Multicenter Validation of the Survival After Acute Civilian Penetrating Brain Injuries (SPIN) Score

Simple wound closure compared with surgery for civilian cranial gunshot wounds

OBJECTIVE

A carefully selected subset of civilian cranial gunshot wound (CGSW) patients may be treated with simple wound closure (SWC) as a proactive therapy, but the appropriate clinical scenario for using this strategy is unknown. The aim of this study was to compare SWC and surgery patients in terms of their neurological outcomes and complications, including infections, seizures, and reoperations.

METHODS

This was a single-center, retrospective review of the prospectively maintained institutional traumatic brain injury and trauma registries. Included were adults who sustained an acute CGSW defined as suspected or confirmed dural penetration. Excluded were nonfirearm penetrating injuries, patients with an initial Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 3, patients with an initial GCS score of 4 and nonreactive pupils, and patients who died within 48 hours of presentation.

RESULTS

A total of 67 patients were included; 17 (25.4%) were treated with SWC and 50 (74.6%) were treated with surgery. The SWC group had a lower incidence of radiographic mass effect (3/17 [17.6%] SWC vs 31/50 [62%] surgery; absolute difference 44.4, 95% CI -71.9 to 16.8; p = 0.002) and lower incidence of involvement of the frontal sinus (0/17 [0%] SWC vs 14/50 [28%] surgery; absolute difference 28, 95% CI -50.4 to 5.6; p = 0.01). There were no differences in the frequency of Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended scores ≥ 5 between the SWC and surgery groups at 30 days (4/11 [36.4%] SWC vs 12/35 [34.3%] surgery; OR 1.1, 95% CI 0.3-4.5; p > 0.99), 60 days (2/7 [28.6%] SWC vs 8/26 [30.8%] surgery; OR 0.9, 95% CI 0.3-3.4; p > 0.99), and 90 days (3/8 [37.5%] SWC vs 12/26 [46.2%] surgery; OR 0.7, 95% CI 0.1-3.6; p > 0.99). There were no differences in the incidence of infections (1/17 [5.9%] SWC vs 6/50 [12%] surgery; OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.1-4.1; p = 0.67), CSF fistulas (2/11 [11.6%] SWC vs 3/50 [6%] surgery; OR 2.1, 95% CI 0.3-13.7; p = 0.60), seizures (3/17 [17.6%] SWC vs 9/50 [18%] surgery; OR 1, 95% CI 0.2-4.1; p > 0.99), and reoperations (3/17 [17.6%] SWC vs 4/50 [8%] surgery; OR 2.5, 95% CI 0.5-12.4; p = 0.36) between the SWC and surgery groups.

CONCLUSIONS

There were important clinically relevant differences between the SWC and surgery groups. SWC can be considered a safe and efficacious proactive therapy in a carefully selected subset of civilian CGSW patients.

Persistent coagulopathy after gunshot traumatic brain injury: the importance of INR and the SPIN score

INTRODUCTION

Penetrating ballistic brain injury (gunshot traumatic brain injury or GTBI) is associated with a high mortality. Admission Glascow Coma Scale (GCS), injury severity score and neurological findings, cardiopulmonary instability, coagulopathy and radiological finding such as bullet trajectory and mass effect are shown to predict survival after GTBI. We aimed to examine the dynamics of the observed coagulopathy and its association with outcome.

METHODS

In this single-centered retrospective cohort study, we examined 88 patients with GTBI between 2015 and 2021. Variables analyzed include patient age; temperature, hemodynamic and respiratory variables, admission Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS); injury severity score (ISS); head abbreviated injury scale (AIS); Marshall, Rotterdam, SPIN and Baylor scores, and laboratory data including PTT, INR and platelet count. Receiver operating characteristic analysis was conducted to evaluate the performance of the predictive models.

RESULTS

The average age of our sample was 28.5 years and a majority were male subjects (92%). Fifty-four (62%) of the patients survived to discharge. The GCS score, as well as the motor, verbal, and eye-opening sub-scores were higher in survivors (P < 0.001). As was expected, radiologic findings including the Marshall and Rotterdam Scores were also associated with survival (P < 0.001). Although the ISS and Head AIS scores were higher (P < 0.001), extracranial injuries were not more prevalent in non-survivors (P= 0.567). Non-survivors had lower platelet counts and elevated PTT and INR (P < 0.001) on admission. PTT normalized within 24 h but INR continued to increase in non-survivors. SPIN score, which includes INR, was a better predictor for mortality than Rotterdam, Marshall, and Baylor etc. CONCLUSION: Progressively increasing INR after GTBI is associated with poor outcome and may indicate consumption coagulopathy from activation of the extrinsic pathway of coagulation and metabolic derangements that are triggered and sustained by the brain injury. The SPIN score, which incorporates INR as a major survival score component, outperforms other available prediction models for predicting outcome after GTBI.

An independent, external validation and component analysis of the Surviving Penetrating Injury to the Brain score for civilian cranial gunshot injuries

OBJECTIVE

The Surviving Penetrating Injury to the Brain (SPIN) score utilizes clinical variables to estimate in-hospital and 6-month mortality for patients with civilian cranial gunshot wounds (cGSWs) and demonstrated good discrimination (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve [AUC] 0.880) in an initial validation study. The goal of this study was to provide an external, independent validation of the SPIN score for in-hospital and 6-month mortality.

METHODS

To accomplish this, the authors retrospectively reviewed 6 years of data from their institutional trauma registry. Variables used to determine SPIN score were collected, including sex, transfer status, injury motive, pupillary reactivity, motor component of the Glasgow Coma Scale (mGCS), Injury Severity Score (ISS), and international normalized ratio (INR) at admission. Multivariable logistic regression analysis identified variables associated with mortality. The authors compared AUC between models by using a nonparametric test for equality.

RESULTS

Of the 108 patients who met the inclusion criteria, 101 had all SPIN score components available. The SPIN model had an AUC of 0.962. The AUC for continuous mGCS score alone (0.932) did not differ significantly from the AUC for the full SPIN model (p = 0.26). The AUC for continuous mGCS score (0.932) was significantly higher compared to categorical mGCS score (0.891, p = 0.005). Use of only mGCS score resulted in fewer exclusions due to missing data. No additional variable included in the predictive model alongside continuous mGCS score was a significant predictor of inpatient mortality, 6-month mortality, or increased model discrimination.

CONCLUSIONS

Given these findings, continuous 6-point mGCS score may be sufficient as a generalizable predictor of inpatient and 6-month mortality in patients with cGSW, demonstrating excellent discrimination and reduced bias due to missing data.

The value of simplicity: externally validating the Baylor cranial gunshot wound prognosis score

OBJECTIVE

Gunshot wounds to the head (GSWH) are devastating injuries with a grim prognosis. Several prognostic scores have been created to estimate mortality and functional outcome, including the so-called Baylor score, an uncomplicated scoring method based on bullet trajectory, patient age, and neurological status on admission. This study aimed to validate the Baylor score within a temporally, institutionally, and geographically distinct patient population.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the trauma registry at a level I trauma center in the southeastern US. Patients with a GSWH in which dural penetration occurred were identified from data collected between January 1, 2009, and June 30, 2019. Patient demographics, medical history, bullet trajectory, intent of GSWH (e.g., suicide), admission vital signs, Glasgow Coma Scale score, pupillary response, laboratory studies, and imaging reports were collected. The Baylor score was calculated directly by using its clinical components. The ability of the Baylor score to predict mortality and good functional outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale score 4 or 5) was assessed using the receiver operating characteristic curve and the area under the curve (AUC) as a measure of performance.

RESULTS

A total of 297 patients met inclusion criteria (mean age 38.0 [SD 15.7] years, 73.4% White, 85.2% male). A total of 205 (69.0%) patients died, whereas 69 (23.2%) patients had good functional outcome. Overall, the Baylor score showed excellent discrimination of mortality (AUC = 0.88) and good functional outcome (AUC = 0.90). Baylor scores of 3-5 underestimated mortality. Baylor scores of 0, 1, and 2 underestimated good functional outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

The Baylor score is an accurate and easy-to-use prognostic scoring tool that demonstrated relatively stable performance in a distinct cohort between 2009 and 2019. In the current era of trauma management, providers may continue to use the score at the point of admission to guide family counseling and to direct investment of healthcare resources.

Incorporating conditional survival into prognostication for gunshot wounds to the head

OBJECTIVE

Several scores estimate the prognosis for gunshot wounds to the head (GSWH) at the point of hospital admission. However, prognosis may change over the course of the hospital stay. This study measures the accuracy of the Baylor score among patients who have already survived the acute phase of hospitalization and generates conditional outcome curves for the duration of hospital stay for patients with GSWH.

METHODS

Patients in whom GSWH with dural penetration occurred between January 2009 and June 2019 were identified from a trauma registry at a level I trauma center in the southeastern US. The Baylor score was calculated using component variables. Conditional overall survival and good functional outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale score of 4 or 5) curves were generated. The accuracy of the Baylor score in predicting mortality and functional outcome among acute-phase survivors (survival > 48 hours) was assessed using receiver operating characteristic curves and the area under the curve (AUC).

RESULTS

A total of 297 patients were included (mean age 38.0 [SD 15.7] years, 73.4% White, 85.2% male), and 129 patients survived the initial 48 hours of admission. These acute-phase survivors had a decreased mortality rate of 32.6% (n = 42) compared to 68.4% (n = 203) for all patients, and an increased rate of good functional outcome (48.1%; n = 62) compared to the rate for all patients (23.2%; n = 69). Among acute-phase survivors, the Baylor score accurately predicted mortality (AUC = 0.807) and functional outcome (AUC = 0.837). However, the Baylor score generally overestimated true mortality rates and underestimated good functional outcome. Additionally, hospital day 18 represented an inflection point of decreasing probability of good functional outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

During admission for GSWH, surviving beyond the acute phase of 48 hours doubles the rates of survival and good functional outcome. The Baylor score maintains reasonable accuracy in predicting these outcomes for acute-phase survivors, but generally overestimates mortality and underestimates good functional outcome. Future prognostic models should incorporate conditional survival to improve the accuracy of prognostication after the acute phase.

Civilian Firearm-Inflicted Brain Injury: Coagulopathy, Vascular Injuries, and Triage

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Civilian firearm-inflicted penetrating brain injury (PBI) carries high morbidity and mortality. Concurrently, the evidence base guiding management decisions remains limited. Faced with large volume of PBI patients, we have made observations in relation to coagulopathy and cerebrovascular injuries. We here review this literature in addition to the question about early prognostication as it may inform neurosurgical decision-making.

RECENT FINDINGS

The triad of coagulopathy, low motor score, and radiographic compression of basal cisterns comprises a phenotype of injury with exceedingly high mortality. PBI leads to high rates of cerebral arterial and venous injuries, and projectile trajectory is emerging as an independent predictor of outcome. The combination of coagulopathy with cerebrovascular injury creates a specific endophenotype. The nature and role of coagulopathy remain to be deciphered, and consideration to the use of tranexamic acid should be given. Prospective controlled trials are needed to create clinical evidence free of patient selection bias.

Coagulopathy as a Surrogate of Severity of Injury in Penetrating Brain Injury

Penetrating brain injury (PBI) is the most devastating type of traumatic brain injury. Development of coagulopathy in the acute setting of PBI, though common, remains of unclear significance as does its reversal. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between coagulopathy and clinical presentation, radiographical features, and outcome in civilian patients with PBI. Eighty-nine adult patients with PBI at a Level I trauma center in Chicago, Illinois who survived acute resuscitation and with available coagulation profile were analyzed. Coagulopathy was defined as international normalized ratio [INR] >1.3, platelet count <100,000 /μL, or partial thromboplastin time >37 sec. Median age (interquartile range; IQR) of our cohort was 27 (21-35) years, and 74 (83%) were male. The intent was assault in 74 cases (83%). The mechanism of PBI was gunshot wound in all patients. Forty patients (45%) were coagulopathic at presentation. In a multiple regression model, coagulopathy was associated with lower Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS)-Motor score (odds ratio [OR], 0.67; confidence interval [CI], 0.48-0.94; p = 0.02) and transfusion of blood products (OR, 3.91; CI, 1.2-12.5; p = 0.02). Effacement of basal cisterns was the only significant radiographical features associated with coagulopathy (OR, 3.34; CI, 1.08-10.37; p = 0.04). Mortality was found to be significantly more common in coagulopathic patients (73% vs. 25%; p < 0.001). However, in our limited sample, reversal of coagulopathy at 24 h was not associated with a statistically significant improvement in outcome. The triad of coagulopathy, low post-resuscitation GCS, and radiographical effacement of basal cisterns identify a particularly ominous phenotype of PBI. The role, and potential reversal of, coagulopathy in this group warrants further investigation.

Management and Challenges of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the leading cause of death and disability in trauma patients, and can be classified into mild, moderate, and severe by the Glasgow coma scale (GCS). Prehospital, initial emergency department, and subsequent intensive care unit (ICU) management of severe TBI should focus on avoiding secondary brain injury from hypotension and hypoxia, with appropriate reversal of anticoagulation and surgical evacuation of mass lesions as indicated. Utilizing principles based on the Monro-Kellie doctrine and cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), a surrogate for cerebral blood flow (CBF) should be maintained by optimizing mean arterial pressure (MAP), through fluids and vasopressors, and/or decreasing intracranial pressure (ICP), through bedside maneuvers, sedation, hyperosmolar therapy, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage, and, in refractory cases, barbiturate coma or decompressive craniectomy (DC). While controversial, direct ICP monitoring, in conjunction with clinical examination and imaging as indicated, should help guide severe TBI therapy, although new modalities, such as brain tissue oxygen (PbtO₂) monitoring, show great promise in providing strategies to optimize CBF. Optimization of the acute care of severe TBI should include recognition and treatment of paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity (PSH), early seizure prophylaxis, venous thromboembolism (VTE) prophylaxis, and nutrition optimization. Despite this, severe TBI remains a devastating injury and palliative care principles should be applied early. To better affect the challenging long-term outcomes of severe TBI, more and continued high quality research is required.

Gap Analysis Regarding Prognostication in Neurocritical Care: A Joint Statement from the German Neurocritical Care Society and the Neurocritical Care Society

Background/Objective

Prognostication is a routine part of the delivery of neurocritical care for most patients with acute neurocritical illnesses. Numerous prognostic models exist for many different conditions. However, there are concerns about significant gaps in knowledge regarding optimal methods of prognostication.

Methods

As part of the Arbeitstagung NeuroIntensivMedizin meeting in February 2018 in Würzburg, Germany, a joint session on prognostication was held between the German NeuroIntensive Care Society and the Neurocritical Care Society. The purpose of this session was to provide presentations and open discussion regarding existing prognostic models for eight common neurocritical care conditions (aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracerebral hemorrhage, acute ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, traumatic spinal cord injury, status epilepticus, Guillain–Barré Syndrome, and global cerebral ischemia from cardiac arrest). The goal was to develop a qualitative gap analysis regarding prognostication that could help inform a future framework for clinical studies and guidelines.

Results

Prognostic models exist for all of the conditions presented. However, there are significant gaps in prognostication in each condition. Furthermore, several themes emerged that crossed across several or all diseases presented. Specifically, the self-fulfilling prophecy, lack of accounting for medical comorbidities, and absence of integration of in-hospital care parameters were identified as major gaps in most prognostic models.

Conclusions

Prognostication in neurocritical care is important, and current prognostic models are limited. This gap analysis provides a summary assessment of issues that could be addressed in future studies and evidence-based guidelines in order to improve the process of prognostication.