 1 chain (COL3A1), collagen type I alpha 1 chain (COL1A1), tyrosinase (TYR), collagen type I alpha 2 chain (COL1A2), neurotensin (NTS), collagen type V alpha 1 chain (COL5A1), poly(A) polymerase beta (PAPOLB), insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA-binding protein 1 (IGF2BP1), and anomalous homeobox (ANHX). GSEA revealed that the following biological processes may associated with LGG recurrence: cell cycle, DNA replication and repair, regulation of apoptosis, neuronal differentiation, and Wnt signaling pathway. Conclusions Our study demonstrated that hub DEGs may assist in the molecular understanding of LGG recurrence. These findings still need further molecular studies to identify the assignment of DEGs in LGG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teng Deng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
| | - Yi-Zhen Gong
- Department of Evidence-Based Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
| | - Xiang-Kun Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
| | - Xi-Wen Liao
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
| | - Ke-Tuan Huang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
| | - Guang-Zhi Zhu
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
| | - Hai-Nan Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
| | - Fang-Zhou Guo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
| | - Li-Gen Mo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
| | - Le-Qun Li
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China (mainland)
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31
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Sivanandam V, LaRocca CJ, Chen NG, Fong Y, Warner SG. Oncolytic Viruses and Immune Checkpoint Inhibition: The Best of Both Worlds. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2019; 13:93-106. [PMID: 31080879 PMCID: PMC6503136 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2019.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy and the emergence of immune checkpoint inhibitors have markedly changed the treatment paradigm for many cancers. They function to disrupt cancer cell evasion of the immune response and activate sustained anti-tumor immunity. Oncolytic viruses have also emerged as an additional therapeutic agent for cancer treatment. These viruses are designed to target and kill tumor cells while leaving the normal cells unharmed. As part of this process, oncolytic virus infection stimulates anti-cancer immune responses that augment the efficacy of checkpoint inhibition. These viruses have the capability of transforming a “cold” tumor microenvironment with few immune effector cells into a “hot” environment with increased immune cell and cytokine infiltration. For this reason, there are multiple ongoing clinical trials that combine oncolytic virotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors. This review will detail the key oncolytic viruses in preclinical and clinical studies and highlight the results of their testing with checkpoint inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkatesh Sivanandam
- Department of Surgery, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | | | - Nanhai G Chen
- Department of Surgery, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Yuman Fong
- Department of Surgery, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Susanne G Warner
- Department of Surgery, City of Hope National Medical Center, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
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32
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Martikainen M, Essand M. Virus-Based Immunotherapy of Glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:E186. [PMID: 30764570 PMCID: PMC6407011 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11020186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common type of primary brain tumor in adults. Despite recent advances in cancer therapy, including the breakthrough of immunotherapy, the prognosis of GBM patients remains dismal. One of the new promising ways to therapeutically tackle the immunosuppressive GBM microenvironment is the use of engineered viruses that kill tumor cells via direct oncolysis and via stimulation of antitumor immune responses. In this review, we focus on recently published results of phase I/II clinical trials with different oncolytic viruses and the new interesting findings in preclinical models. From syngeneic preclinical GBM models, it seems evident that oncolytic virus-mediated destruction of GBM tissue coupled with strong adjuvant effect, provided by the robust stimulation of innate antiviral immune responses and adaptive anti-tumor T cell responses, can be harnessed as potent immunotherapy against GBM. Although clinical testing of oncolytic viruses against GBM is at an early stage, the promising results from these trials give hope for the effective treatment of GBM in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miika Martikainen
- Department of Immunology, Genetics, and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Magnus Essand
- Department of Immunology, Genetics, and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden.
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33
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Pol JG, Lévesque S, Workenhe ST, Gujar S, Le Boeuf F, Clements DR, Fahrner JE, Fend L, Bell JC, Mossman KL, Fucikova J, Spisek R, Zitvogel L, Kroemer G, Galluzzi L. Trial Watch: Oncolytic viro-immunotherapy of hematologic and solid tumors. Oncoimmunology 2018; 7:e1503032. [PMID: 30524901 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2018.1503032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses selectively target and kill cancer cells in an immunogenic fashion, thus supporting the establishment of therapeutically relevant tumor-specific immune responses. In 2015, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the oncolytic herpes simplex virus T-VEC for use in advanced melanoma patients. Since then, a plethora of trials has been initiated to assess the safety and efficacy of multiple oncolytic viruses in patients affected with various malignancies. Here, we summarize recent preclinical and clinical progress in the field of oncolytic virotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan G Pol
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Paris, France.,Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Sarah Lévesque
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Paris, France.,Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France
| | - Samuel T Workenhe
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Shashi Gujar
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Dalhousie University, NS, Canada.,Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, NS, Canada.,Centre for Innovative and Collaborative Health Sciences Research, Quality and System Performance, IWK Health Centre, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Fabrice Le Boeuf
- Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Derek R Clements
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Jean-Eudes Fahrner
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Villejuif, France.,Transgene S.A., Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France
| | | | - John C Bell
- Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Karen L Mossman
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Jitka Fucikova
- Sotio a.c., Prague, Czech Republic.,Department of Immunology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Motol, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Radek Spisek
- Sotio a.c., Prague, Czech Republic.,Department of Immunology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Motol, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Laurence Zitvogel
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Villejuif, France
| | - Guido Kroemer
- Gustave Roussy Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Villejuif, France.,INSERM, Paris, France.,Equipe 11 labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Paris, France.,Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie/Paris VI, Paris, France.,Metabolomics and Cell Biology Platforms, Gustave Roussy Cancer Campus, Villejuif, France.,Pôle de Biologie, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, France.,Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- Université Paris Descartes/Paris V, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA.,Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
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Chen CY, Hutzen B, Wedekind MF, Cripe TP. Oncolytic virus and PD-1/PD-L1 blockade combination therapy. Oncolytic Virother 2018; 7:65-77. [PMID: 30105219 PMCID: PMC6074764 DOI: 10.2147/ov.s145532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses are lytic for many types of cancers but are attenuated or replication-defective in normal tissues. Aside from tumor lysis, oncolytic viruses can induce host immune responses against cancer cells and may thus be viewed as a form of immunotherapy. Although recent successes with checkpoint inhibitors have shown that enhancing antitumor immunity can be effective, the dynamic nature of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment presents significant hurdles to the broader application of these therapies. Targeting one immune-suppressive pathway may not be sufficient to eliminate tumors. Here we focus on the development of the combination of oncolytic virotherapy with checkpoint inhibitors designed to target the programmed cell death protein 1 and programmed cell death ligand 1 signaling axis. We also discuss future directions for the clinical application of this novel combination therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Yu Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, Nationwide Children's Hospital,
| | - Brian Hutzen
- Department of Pediatrics, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, Nationwide Children's Hospital,
| | - Mary F Wedekind
- Department of Pediatrics, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, Nationwide Children's Hospital, .,Division of Hematology/Oncology/Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Nationwide Children's Hospital, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA,
| | - Timothy P Cripe
- Department of Pediatrics, Center for Childhood Cancer and Blood Diseases, Nationwide Children's Hospital, .,Division of Hematology/Oncology/Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Nationwide Children's Hospital, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA,
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35
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Mostafa AA, Meyers DE, Thirukkumaran CM, Liu PJ, Gratton K, Spurrell J, Shi Q, Thakur S, Morris DG. Oncolytic Reovirus and Immune Checkpoint Inhibition as a Novel Immunotherapeutic Strategy for Breast Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10060205. [PMID: 29914097 PMCID: PMC6025420 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10060205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As the current efficacy of oncolytic viruses (OVs) as monotherapy is limited, exploration of OVs as part of a broader immunotherapeutic treatment strategy for cancer is necessary. Here, we investigated the ability for immune checkpoint blockade to enhance the efficacy of oncolytic reovirus (RV) for the treatment of breast cancer (BrCa). In vitro, oncolysis and cytokine production were assessed in human and murine BrCa cell lines following RV exposure. Furthermore, RV-induced upregulation of tumor cell PD-L1 was evaluated. In vivo, the immunocompetent, syngeneic EMT6 murine model of BrCa was employed to determine therapeutic and tumor-specific immune responses following treatment with RV, anti-PD-1 antibodies or in combination. RV-mediated oncolysis and cytokine production were observed following BrCa cell infection and RV upregulated tumor cell expression of PD-L1. In vivo, RV monotherapy significantly reduced disease burden and enhanced survival in treated mice, and was further enhanced by PD-1 blockade. RV therapy increased the number of intratumoral regulatory T cells, which was reversed by the addition of PD-1 blockade. Finally, dual treatment led to the generation of a systemic adaptive anti-tumor immune response evidenced by an increase in tumor-specific IFN-γ producing CD8+ T cells, and immunity from tumor re-challenge. The combination of PD-1 blockade and RV appears to be an efficacious immunotherapeutic strategy for the treatment of BrCa, and warrants further investigation in early-phase clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A Mostafa
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada.
- Histocompatibility and Immunogenetics, Calgary Lab Services, 3535 Research Road NW, Calgary, AB T2L 2K8, Canada.
| | - Daniel E Meyers
- Department of Oncology, University of Calgary, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
- Tom Baker Cancer Centre, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
| | - Chandini M Thirukkumaran
- Department of Oncology, University of Calgary, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
- Tom Baker Cancer Centre, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
| | - Peter J Liu
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.
| | - Kathy Gratton
- Department of Oncology, University of Calgary, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
| | - Jason Spurrell
- Department of Oncology, University of Calgary, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
- Tom Baker Cancer Centre, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
| | - Qiao Shi
- Tom Baker Cancer Centre, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
| | - Satbir Thakur
- Department of Oncology, University of Calgary, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
- Tom Baker Cancer Centre, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
| | - Don G Morris
- Department of Oncology, University of Calgary, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
- Tom Baker Cancer Centre, 1331 29 Street NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N2, Canada.
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36
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de Graaf JF, de Vor L, Fouchier RAM, van den Hoogen BG. Armed oncolytic viruses: A kick-start for anti-tumor immunity. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2018; 41:28-39. [PMID: 29576283 PMCID: PMC7108398 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2018.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 03/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs), viruses that specifically result in killing tumor cells, represent a promising class of cancer therapy. Recently, the focus in the OV therapy field has shifted from their direct oncolytic effect to their immune stimulatory effect. OV therapy can function as a "kick start" for the antitumor immune response by releasing tumor associated antigens and release of inflammatory signals. Combining OVs with immune modulators could enhance the efficacy of both immune and OV therapies. Additionally, genetic engineering of OVs allows local expression of immune therapeutics, thereby reducing related toxicities. Different options to modify the tumor microenvironment in combination with OV therapy have been explored. The possibilities and obstacles of these combinations will be discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F de Graaf
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - L de Vor
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - R A M Fouchier
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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37
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Nguyen T, Avci NG, Shin DH, Martinez-Velez N, Jiang H. Tune Up In Situ Autovaccination against Solid Tumors with Oncolytic Viruses. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:E171. [PMID: 29857493 PMCID: PMC6025332 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10060171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Revised: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
With the progress of immunotherapy in cancer, oncolytic viruses (OVs) have attracted more and more attention during the past decade. Due to their cancer-selective and immunogenic properties, OVs are considered ideal candidates to be combined with immunotherapy to increase both specificity and efficacy in cancer treatment. OVs preferentially replicate in and lyse cancer cells, resulting in in situ autovaccination leading to adaptive anti-virus and anti-tumor immunity. The main challenge in OV approaches is how to redirect the host immunity from anti-virus to anti-tumor and optimize the clinical outcome of cancer patients. Here, we summarize the conceptual updates on oncolytic virotherapy and immunotherapy in cancer, and the development of strategies to enhance the virus-mediated anti-tumor immune response, including: (1) arm OVs with cytokines to modulate innate and adaptive immunity; (2) combining OVs with immune checkpoint inhibitors to release T cell inhibition; (3) combining OVs with immune co-stimulators to enhance T cell activation. Future studies need to be enforced on developing strategies to augment the systemic effect on metastasized tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Nguyen
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 6767 Bertner St., Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Naze G Avci
- Neurosurgery Research, Houston Methodist Research Institute, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Dong Ho Shin
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 6767 Bertner St., Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | | | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Neuro-Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 6767 Bertner St., Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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38
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Achard C, Surendran A, Wedge ME, Ungerechts G, Bell J, Ilkow CS. Lighting a Fire in the Tumor Microenvironment Using Oncolytic Immunotherapy. EBioMedicine 2018; 31:17-24. [PMID: 29724655 PMCID: PMC6013846 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2018.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virus (OV) therapy is potentially a game-changing cancer treatment that has garnered significant interest due to its versatility and multi-modal approaches towards tumor eradication. In the field of cancer immunotherapy, the immunological phenotype of the tumor microenvironment (TME) is an important determinant of disease prognosis and therapeutic success. There is accumulating data that OVs are capable of dramatically altering the TME immune landscape, leading to improved antitumor activity alone or in combination with assorted immune modulators. Herein, we review how OVs disrupt the immunosuppressive TME and can be used strategically to create a "pro-immune" microenvironment that enables and promotes potent, long-lasting host antitumor immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Achard
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada
| | - Abera Surendran
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Marie-Eve Wedge
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Guy Ungerechts
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Medical Oncology and Translational Oncology, National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - John Bell
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Carolina S Ilkow
- Centre for Innovative Cancer Research, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa K1H 8L6, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1H 8M5, Canada.
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39
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Hardcastle J, Mills L, Malo CS, Jin F, Kurokawa C, Geekiyanage H, Schroeder M, Sarkaria J, Johnson AJ, Galanis E. Immunovirotherapy with measles virus strains in combination with anti-PD-1 antibody blockade enhances antitumor activity in glioblastoma treatment. Neuro Oncol 2017; 19:493-502. [PMID: 27663389 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/now179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor and has a dismal prognosis. Measles virus (MV) therapy of GBM is a promising strategy due to preclinical efficacy, excellent clinical safety, and its ability to evoke antitumor pro-inflammatory responses. We hypothesized that combining anti- programmed cell death protein 1 (anti-PD-1) blockade and MV therapy can overcome immunosuppression and enhance immune effector cell responses against GBM, thus improving therapeutic outcome. Methods In vitro assays of MV infection of glioma cells and infected glioma cells with mouse microglia ± aPD-1 blockade were established to assess damage associated molecular pattern (DAMP) molecule production, migration, and pro-inflammatory effects. C57BL/6 or athymic mice bearing syngeneic orthotopic GL261 gliomas were treated with MV, aPD-1, and combination treatment. T2* weighted immune cell-specific MRI and fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis of treated mouse brains was used to examine adaptive immune responses following therapy. Results In vitro, MV infection induced human GBM cell secretion of DAMP (high-mobility group protein 1, heat shock protein 90) and upregulated programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1). MV infection of GL261 murine glioma cells resulted in a pro-inflammatory response and increased migration of BV2 microglia. In vivo, MV+aPD-1 therapy synergistically enhanced survival of C57BL/6 mice bearing syngeneic orthotopic GL261 gliomas. MRI showed increased inflammatory cell influx into the brains of mice treated with MV+aPD-1; FACS analysis confirmed increased T-cell influx predominantly consisting of activated CD8+ T cells. Conclusions This report demonstrates that oncolytic measles virotherapy in combination with aPD-1 blockade significantly improves survival outcome in a syngeneic GBM model and supports the potential of clinical/translational strategies combining MV with αPD-1 therapy in GBM treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayson Hardcastle
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA.,Oncology, Division of Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Lisa Mills
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Courtney S Malo
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Fang Jin
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Cheyne Kurokawa
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA.,Mayo Clinic Graduate School, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Hirosha Geekiyanage
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA.,Oncology, Division of Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Mark Schroeder
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Jann Sarkaria
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Aaron J Johnson
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA.,Department of Neurology Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Evanthia Galanis
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA.,Oncology, Division of Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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40
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Felt SA, Grdzelishvili VZ. Recent advances in vesicular stomatitis virus-based oncolytic virotherapy: a 5-year update. J Gen Virol 2017; 98:2895-2911. [PMID: 29143726 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virus (OV) therapy is an anti-cancer approach that uses viruses that preferentially infect, replicate in and kill cancer cells. Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV, a rhabdovirus) is an OV that is currently being tested in the USA in several phase I clinical trials against different malignancies. Several factors make VSV a promising OV: lack of pre-existing human immunity against VSV, a small and easy to manipulate genome, cytoplasmic replication without risk of host cell transformation, independence of cell cycle and rapid growth to high titres in a broad range of cell lines facilitating large-scale virus production. While significant advances have been made in VSV-based OV therapy, room for improvement remains. Here we review recent studies (published in the last 5 years) that address 'old' and 'new' challenges of VSV-based OV therapy. These studies focused on improving VSV safety, oncoselectivity and oncotoxicity; breaking resistance of some cancers to VSV; preventing premature clearance of VSV; and stimulating tumour-specific immunity. Many of these approaches were based on combining VSV with other therapeutics. This review also discusses another rhabdovirus closely related to VSV, Maraba virus, which is currently being tested in Canada in phase I/II clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien A Felt
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - Valery Z Grdzelishvili
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
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41
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Fountzilas C, Patel S, Mahalingam D. Review: Oncolytic virotherapy, updates and future directions. Oncotarget 2017; 8:102617-102639. [PMID: 29254276 PMCID: PMC5731986 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.18309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs) are viral strains that can infect and kill malignant cells while spare their normal counterparts. OVs can access cells through binding to receptors on their surface or through fusion with the plasma membrane and establish a lytic cycle in tumors, while leaving normal tissue essentially unharmed. Multiple viruses have been investigated in humans for the past century. IMLYGIC™ (T-VEC/Talimogene Laherparepvec), a genetically engineered Herpes Simplex Virus, is the first OV approved for use in the United States and the European Union for patients with locally advanced or non-resectable melanoma. Although OVs have a favorable toxicity profile and are impressively active anticancer agents in vitro and in vivo the majority of OVs have limited clinical efficacy as a single agent. While a virus-induced antitumor immune response can enhance oncolysis, when OVs are used systemically, the antiviral immune response can prevent the virus reaching the tumor tissue and having a therapeutic effect. Intratumoral administration can provide direct access to tumor tissue and be beneficial in reducing side effects. Immune checkpoint stimulation in tumor tissue has been noted after OV therapy and can be a natural response to viral-induced oncolysis. Also for immune checkpoint inhibition to be effective in treating cancer, an immune response to tumor neoantigens and an inflamed tumor microenvironment are required, both of which treatment with an OV may provide. Therefore, direct and indirect mechanisms of tumor killing provide rationale for clinical trials investigating the combination of OVs other forms of cancer therapy, including immune checkpoint inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christos Fountzilas
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Sukeshi Patel
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
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Geletneky K, Hajda J, Angelova AL, Leuchs B, Capper D, Bartsch AJ, Neumann JO, Schöning T, Hüsing J, Beelte B, Kiprianova I, Roscher M, Bhat R, von Deimling A, Brück W, Just A, Frehtman V, Löbhard S, Terletskaia-Ladwig E, Fry J, Jochims K, Daniel V, Krebs O, Dahm M, Huber B, Unterberg A, Rommelaere J. Oncolytic H-1 Parvovirus Shows Safety and Signs of Immunogenic Activity in a First Phase I/IIa Glioblastoma Trial. Mol Ther 2017; 25:2620-2634. [PMID: 28967558 PMCID: PMC5768665 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Oncolytic virotherapy may be a means of improving the dismal prognosis of malignant brain tumors. The rat H-1 parvovirus (H-1PV) suppresses tumors in preclinical glioma models, through both direct oncolysis and stimulation of anticancer immune responses. This was the basis of ParvOryx01, the first phase I/IIa clinical trial of an oncolytic parvovirus in recurrent glioblastoma patients. H-1PV (escalating dose) was administered via intratumoral or intravenous injection. Tumors were resected 9 days after treatment, and virus was re-administered around the resection cavity. Primary endpoints were safety and tolerability, virus distribution, and maximum tolerated dose (MTD). Progression-free and overall survival and levels of viral and immunological markers in the tumor and peripheral blood were also investigated. H-1PV treatment was safe and well tolerated, and no MTD was reached. The virus could cross the blood-brain/tumor barrier and spread widely through the tumor. It showed favorable pharmacokinetics, induced antibody formation in a dose-dependent manner, and triggered specific T cell responses. Markers of virus replication, microglia/macrophage activation, and cytotoxic T cell infiltration were detected in infected tumors, suggesting that H-1PV may trigger an immunogenic stimulus. Median survival was extended in comparison with recent meta-analyses. Altogether, ParvOryx01 results provide an impetus for further H-1PV clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karsten Geletneky
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jacek Hajda
- Coordination Centre for Clinical Trials, University Hospital, Marsilius-Arkaden, Tower West, Im Neuenheimer Feld 130.3, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Assia L Angelova
- Department of Tumor Virology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Barbara Leuchs
- Department of Tumor Virology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - David Capper
- Department of Neuropathology, University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 220, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andreas J Bartsch
- Department of Neuroradiology, University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jan-Oliver Neumann
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tilman Schöning
- University Hospital Pharmacy, Im Neuenheimer Feld 670, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Johannes Hüsing
- Coordination Centre for Clinical Trials, University Hospital, Marsilius-Arkaden, Tower West, Im Neuenheimer Feld 130.3, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Birgit Beelte
- Coordination Centre for Clinical Trials, University Hospital, Marsilius-Arkaden, Tower West, Im Neuenheimer Feld 130.3, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Irina Kiprianova
- Department of Tumor Virology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mandy Roscher
- Department of Tumor Virology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rauf Bhat
- Department of Tumor Virology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Andreas von Deimling
- Department of Neuropathology, University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 220, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany; Clinical Cooperation Unit Neuropathology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Brück
- Department of Neuropathology, University Medical Center, Georg August University, 37099 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Alexandra Just
- Department of Tumor Virology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Veronika Frehtman
- Department of Tumor Virology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stephanie Löbhard
- Eurofins BioPharma Product Testing, Behringstraße 6/8, 82152 Planegg, Germany
| | - Elena Terletskaia-Ladwig
- Laboratory Prof. Dr. Gisela Enders & Colleagues, MVZ and Institute of Virology, Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology e.V., Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Jeremy Fry
- ProImmune, The Magdalen Centre, Oxford Science Park, Oxford OX4 4GA, UK
| | - Karin Jochims
- IASON Consulting, Mühlenstraße 26A, 52382 Niederzier, Germany
| | - Volker Daniel
- Department of Transplantation Immunology, Institute of Immunology, University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 305, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ottheinz Krebs
- Oryx GmbH & Co. KG, Marktplatz 1, 85598 Baldham, Germany
| | - Michael Dahm
- Oryx GmbH & Co. KG, Marktplatz 1, 85598 Baldham, Germany
| | - Bernard Huber
- Oryx GmbH & Co. KG, Marktplatz 1, 85598 Baldham, Germany
| | - Andreas Unterberg
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 400, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jean Rommelaere
- Department of Tumor Virology, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 242, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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Saha D, Martuza RL, Rabkin SD. Macrophage Polarization Contributes to Glioblastoma Eradication by Combination Immunovirotherapy and Immune Checkpoint Blockade. Cancer Cell 2017; 32:253-267.e5. [PMID: 28810147 PMCID: PMC5568814 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2017.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 385] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma is an immunosuppressive, fatal brain cancer that contains glioblastoma stem-like cells (GSCs). Oncolytic herpes simplex virus (oHSV) selectively replicates in cancer cells while inducing anti-tumor immunity. oHSV G47Δ expressing murine IL-12 (G47Δ-mIL12), antibodies to immune checkpoints (CTLA-4, PD-1, PD-L1), or dual combinations modestly extended survival of a mouse glioma model. However, the triple combination of anti-CTLA-4, anti-PD-1, and G47Δ-mIL12 cured most mice in two glioma models. This treatment was associated with macrophage influx and M1-like polarization, along with increased T effector to T regulatory cell ratios. Immune cell depletion studies demonstrated that CD4+ and CD8+ T cells as well as macrophages are required for synergistic curative activity. This combination should be translatable to the clinic and other immunosuppressive cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipongkor Saha
- Molecular Neurosurgery Laboratory and the Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Robert L Martuza
- Molecular Neurosurgery Laboratory and the Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Samuel D Rabkin
- Molecular Neurosurgery Laboratory and the Brain Tumor Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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44
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Li G, Qin Z, Chen Z, Xie L, Wang R, Zhao H. Tumor Microenvironment in Treatment of Glioma. Open Med (Wars) 2017; 12:247-251. [PMID: 28828406 PMCID: PMC5558106 DOI: 10.1515/med-2017-0035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioma is one of the most malignant and fatal tumors in adults. Researchers and physicians endeavor to improve clinical efficacy towards it but made little achievement. In recent years, people have made advances in understanding characteristics and functions of tumor microenvironment and its role in different processes of tumor. In this paper, we describe the effects of tumor microenvironment on glioma proliferation, invasion and treatments. By explaining underlying mechanisms and enumerating new therapy strategies employing tumor microenvironment, we aim to provide novel ideas to improve clinical outcomes of glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guijie Li
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, China-Japan Union hospital of Jilin University, Changchun130033, China
| | - Zhigang Qin
- Department of Neurosurgery, China-Japan Union hospital of Jilin University, Changchun130033, China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, China-Japan Union hospital of Jilin University, Changchun130033, China
| | - Lijuan Xie
- Department of Vascular Surgery, China-Japan Union hospital of Jilin University, Changchun130033, China
| | - Ren Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The People's Hospital of Fusong County of Jilin Province, Fusong134500, China
| | - Hang Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, China-Japan Union hospital of Jilin University, Changchun130033, China
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45
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Insights into molecular therapy of glioma: current challenges and next generation blueprint. Acta Pharmacol Sin 2017; 38:591-613. [PMID: 28317871 DOI: 10.1038/aps.2016.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioma accounts for the majority of human brain tumors. With prevailing treatment regimens, the patients have poor survival rates. In spite of current development in mainstream glioma therapy, a cure for glioma appears to be out of reach. The infiltrative nature of glioma and acquired resistance substancially restrict the therapeutic options. Better elucidation of the complicated pathobiology of glioma and proteogenomic characterization might eventually open novel avenues for the design of more sophisticated and effective combination regimens. This could be accomplished by individually tailoring progressive neuroimaging techniques, terminating DNA synthesis with prodrug-activating genes, silencing gliomagenesis genes (gene therapy), targeting miRNA oncogenic activity (miRNA-mRNA interaction), combining Hedgehog-Gli/Akt inhibitors with stem cell therapy, employing tumor lysates as antigen sources for efficient depletion of tumor-specific cancer stem cells by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (dendritic cell vaccination), adoptive transfer of chimeric antigen receptor-modified T cells, and combining immune checkpoint inhibitors with conventional therapeutic modalities. Thus, the present review captures the latest trends associated with the molecular mechanisms involved in glial tumorigenesis as well as the limitations of surgery, radiation and chemotherapy. In this article we also critically discuss the next generation molecular therapeutic strategies and their mechanisms for the successful treatment of glioma.
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Lawler SE. Shifting the balance of power? The combination of oncolytic virotherapy and immune checkpoint blockade for glioblastoma treatment. Neuro Oncol 2017; 19:463-465. [PMID: 28379450 PMCID: PMC5464378 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/nox011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sean E Lawler
- Harvey Cushing Neurooncology Laboratories, Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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47
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Suzuki M. Partners in Crime: Combining Oncolytic Viroimmunotherapy with Other Therapies. Mol Ther 2017; 25:836-838. [PMID: 28330695 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Masataka Suzuki
- Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Baylor College of Medicine, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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48
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Garg AD, Vandenberk L, Van Woensel M, Belmans J, Schaaf M, Boon L, De Vleeschouwer S, Agostinis P. Preclinical efficacy of immune-checkpoint monotherapy does not recapitulate corresponding biomarkers-based clinical predictions in glioblastoma. Oncoimmunology 2017; 6:e1295903. [PMID: 28507806 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2017.1295903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is resistant to most multimodal therapies. Clinical success of immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has spurred interest in applying ICIs targeting CTLA4, PD1 or IDO1 against GBM. This amplifies the need to ascertain GBM's intrinsic susceptibility (or resistance) toward these ICIs, through clinical biomarkers that may also "guide and prioritize" preclinical testing. Here, we interrogated the TCGA and/or REMBRANDT human patient-cohorts to predict GBM's predisposition toward ICIs. We exploited various broad clinical biomarkers, including mutational or predicted-neoantigen burden, pre-existing or basal levels of tumor-infiltrating T lymphocytes (TILs), differential expression of immune-checkpoints within the tumor and their correlation with particular TILs/Treg-associated functional signature and prognostic impact of differential immune-checkpoint expression. Based on these analyses, we found that predictive biomarkers of ICI responsiveness exhibited inconsistent patterns in GBM patients, i.e., they either predicted ICI resistance (as compared with typical ICI-responsive cancer-types like melanoma, lung cancer or bladder cancer) or susceptibility to therapeutic targeting of CTLA4 or IDO1. On the other hand, our comprehensive literature meta-analysis and preclinical testing of ICIs using an orthotopic GL261-glioma mice model, indicated significant antitumor properties of anti-PD1 antibody, whereas blockade of IDO1 or CTLA4 either failed or provided very marginal advantage. These trends raise the need to better assess the applicability of ICIs and associated biomarkers for GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek D Garg
- Cell Death Research & Therapy (CDRT) Lab, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lien Vandenberk
- Laboratory of Pediatric Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Matthias Van Woensel
- Research Group - Experimental Neurosurgery & Neuroanatomy, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Laboratoire de Pharmacie Galenique et Biopharmacie, ULB, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Jochen Belmans
- Laboratory of Pediatric Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marco Schaaf
- Cell Death Research & Therapy (CDRT) Lab, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Steven De Vleeschouwer
- Research Group - Experimental Neurosurgery & Neuroanatomy, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrizia Agostinis
- Cell Death Research & Therapy (CDRT) Lab, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KU Leuven University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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49
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Chikungunya, Influenza, Nipah, and Semliki Forest Chimeric Viruses with Vesicular Stomatitis Virus: Actions in the Brain. J Virol 2017; 91:JVI.02154-16. [PMID: 28077641 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02154-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV)-based chimeric viruses that include genes from other viruses show promise as vaccines and oncolytic viruses. However, the critical safety concern is the neurotropic nature conveyed by the VSV glycoprotein. VSVs that include the VSV glycoprotein (G) gene, even in most recombinant attenuated strains, can still show substantial adverse or lethal actions in the brain. Here, we test 4 chimeric viruses in the brain, including those in which glycoprotein genes from Nipah, chikungunya (CHIKV), and influenza H5N1 viruses were substituted for the VSV glycoprotein gene. We also test a virus-like vesicle (VLV) in which the VSV glycoprotein gene is expressed from a replicon encoding the nonstructural proteins of Semliki Forest virus. VSVΔG-CHIKV, VSVΔG-H5N1, and VLV were all safe in the adult mouse brain, as were VSVΔG viruses expressing either the Nipah F or G glycoprotein. In contrast, a complementing pair of VSVΔG viruses expressing Nipah G and F glycoproteins were lethal within the brain within a surprisingly short time frame of 2 days. Intranasal inoculation in postnatal day 14 mice with VSVΔG-CHIKV or VLV evoked no adverse response, whereas VSVΔG-H5N1 by this route was lethal in most mice. A key immune mechanism underlying the safety of VSVΔG-CHIKV, VSVΔG-H5N1, and VLV in the adult brain was the type I interferon response; all three viruses were lethal in the brains of adult mice lacking the interferon receptor, suggesting that the viruses can infect and replicate and spread in brain cells if not blocked by interferon-stimulated genes within the brain.IMPORTANCE Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) shows considerable promise both as a vaccine vector and as an oncolytic virus. The greatest limitation of VSV is that it is highly neurotropic and can be lethal within the brain. The neurotropism can be mostly attributed to the VSV G glycoprotein. Here, we test 4 chimeric viruses of VSV with glycoprotein genes from Nipah, chikungunya, and influenza viruses and nonstructural genes from Semliki Forest virus. Two of the four, VSVΔG-CHIKV and VLV, show substantially attenuated neurotropism and were safe in the healthy adult mouse brain. VSVΔG-H5N1 was safe in the adult brain but lethal in the younger brain. VSVΔG Nipah F+G was even more neurotropic than wild-type VSV, evoking a rapid lethal response in the adult brain. These results suggest that while chimeric VSVs show promise, each must be tested with both intranasal and intracranial administration to ensure the absence of lethal neurotropism.
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50
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Taking a Stab at Cancer; Oncolytic Virus-Mediated Anti-Cancer Vaccination Strategies. Biomedicines 2017; 5:biomedicines5010003. [PMID: 28536346 PMCID: PMC5423491 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines5010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccines have classically been used for disease prevention. Modern clinical vaccines are continuously being developed for both traditional use as well as for new applications. Typically thought of in terms of infectious disease control, vaccination approaches can alternatively be adapted as a cancer therapy. Vaccines targeting cancer antigens can be used to induce anti-tumour immunity and have demonstrated therapeutic efficacy both pre-clinically and clinically. Various approaches now exist and further establish the tremendous potential and adaptability of anti-cancer vaccination. Classical strategies include ex vivo-loaded immune cells, RNA- or DNA-based vaccines and tumour cell lysates. Recent oncolytic virus development has resulted in a surge of novel viruses engineered to induce powerful tumour-specific immune responses. In addition to their use as cancer vaccines, oncolytic viruses have the added benefit of being directly cytolytic to cancer cells and thus promote antigen recognition within a highly immune-stimulating tumour microenvironment. While oncolytic viruses are perfectly equipped for efficient immunization, this complicates their use upon previous exposure. Indeed, the host's anti-viral counter-attacks often impair multiple-dosing regimens. In this review we will focus on the use of oncolytic viruses for anti-tumour vaccination. We will explore different strategies as well as ways to circumvent some of their limitations.
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